CHAPTER 3 THE MOLECULES OF CELLS. Carbon: The Organic Element Compounds that are synthesized by...
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Transcript of CHAPTER 3 THE MOLECULES OF CELLS. Carbon: The Organic Element Compounds that are synthesized by...
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CHAPTER 3
THE MOLECULES OF CELLS
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Carbon: The Organic Element
•Compounds that are synthesized by cells and contain carbon are organic
•So what is inorganic?
•Why are carbon compounds so prevalent?
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• 4 valence electron configuration
• completes shell by sharing 4
• the 4 electron orbitals are shaped like teardrops
• this forms a 3-D tetrahedronC
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Hydrocarbons
• organic molecules consisting of only hydrogen and carbon
•The molecules’ chain of carbon atoms is called the carbon skeleton
•Ex: methane, ethane, propane
Isomer – compounds with the same molecular formula but different structure
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Functional Groups
- Attachments replace one or more of the H on the C skeleton
1. Hydroxyl Group
• H bonded to O (-OH or HO-)
•Polar
•Known as alcohols
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Carbonyl Group• C double bonded to O (-CO) C=O•Compounds are called aldehydes when –CO is at the end of the chain•Compounds are called ketones when –CO is in the middle
(Chain must have at least 3 carbons when finished)
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Carboxyl Group
•O double bonded to C which is also bonded to a hydroxyl group,…forms carboxylic acids
•-COOH
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Amino Group
•N bonded with 2 H (-NH2)
•Forms compounds called amines
•The amino group acts like a base
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•Amino acid combines an amino group with a carboxyl group
Amino Acids
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Phosphate Group
•P bonded w/4 oxygen atoms (-OPO3)
*Used in energy transfer (ATP)
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MacromoleculesPolymer – a large molecule consisting of similar or identical subunits strung together
Monomers - subunits
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Making a Polymer•Dehydration synthesis –
monomers linked together by the removal of water
•One monomer loses a hydroxyl (-OH), the other loses a hydrogen (H)
•One H2O molecule must be removed for every link in the chain of monomers
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Breaking a Polymer
•Hydrolysis – the reverse of dehydration synthesis (adding water)
• It breaks the molecule by using H2O
Hydrolysis Hydrolysis
break a bond while adding water
break a bond while adding water
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Carbohydrates
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Monosaccharides• Simple sugars with a molecular formula in multiples of CH2O ex:C6H12O6
• Carbons in the chain each have an –OH group bonded to them; except one which is bonded to form a carbonyl group
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• sugar is either an aldehyde or a ketone depending on the location of the carbonyl group (p. 37 Fig B)
• monosaccharides are major nutrients for cells
Are theseproperlyidentified?
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Disaccharides• double sugars (2 monomers)
• 2 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage – 1 monomer gives up a H from a hydroxyl group and the other gives up an entire hydroxyl group• bond formed by dehydration synthesis ex: p. 38
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Polysaccharides
--contain a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides linked together
Storage polysaccharides – are hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar for the cell
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2 Storage Types
Starch – in plants – consists of many glucose molecules
Glycogen – in animals – stored in the livers and muscles
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2 Structural Types
- serve as building materials for structures protecting cellsCellulose – the major component of the tough walls enclosing plant cells (fiber for humans)
- enzymes that digest starch are unable to hydrolyzed the linkages here (exception: cows & termites)
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Chitin – structural polysaccharides are used by arthropods to build their exoskeletons
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Lipids(hydrophobic – water
fearing)
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Fats
- large molecules composed of glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol – an alcohol w/3 carbons, each w/a hydroxyl groupFatty acids – have long carbon chains (p. 79)
What are the two kinds of fats?
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Fatty Acids-One end has a –COOH head-Other end is a long hydrocarbon tail-Insoluble in water-Can be linked to glycerol by dehydration synthesis-Ester linkage bond
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-triglyceride can be made this way – 3 fatty acids and a gylcerol
-vary in length and # & location of double bonds
Triglyceride-unsaturated
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Saturated – no double bonds in the tail of the molecule (animal fats – solid at room temperature), causes plaque build up in arteriesTransfats – unsaturated fat that has been converted to saturated by adding hydrogen
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Unsaturated – have one or more double bonds in the tail (plant fats – liquid at room temperature)
•Major function of fats is energy storage (more than twice as much as sugar)•Stored in adipose cells•Cells shrink and swell
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Phospholipid•Structurally related to fats in structure, but only have 2 fatty acids
•Third carbon of glycerol is joined to a phosphate group (p. 79)
•The major component of cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer)
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Waxes•Have one fatty acid linked to an
alcohol & are more hydrophobic than fats
•Used as water-resistant coatings on surfaces of fruits, leaves, and insects
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Steroids•Are lipids w/ a carbon skeleton
consisting of 4 fused rings•Cholesterol – precursor from
which most other steroids are made
•Are all steroids bad?No! Cancer treatments, poison ivy
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Anabolic Steroids – synthetic variants of testosterone, indiscriminate usage can cause liver damage, cancer, infertility, aggressive behavior and reduced sex drive
Natural
Synthetic
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Proteins
-structural, storage, enzyme (biological catalyst)
-Made up of amino acids
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Amino Acids (aa)
--Building blocks of proteins
--There are 20 amino acids that make trillions of different proteins
--Consist of an asymmetric carbon bonded to 4 different covalent partners
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•C (alpha carbon) bonds to a H, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable group (chemical group) called the R group or side chain
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Polypeptide Chains= many aa’s joined by peptide bonds
--2 amino acids can be joined by dehydration synthesis forming a peptide bond (p. 43)
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Protein Conformation
•A protein consists of one or more polypeptide chains twisted in a 3-D shape or conformation
•When a cell makes a polypeptide, the chain folds spontaneously into its conformation
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Primary – is the protein’s unique sequence of aa’s (one aa change in hemoglobin causes sickle cell)Secondary – describes how the primary structure is folded into it’s conformation (looks like spring coils or pleated folds) *this results from H bonding between peptides
Levels of Protein Structure
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Tertiary – describes additional, less regular contortions of the molecule (its 3-D shape)
-caused by hydrophobic interactions, H bonds, ionic bonds, etc.
-Disulfide bridges reinforce conformation
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Quaternary – results from the relationship (bonding interactions) between subunits – each polypeptide chain is a subunit
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Denaturation
What is this?
What causes denaturation?
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Nucleic Acids•Polynucleotides – another
name for nucleic acid, phosphodiester linkages (phosphate and sugar) join monomers
•RNA and DNA are made up of monomers called nucleotides – contains 3 parts: nitrogenous base, a sugar, & a phosphate group (sugar-phosphate backbone)
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RNA & DNA
• Ribonucleic acid
• Has the sugar ribose (pentose=5-C)
• Adenine, Guanine, Uracil, Cytosine
• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Has the sugar deoxyribose (pentose=5-C)
• Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
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Who all played a part in discovering the double
helix?
-consists of 2 polynucleotide chains that spiral
-Genes are specific stretches of DNA that program the aa sequences (primary structure) of proteins
-Watson, Crick, Franklin, Wilkins
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Watson Crick Franklin
Wilkins
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How do base pairings ALWAYS occur?
Adenine – Thymine
Guanine - Cytosine