Chapter 3(Argument)

8/12/2019 Chapter 3(Argument)

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Chapter 3 Argument

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Introduction

The Essential Ingredients

of an ArgumentPersuasion vs. Argument

Aristotle‟s Rhetoric

Toulmin‟s model of

argumentation

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At the end of this chapter, you should

able to :Know what is argument?Identify Aristotle‟s RhetoricUnderstand Toulmin‟s model of

argumentation

Know the difference betweenPersuasion vs. Argument

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An argument involves the process of establishing a

claim and then proving it with the use of logical

reasoning, examples, and research.When people think of an argument, they usually

think of a fight between two people („they‟re having

an argument‟).

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• An issue open to debate

• Your position on the issue

•

Your reasons for that position• Evidence to support your reason

– Experience, expert opinion, research and

statistics

The Essential Ingredients

of an Argument

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Persuasion and argument are often usedinterchangeably

Persuasion is a broad term, whichincludes many tactics designed to movepeople to a position, a belief, or a courseof action

Argument is a specific kind of persuasionbased on the principles of logic andreasoning

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In everyday life… Appealing a grade, asking for a raise, applying for a job, negotiating the price of a

new car, arguing in traffic court

In academic life… Defending your ideas, engaging intellectual debate

On the job…

Getting people to listen to your ideas, winning buy-in, getting your boss to notice,getting cooperation, moving people to action

In writing… Irrefutably making your point, writing to be read

In reading and listening…

Critically evaluating other‟s arguments, protecting yourself from unethicalpersuasive tactics, recognizing faulty reasoning when you see it.

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Rhetoric:

The art of discovering allthe available means of

persuasion

*Notice the positive connotations of the term in

Aristotle‟s theory vs. the negative connotations often

associated with the term “rhetoric” nowadays.

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Logos Pathos Ethos

The 3 Types

of Artistic Appeals

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Logos are appeals to logic.

In using logos, the rhetoricianappeals to the audience‟s rational side.

Logos involves building argumentsthrough evidence, inferringlogical conclusions from theevidence.

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Aristotle was a firm believer in logic.

However, he was enough of a realist to recognizethat humans are emotional beings who makedecisions based, in part, upon emotion.

Thus, Aristotle acknowledged that a rhetoricianwould be neglecting some of the “availablemeans of persuasion” if the rhetorician did notalso appeal to the audience‟s emotion.

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Pathos are appeals to emotion

With pathetic appeals, the

rhetorician attempts to move theaudience by tapping into their

emotional side.

Often, pathos involves appealingto the audience‟s sense of

empathy, compassion, sympathy,

pride or even anger or outrage.

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Ethos are arguments or statementsmade by the rhetorician that aredesigned to build his or her credibility with the audience

With ethical appeals, the rhetorician“ingratiates himself with an audience--and thereby gains their trust andadmiration--if he manages to create the

impression that he is a person ofintelligence, benevolence, and probity”(Corbett and Connors, authors ofClassical Rhetoric for the ModernStudent).

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Stephen Toulmin, originally a British

logician, is now a professor at USC. He

became frustrated with the inability of

formal logic to explain everyday arguments,which prompted him to develop his own

model of practical reasoning.

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Claim (assertion or proposition)

Grounds (proof, grounds, support)

Warrant (inferential leap)

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A claim is the point an arguer is trying to make. The

claim is the conclusion, proposition, or assertion an

arguer wants another to accept.

The claim answers the question, "So what is yourpoint?”

example: “Rosario is an American citizen, because she was born

in the United States.”

example: “Barack Obama doesn‟t wear a flag pin on his lapel, sohe must not be patriotic.”

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Grounds refers to the proof or evidence an

arguer offers.

Grounds can consist of statistics,quotations, reports, findings, physical

evidence, or various forms of reasoning

example: “I‟m a vegetarian. One reason is that I

feel sorry for the animals. Another reason is for

my own health.”

example: “I made the dinner, so you can do the

dishes.

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The warrant is the inferential leap thatconnects the claim with the grounds.

The warrant is typically implicit(unstated) and requires the listener torecognize the connection between theclaim and grounds

The implicit nature of warrants meansthe “meaning” of an argument is asmuch a part of the receiver as it is apart of the message.

Some arguments are “multi-warranted,”e.g., based on more than one inferentialleap

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An argument is an attempt to persuade

someone of something, by giving reasons for

accepting a particular conclusion as evident.

The general structure of an argument in a

natural language is that of premises (typically

in the form of propositions, statements or

sentences) in support of a claim: the

conclusion.

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Questions?

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• Note taking

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