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CHAPTER 3
IMPORTANCE OF BACKWATER RESOURCES AND THE STRUCTURE OF BACKWATER SECTOR
3.1 Preview
Biodiversity of Kuttanad is of paramount interest to a researcher. It is
found that the development potential of agro based resources has to be
incorporated with the daily routines of life. Both economic and ecological
factors are responsible in reshaping the systemic wholeness of Kuttanad
region. There has been a continuous deterioration in almost all walks of life as
a result of greedy interests, special motives, specific pressure groupings,
lobbying, and unnecessary political trauma. Backwaters and its resources
have been continuously degrading with regard to non-availability of fish,
water borne diseases, salinity of water, absence of safe drinking water,
reduction in the fertility of soil, enhancing amounts of pesticide sediments etc.
Lately, backwaters have come to prominence. Environment which was
relegated in the priority list has now been seriously considered. Retaining and
regaining the backwater sector in all counts is the need of the hour, since
backwaters are a very scarce resource and the ecological functions of
backwaters are invaluable. An economy can remain vibrant if and only if it is
able to maintain a healthy environment.
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Backwaters of Kerala come under the lowland region. The low lands or
the coastal areas are mostly alluvial plains made up of river deltas, backwaters
and the shores of the Arabian Sea. Backwaters fall under the category of
wetlands. Wetlands are mostly water-logged, being criss-crossed with rivers,
channels, lands and waterways.
According to geologists, Kuttanad was once an extensive bay of
Arabian Sea into which are discharged the waters of many rivers. The silt
carried by the rivers are deposited at their mouths gradually gave rise to the
present sea coast, converting the shallow bay into an extensive backwater
tract. The lagoons and the lakes gradually silted up and gave rise to
sedimentary formations which were eventually converted into rice fields and
garden lands by gradual process of reclamation.
Kuttanad has vast resources of river systems, lake, reservoirs,
estuaries, lagoons and backwaters. Vembanad Lake is one of Asia’s largest
lakes. It is a major ecological resource with dense vegetation on the banks.
The Vembanad wetland system covers an area of over 1512 sq.km bordered
by Alappuzha, Kottayam and Ernakulam districts. It lies at the sea level, and
is separated from the Arabian Sea by a narrow barrier island. A unique
characteristic of the lake is the location of the Thaneermukkom salt water
barrier that was constructed as a part of the Kuttanad Development Scheme to
prevent tidal action and intrusion of salt water into the Kuttanad lowlands.
This barrier essentially divides the lake into two parts, one half with fresh
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water fed by the rivers draining into the lake and the other half with brackish
water. This barrier has helped the farmers in Kuttanad, where farming is done
below the sea level.
Although words such as bog, marsh and swamp have been in use for
centuries, the collective term ‘ wetland ’ came into use during the late 1960’s
and early 1970’s. The term ‘wetlands’ is used to denote areas ‘sufficiently
saturated by water that only specially adapted plants can grow there.
Saturation with water prevents oxygen from working its way into the soil and
therefore creates conditions of no oxygen. Only ‘hydrophytes’, vegetation that
has adapted to such anaerobic conditions, can survive in wetlands.
Furthermore, because the soil in such areas is periodically or permanently
saturated with water, it has higher than average moisture content and is
classified as ‘hydric soil’. The degree or type of water saturation of an area is
known as its ‘hydrology’. These three factors: hydrology, hydric soil and
hydrophytes – are the traditional defining characteristics of wetlands.
3.2. Classification of Wetlands
Wetlands are of the following types, viz.,
� Salt water (Marine, Estuarine, Lagoonal, Salt Lake).
� Fresh water (Riverine, Lacustrine, Palustrine).
� Artificial wetlands (Aquaculture, Agriculture).
� Water storage structures.
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Wetlands are ‘open systems’. i.e., wetlands interact with other
ecological systems such as ground water tables and rivers, in a way that
enhances the overall environment and, in particular, water quality. When
water flows in and out the wetland area, sediments and other pollutants tend
to remain, and the nutrients are converted into plants. Wetlands produce
vegetation that photosynthesise at much higher rates than non-wetlands,
which creates material vital to the aquatic food chain. A wide variety of plant
and animal life flourish in wetlands.
3.2.1 Definitions
3.2.1.1 Wetlands are lands where saturation with water is the dominant factor
determining the nature of soil development and the types of plant and animal
community living in the soil and on its surface. The single feature that most
wetlands share is soil or substrate that is at least periodically saturated with or
covered by water. The water creates severe physiological problems for all
plants and animals except those that are adapted for life in water or in
saturated soil. (L. M. Cowardin, V.Carter, F. C. Golet & E. T. LaRoe:
‘Classification of wetlands and deep water habitats of the United States’
Washington, D. C. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 1979, pp 3). Because the
amount of water necessary to produce wetlands is highly variable and difficult
to measure, most efforts to define ‘wetlands’ throughout 1980s focused on
hydric soil and hydrophytes.
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3.2.1.2 Wetlands are complex ecosystems with unique characteristics. The
wetland soils are three times more productive than average terrestrial systems
and the production of emergent vegetation is more than the rain forests and
considered as a processing factory of nature.
3.2.1.3 Backwaters can be called a ‘common –pool resource’ or a ‘common
property resource’. Common –pool resource refers to a natural or man-made
resource system that is sufficiently large as to make it costly (but not
impossible) to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its
use (Elinor Ostrom).
3.3 Ecological Significance of Wetlands
The wetlands are among the most important ecosystems of the earth.
They are useful as sources, sinks and transformers of a multitude of chemical,
biological and genetic materials. They cleanse polluted waters, prevent floods,
protect shorelines and recharge ground water aquifers.
Wetlands provide unique habitats for a wide variety of flora and fauna.
They are called the “nature’s kidney” because of the natural functions they
perform. Wetlands are an indispensable portion of an ecosystem. Wetlands
are shields against the various problems we face today like water scarcity,
floods, climate change etc.
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3.4 Structure of Backwater Sector
Backwaters come under coastal wetland eco system. Wetlands are an
important ecosystem essential for the existence of life on earth. But we treat
these wetlands with diffidence. Wetlands are areas where water stands
naturally from 2.5 cm to around 300 cm for part of the year (at least).
Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where
the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by
shallow water.
3.5 Basic Features
Wetlands must have one or more of the 3 attributes:
• At least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes.
• The substrata is predominantly undrained hydric soil
• The substrata is non-soil and is saturated with water or covered by
shallow water at some time during the growing seasons of each year.
Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems,
where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by
shallow water. Water bodies on the land and up to six meter depth of the sea
can be considered as wetlands. Wetlands include ponds, tanks, lakes,
mangroves, swamps, estuaries and coral reefs.
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The Ramsar Bureau has identified three types of wetlands viz.,
1. Inland 2. Marine – coastal 3. Man made
The Ramsar Convention’s (1971) vowed objective of conserving the
fragile ecosystems for the posterity brought about the follow up action of
identifying and classifying wetlands across the world.
3.5.1 Ramsar Sites of Kerala
Kerala has three Ramsar sites, viz., the Vembanad – Kole wetland,
Ashtamudi wetland and the Sasthankotta wetland. While the first two come
under coastal type, the third come under the inland type wetland. Kerala has
the largest proportion of land area under wetlands among all the states of
India. Compared to other states of the country, wetlands in Kerala are under
severe anthropogenic threats primarily because of high population density and
the peculiar distribution of human habitation in the State. The growth of real
estate business has brought about consequent destruction of the wetland
ecosystems in the state.
Backwaters come under wetlands. Wetlands are important Eco tones
(ecosystems, biotype) which are transitional between open waters and land
endowed with definite structural and functional attributes and performing
specific ecological roles. They are water saturated and submerged areas which
include both natural and manmade, permanent or temporary, fresh water or
marine habitats.
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3.5.2 Hazards on Habitats
The most extensive wetland in Kerala is the shallow reaches of
Vembanad and the adjacent Kuttanad belt. Kuttanad exemplifies the typical
disastrous consequence of human interferences with the complex ecology of a
coastal wetland with very simplistic notions of the dynamics of the system
and over simplified management objectives. Uncultivated paddy fields
functioning as eutrophicated water bodies, effluents from crepe rubber mills,
open defacation, Thanneermukkam Barrage remaining closed late into
summer and water weed proliferation are the major reasons for water
pollution.
3.6 Backwaters: The Unique Water Storage System
The Kerala backwaters are a chain of brackish lagoons and lakes lying
parallel to the Arabian Sea coast (known as the Malabar Coast) of Kerala state
in southern India. The network includes five large lakes linked by canals, both
fed by 38 rivers, and extending virtually half the length of Kerala state. The
backwaters were formed by the action of waves and shore currents creating
low barrier islands across the mouths of the many rivers flowing down from
the Western Ghats range.
The Kerala Backwaters are a network of interconnected canals, rivers,
lakes and inlets, a labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 km of
waterways. In the midst of this landscape there are a number of towns and
cities, which serve as the starting and end points of backwater cruises.
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National Waterway No. 3 from Kollam to Kottapuram, covers a distance of
205 km and runs almost parallel to the coast line of southern Kerala
facilitating both cargo movement and backwater tourism.
The most potential area in the Kerala backwaters is the Kuttanad
region, which is also known as the rice bowl of Kerala. Kuttanad is probably
the only place in the continent where farming is done below sea level, using a
system of dykes and bunds and it known as ‘Murickan’s Bund Farming’. The
Vembanad Lake covers an area of over 1512 km² and bordered by Alappuzha,
Kottayam, and Ernakulam districts is the largest lake in Kerala. The
Ashtamudi Lake has eight 'arms' covering a major portion of Kollam district
in the south, and is the second largest lake in the state.
3.7 Backwater Resources of Kerala
Kasargod in north Kerala is a backwater destination, known for rice
cultivation, coir processing and lovely landscape; it has the sea to the west
and the Western Ghats to the north and east. Kasargode district have 2
backwaters named Karingote estuary and Nileswar backwater.
There are five backwater systems in Kannur districts. They are Kava
backwater, Dharmapatanam backwater, Mannayed estuary, Mahe estuary and
Kattampally backwaters.
Kozhikode (also known as Calicut) has backwaters which are largely
“unexplored” by tourist hordes. Elathur, the Canoly Canal and the Kallayi
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River are favourite haunts for boating and cruising. Korapuzha, the venue of
the Korapuzha Jalotsavam is fast becoming a popular water sport destination
in Kozhikode. Other backwaters in Kozhikode are Payyoli backwater,
Beypore estuary and Kadalundi estuary.
Malappuram district have two backwater systems named Puraparamba
backwater and Purathur/Ponnani estuary.There are four backwaters in Thrissur
district. They are Chettuva backwater, Azheekode.
Vembanad Lake is the largest lake in Kerala and it covers an area of
over 1512 km². It is bordered by Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Ernakulam
district. Cochin Estuary is another backwater in Cochin.
Kollam (earlier known as Quilon) was one of the leading trade centres
of the ancient world, eulogised by travellers such as Ibn Battuta and Marco
Polo. It is also the starting point of the backwater waterways. Ashtamudi lake,
the second largest lake in Kerala and Paravoor backwaters are the backwaters
of Kollam district.
There are five backwaters in Thiruvananthapuram named Edava
Nadayara backwater, Anchuthengu backwater, Kadinamkulam backwater,
Veli Lake, Poonthura backwater and Poovar backwater.
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Table 3.1: Backwaters/ Estuaries of Kerala
No. Name District
1 Karingote estuary Kasaragode
2 Nileswar backwater Kasaragode
3 Kava backwater Kannur
4 Dharmapatanam backwater Kannur
5 Mannayed estuary Kannur
6 Mahe estuary Kannur
7 Kattampally Kannur
8 Kotta backwater Kozhikode
9 Korapuzha estuary Kozhikode
10 Payyoli backwater Kozhikode
11 Elathur backwater Kozhikode
12 Kallayi backwater Kozhikode
13 Beypore estuary Kozhikode
14 Kadalundi estuary Kozhikode/Malappuram
15 Canoly Canal Kozhikode
16 Puraparamba backwater Malappuram
17 Purathur / Ponnani estuary Malappuram
18 Chettuva backwater Thrissur
19 Azheekode estuary Thrissur
20 Kodungalloor backwater Thrissur
21 Akathumuri lake Thrissur
22 Cochin estuary Ernakulam
23 Vembanad backwater Kottayam, Alappuzha.
24 Kayamkulam backwater Alappuzha
25 Ashtamudi estuary Kollam
26 Paravoor backwater Kollam
27 Edava Nadayara backwater Thiruvananthapuram
28 Anchuthengu backwater Thiruvananthapuram
29 Kadinamkulam backwater Thiruvananthapuram
30 Veli lake Thiruvananthapuram
31 Poonthura backwater Thiruvananthapuram
32 Poovar backwater Thiruvananthapuram
Source: Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment
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3.8 Nature of Backwater Resources of Kerala
3.8.1 Ecosystem
The backwaters have a unique ecosystem - freshwater from the rivers
meets the seawater from the Arabian Sea.
In certain areas, such as the Vembanad Kayal, where a barrage has
been built near Kumarakom, salt water from the sea is prevented from
entering the deep inside, keeping the fresh water intact. Such fresh water is
extensively used for irrigation purposes.
Many unique species of aquatic life including crabs, frogs and
mudskippers, water birds such as terns, kingfishers, darters and cormorants,
and animals such as otters and turtles live in and alongside the backwaters.
Palm trees, pandanus shrubs, various leafy plants and bushes grow alongside
the backwaters, providing a green hue to the surrounding landscape.
3.8.2 Life and Culture in Backwater Sector
The people who live along the backwaters in Kerala have a unique
relationship with the backwaters. It is the source of the local people's
livelihood. The fish caught from its waters, the paddy, coconut and other
crops harvested along its banks, the boats they build and use to transport them
across the labyrinthine backwaters, are all an integral part of their traditional
way of backwater village life.
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3.8.3 Economic Significance
Connected by artificial canals, the backwaters form an economical
means of transport, and a large local trade is carried on by inland navigation.
Fishing, along with fish curing is an important industry. These particular
processed product made is marketed in different places.
Kerala backwaters have been used for centuries by the local people for
transportation, fishing and agriculture. It has supported the efforts of the local
people to earn a livelihood. In more recent times, agricultural efforts have
been strengthened with reclamation of some backwater lands for rice
growing, particularly in the Kuttanad area. Boat making has been a traditional
craft, so has been the coir industry.
Kuttanad is crisscrossed with waterways that run alongside extensive
paddy fields, as well as fields of cassava, banana and yam. A unique feature
of Kuttanad is that many of these fields are below sea level and are
surrounded by earthen embankments. The crops are grown on the low-lying
ground and irrigated with fresh water from canal and waterways connected to
Vembanad lake. The area is similar to the dykes of the Netherlands where
land has been reclaimed from the sea and crops are grown.
3.8.4 Ecological Significance
Vembanad Kole wetland and Ashtamudi wetland were included in the list
of wetlands of international importance, as defined by the Ramsar Convention
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for the conservation and sustainable utilisation of wetlands. Wetlands are
significant with growing interest in them for the productive and retentive uses to
which they could be best utilised. Such requirements include supplementary
human dietary requirements ecological significance in terms of flood control,
water purification, aquatic productivity and microclimatic regulation and as
habitats of fish birds and wildlife. A wide variety of wetlands like marshes,
swamps, bogs, peat lands, open water bodies, mangroves, tidal marshes, etc.,
exist which can be used for meeting some of the requirements and for
environmental amelioration.
3.8.5 Some Estimates
Wetlands are the areas on the landscape where land and water meet.
Wetlands include a wide variety of marshes, swamps and bogs that occur
throughout the world. Wetlands usually lie in depressions or along
rivers,lakes and coastal waters where they are subject to periodic flooding.
Some of them ever occur on slopes where they are associated with ground
water seeps. Conceptually, wetlands lie between well drained upland and
permanently flooded deep water of lakes, rivers and coastal embankments.
Total wetland area in the world is 858.8 million hectare (MHa). Total
wetland area in India - from the cold and arid zone of Ladakh through the wet
Imphal and the warm arid zone of Rajasthan and Gujarat to the tropical
monsoonic central India. According to an estimate by Ministry of
Environment and Forests (1992) wetlands occupy about 4.7 MHa of the
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country. Out of this 1.5 MHa are natural and 2.6 MHa are manmade.
Mangrove vegetation along the coastal region of the country occupies
0.6 MHa. According to the Directory of Asian Wetlands (1989), the wetland
types are as follows: 1) Area under paddy cultivation ( 40.9 MHa), 2 ) Area
suitable for fish culture ( 3.6 MHa ), 3) Area under captive fishes (2.9MHa),
4) Mangroves(0.4 MHa), 5) Estuaries ( 3.9 MHa), 6) Backwaters (3.5MHa),
7) Manmade impoundment (3.0 MHa) 8) Rivers including main tributaries
(28000kms), 9) Canals and irrigation channels (113000kms). The total area of
wetlands excluding river is 58.2 MHa.
Wetlands are historically defined by scientists. As per the US Fish and
Wildlife Service's Official Classification System, wetlands are lands
transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where water table is
usually at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water level.
For the purpose of this classification wetlands must have one or more of the
following attributes namely, at least periodically the land supports
predominantly undrained hydric soils, the substrate is non-soil and is situated
with water covered by shallow water level at some time during the growing
season of each year. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) define Wetlands as those submerged or water
saturated lands both natural and manmade, permanent or temporary with
water that is static, flowing, fresh, brackish or saltish, including areas or
marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed 6 meters.
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International Biosphere Programme defines wetlands as part of the
surrounding ecological structure and several stages in the succession from
open water to dry land or vice-versa occurring at sites situated as a rule
between the highest and lowest water levels as long as the flooding or
waterlogging of the soil is of substantial ecological significance.
3.9 Wetland Classification System by MoEF (March 1992):
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has
classified wetlands as given below:
3.9 .1 Inland wetlands
Natural: lakes /ponds, oxbow lake /cut off meanders, waterlogged
(seasonal) places, swamps/marsh
Manmade: reservoirs, tanks, waterlogged, abandoned quarries, ash pond/
cooling pond.
3.9.2 Coastal wetlands
Natural: estuary, lagoon, backwater, bay, tidal flat /mudflat, and/beach/
spit/bar.
3.9.3 Manmade: salt pens, aquaculture ponds.
Backwater/Estuarine system of Kerala consists of coastal brackish or
mixo haline wetlands which include lakes, lagoons, river mouths, mudflats,
tidal marshes and mangrove swamps.
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Backwaters lie parallel to the coast in an interconnected chain from
south to north. They are:
Kadinamkulam, Paravoor, Ashtamudi, Kayamkulam, Vembanad,
Kodugalloor, Valiangadi, Korapuzha, Valiyapattanam and Kavaai. Vembanad
lake is the biggest brackish water body on the west coast of India. The
backwater system is primarily a marine environment bounded by an alluvial
bar, which is interrupted by river mouths or Arabian Sea at intervals
Today the region called by the name Kuttanad was once one of the two
rice bowls of Kerala, the other being Palakkad. The region is also called by
the sobriquet Holland of Kerala. It is so called for the reason that like
Holland, Kuttanad too is a region which is saucer shaped lying below sea
level. The region is formed out of 64 panchayats falling in Alappuzha,
Kottayam and Pathanamthitta districts. It is an ecologically fragile region. The
livelihood of the majority of population in this region is related to paddy
cultivation. The paddy cultivation here, since 19th century, has been on lands
reclaimed from shallow areas of Vembanad Kayal. But in 1930s the State
assistance in reclamation led to reclamation from the Kayal areas which were
deeper and that too for large areas extending to hundreds of hectares. The risk
involved in paddy cultivation in these deeper Kayal areas were of two types
namely, flooding and salinity. The former is due to the river system in the
region and the Kayal during monsoons and; the latter is due to the inflow of
saline water during summer. The State intervened in the form of construction
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of Thottapally Spillway (flood regulator) and Thanneermukkam Bund (salt
water barrier) to mitigate these two problems. This intervention created the
opportunity and benefit of a second cropping in these lands reclaimed from
deeper Kayal areas. But the remedy being worse than the disease has
converted an ecologically fragile area into a manmade disaster. Based on the
relevant literature, an attempt is made here to look into the various aspects of
the region and; to tell the ever interesting story of Kuttanad.
3.10 Location of Kuttanad
Unfortunately, the land area which is intended by the name Kuttanad is
differently demarcated in various studies.
3.10.1 Taluk based Study
Thomas C (1972) defined it as the area with 631.6 sq.miles (1635.6 sq
kms). It included Shertallai, Ambalapuzha, Kuttanad, Karthikapally,
Mavelikkara, Chengannur and Thiruvalla taluks of the then Alleppey district
(54 revenue villages) and Changanassery, Kottayam and Vaikom taluks of the
then Kottayam district (25 revenue villages) totalling 79 revenue villages.
Kuttanad Development Project (1974) too followed this definition, though
with a few changes. But unlike the 1635 sq.km area as defined by Thomas
(1972), both KDP (1972) and KSSP (1978) defined the total area as 870 sq.
km or just above it.
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3.10.2 District based Study
Tharamangalam (1981) defined this region with 76 revenue villages of
which 52 falls in Alleppey district and the remaining 24 falling in Kottayam
district. The total area of Kuttanad is 164.2 sq. km. The location of Kuttanad
as defined by Thomas C (1972) is based on the jurisdiction of the then Punja
Special Officer. And all the studies which followed it too followed more or
less a similar definition of the location of Kuttanad.
3.10.3 Village based Study
The villages included in Kuttanad as per Thomas C (1972) are: Aroor,
Panavally, Thaikkattusseri, Thuravur Vadakku, Thuravur Thekku, Vayalar
Kizhakku, Vayalar Mekku, Aryad South, Alleppey, Punnapra, Ambalapuzha,
Prakkad, Kainakary, Pulinkunnu, Chennamkary, Neelamperoor, Velinad,
Ramankary, Champakulam, Nedumudy, Thakazhy, Kozhimukku,Thalavady,
Muttar, Cheruthana, Veeyapuram, Pallipad, Haripad, Karuvatta, Kumarapuram,
Cheppad, Pathiyoor, Thiruvalla, Kavumbhagom, Peringara, Nedumpuram,
Kadapra, Kizhakkumbhagom, Venmony, Puliyoor, Kurattisseri, Mannar,
Cherianad, Thazhakara, Thamarakulam, Chunakara, Noornad, Palamel,
Thonnallur, Pandalam South, Triperumthura, Chennithala, Kannamangalam
and Mavelikkara in Alleppey district.
Kaduthuruthy, Manjoor, Vadayar, Naduvilla, Vetchoor, Thalayazham,
Kallara, Onamthuruthu, Vijayapuram, Perumpaikad, Panachikad, Puthuppally,
Kaipuzha, Aimanam, Kumarakam, Thiruvarppu, Kottayam, Nattakam,
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Vakathanam, Madappally, Vazhappally East, Thrikkodithanam, Vazhappally
West, Kurichy and Changanacherry in Kottayam district.
3.10.4 MSSRF Study
M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF-2007) defined
Kuttanad Wetland System (KWS) as the area comprising 32 Panchayats of
Alappuzha district, 27 Panchayats of Kottayam district and; 5 Panchayats of
Pathanamthitta district. Thus the Kuttanad area includes the area of 64
panchyats spread in three districts. The villages under this classification are
roughly similar to that of Thomas C (1972).
Kuttanad is best divided into three hydrologic units, viz., Lower
Kuttanad, Upper Kuttanad and North Kuttanad. The water level in Vembanad
Lake is one of the most important controlling factors for these three
hydrological units. This water level is in turn determined by the tides and
river flow. The Lower Kuttanad and the Upper Kuttanad region is governed
by the flow of Pamba, Achenkovil, and Manimala rivers. North Kuttanad
region is governed by the flow of Meenachil River.
3.11 The Geography and Resources
Thomas C (1972) recorded an in depth information of the geography of
the Kuttanad region. He highlighted topography, climate, classification of soil
type, river systems and Vembanad Kayal.
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3.11.1 Topography
With regard to topography, Thomas C (1972) framed Kuttanad as
essentially a long land area that lies between latitude 9o 8’ and 9o 2’ and
longitudes 76o 19’ and 76 o 44’. He identified that the average level of the dry
lands where the population of Kuttanad inhabited as 3.28ft above mean sea level
(MSL). The lowest inhabited portion has 1.75 ft. above MSL and the highest
portion 8 ft. above MSL. A very highly humid uniform climate prevails
throughout the Kuttanad area. The temperature ranges from 21.11o C to 32.22o C.
3.11.2 Climate
The region is endowed with high rainfall like other parts of the state. A
prolonged rainy period from the month of May to November and a lean period
from December to April. However, the rate of variation over the months is not
equal and the average annual rainfall is about 292 cm of which 241 cm or 83
percent occur during the monsoon months. The driest months of the year are
January and February, being followed by summer approximating to tropical
severity during the months of March, April and May. June to August (south-
west monsoon) and October-November (north-east monsoon) are rainy seasons.
Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985) spelt out the seasonal distribution
unlike others as follows:
Pre-monsoon - March, April and May.
South West monsoon - June, July, August and September.
North east monsoon - October and November
Dry period - December, January and February
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Nearly 60 to 70 percent of the rainfall occurs during the south-west
monsoon resulting in floods in Kuttanad and the low lands are submerged
every year for a few days or weeks during this season. The north-east monsoon
also causes floods though on a lesser scale. The flood discharges during the
monsoon keep the surface water in Kuttanad sweet in spite of its direct
connection to the lake and the sea. When the flow of the rivers dwindles from
about the month of December, saline water from the sea pervades the entire
area due to tidal action and density currents. The salinity in the northern parts
of Kuttanad goes beyond the limits of tolerance for rice cultivation from
January onwards and it spreads rapidly to the Southern parts. The surface
water remains saline till the first floods of the succeeding south-west monsoon
occur in June.
3.11.3 Soil
On the classification of soil type both Thomas C (1972) and
Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985) defined the soil characteristics in
Kuttanad as a mixture of sand and clay in varying proportions. In some parts of
the region, the presence of decayed organic matter including decayed parts of
logs of wood has been observed. In most of the areas, the soil is highly acidic
and contains toxic salts. This toxicity adversely affects plant life through
capillary action when the fields are dry or when the water outside the fields
rises high.
170
3.11.3.1 Wetland Stratification
The entire wet land area of Kuttanad can be classified under three broad
categories viz. (i) Kayal lands, (ii) Karappadoms and (iii) Kari lands.
Thomas C (1972) says that this classification is also pertinent in the
context of the type of soil available in these three different regions.
3.11.3.2 Meaning
Kayal lands are those areas which were previously deep kayal areas, but
now reclaimed out of Vembanad kayal beds for paddy cultivation. It presently
covers an approximate area of about 20,000 acres comprised in the revenue
villages of Chennankary, Kainakary and Pulinkunnoo of Kuttanad taluk, and
Thiruvarpu and Kumarakom of Kottayam taluk. These paddy fields are situated 5’
to 7’ below mean sea level. The soils here are more seriously affected by salinity
than the other soil types. Once crop failure were very common in these lands.
The Karappadom lands are generally situated along the water-ways and
rivers and are spread over an area of 168000 acres. About a third of the
Karappadoms were double cropped fields and lie in the interior of villages on
the eastern and southern periphery of Kuttanad. The fields lying along the
waterways are periodically replenished by the deposit of slit carried by the
rivers in flood.
The Kari lands, extend to an area of 12,000 acres are situated in the
Ambalapuzha, Shertala and Vaikom taluks. The name kari is derived from the
171
intense black colour of the soil. Most of these lands at or below sea level and
the water table is 3’ or 4’ below the surface of the soil, the water itself being
saline. The soil is peaty and marshy in nature and is over-grown with wild
weeds and grass.
The paddy lands of Kuttanad are divided into blocks called
`Padasekharoms’. A Padasekharom is a contiguous area bound by canals,
rivers and other partitions, its size ranging from 2 acres to 2,366 acres.
Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985) treated the central region of
Kuttanad as a deltaic region. The apex of this delta is Pandanad, which is the
confluence of Manimala and the Pamba rivers. The entire landmass of this
central region is not a product of deltaic activity alone. Normal coastal
deposits in the ancient back swamps created by the recession of the seas are
also evident. A large area, originally below sea level, has also been subjected
to reclamation. Hence the deltaic region is characterised by both naturally
developed landscape and man-made or modified landscape. Interestingly, the
manmade landscape or modified landscape mostly lies 0.6 to 2.1 metre below
MSL. The deltaic region can tentatively be divided into two parts, namely,
upper delta or upper Kuttanad, developed mainly by natural processes and
lower delta or lower Kuttanad originally developed by natural processes but
modified by gross human interference. A tentative line joining Kidangara,
Edathua, Veeyapuram and Karuvatta demarcates the upper and lower delta.
172
However, the landscape features of upper and lower delta do not vary
considerably except for some fluvial features.
3.12 The River System
Both Thomas C (1972) and Chattopadhyay and Sidharthan (1985)
presented a detailed illustration of the river systems in Kuttanad. Kuttanad
basin, fed by four tidal rivers, namely, the Pamba, the Manimala and the
Achankovil in the south and the Meenachil in the north, control the fluvial
regime of the region. The entry points of the rivers into Kuttanad are
Erapuzha for the Pamba river, Thondara for the Manimala, Pandalam for the
Achankoil river and Neelimangalom and Nagampadom for the Meenachil
river. After entering into the basin, the Meenachil river spreads into a number
of water courses and discharges into the Vembanad kayal very near the
Thanneermukkam Barriers. The total length of the main water course is 82.4
kms. Rivers Manimala and Pamba combine together and they confluence with
the Achenkovil river at Veeyapuram. They are inter-connected by an intricate
network of channels soon after their entry into the basin so that they could not
be separately identified. The total length of the river and water courses is 240
km. in the Pamba basin. These join the Vembanad kayal. Except the Pamba
river, the three other rivers usually become dry during one to two months in
the year. These four rivers after flowing through a network of channels and
canals join the Vembanad kayal, draining an area of nearly 5000 sq.km. in the
upper hilly regions.
173
3.13 The Vembanad Lake
The area of the Vembanad lake is about 80 sq. Kms. It extends from
Allappuzha in the south to the Cochin harbour where it is open to Arabian
Sea. Water in the lake is saline except during the monsoon season, when the
flood waters keep the surface water sweet. The waters of the Vembanad lake
(the kayal) are a combination of the salt water of the Arabian sea which enters
through the Cochin harbour entrance channel (Cochin cut) and the fresh
waters of the river Meenachil, Manimala, Pamba, Achenkovil, Periyar and
Muvattupuzha and the several small streams that drain into the kayal. The
salinity of the water resulting from this salt water-fresh water combination is
extremely variable during different seasons of the year, and depends upon the
amount of fresh water discharged by the streams. The more saline waters are
found near the Cochin Harbour and the fresh waters are at points far inland,
remote from the Cochin cut while in between are found gradations from salt
to fresh water. When the streams are in flood, the lake and the inland channels
are filled with fresh water. However, Thomas. C (1972) also recorded that
there had been some days every year when fresh water is found far down near
the mouth of the Cochin cut. When the flow of the streams dwindle during the
dry seasons from about the month of December, the water in the lake and in
the inland channels as far as a radius of 50 miles (129 sq Kms) from the
Cochin cut generally becomes saline and remain so until the first floods of the
succeeding south west monsoon.
174
Table 3.2: REGION: UPPER KUTTANAD
Ownership of the House
% Type of House %
Source of Energy for Lighting
% Fuel used for
Cooking %
Own 84.29
Pacca 16.95 Electricity 94.07 Fire wood 59.24
Kutcha 25.42 Solar 0 Kerosene 1.27
Hut 57.63 Kerosene 5.93 Cooking gas 39.49
Rented 10
Pacca 14.29 Electricity 78.57 Fire wood 64.29
Kutcha 57.14 Solar 0 Kerosene 7.14
Hut 28.57 Kerosene 21.43 Cooking gas 28.57
Joint family
5.71
Pacca 25 Electricity 75 Fire wood 62.5
Kutcha 25 Solar 0 Kerosene 12.5
Hut 50 Kerosene 25 Cooking gas 25
Source: Survey
The table 3.2 shows matrix of ownership of house, type of house,
source of energy for lighting and fuel used for cooking. Most of the
households own their house the type of house is not pacca and many
households rely on firewood as the source of fuel for cooking.
Fig. 3.1: Pie Diagram showing Different Sources of Water in Upper Kuttanad
Own well
Neighbour well
Public well
KWA connection
Public Tap
Public pond
River
175
The pie diagram shows 25.71 per cent of households of Upper
Kuttanad relied on their own well as the source of water, 17.4 per cent relied
on river, 14.29 per cent relied on Kerala Water Authority connection and
11.43 per cent relied on public tap.
Table 3.3: REGION: LOWER KUTTANAD
Ownership of the House
% Type of House %
Source of Energy for Lighting
% Fuel used
for Cooking %
Own 85.71
Pacca 19.17 Electricity 95 Fire wood 58.95
Kutcha 30 Solar 0.83 Kerosene 1.5
Hut 50.83 Kerosene 4.17 Cooking gas 39.55
Rented 10
Pacca 14.29 Electricity 85.71 Fire wood 66.67
Kutcha 28.57 Solar 0 Kerosene 7.41
Hut 57.14 Kerosene 14.29 Cooking gas 25.92
Joint family 4.29
Pacca 33.34 Electricity 66.67 Fire wood 40
Kutcha 33.33 Solar 0 Kerosene 10
Hut 33.33 Kerosene 33.33 Cooking gas 50
Source: survey
The table 3.3 shows matrix of ownership of house, type of house,
source of energy for lighting and fuel used for cooking. Most of the
households own their house the type of house is not pacca and many
households rely on firewood as the source of fuel for cooking.
The pie diagram shows 25.72 per cent of households of Lower
Kuttanad relied on their own well as the source of water, 17.14 per cent relied
on river, 11.43 per cent relied on Kerala Water Authority connection and
11.43 per cent relied on public tap.
176
Fig. 3.2: Pie Diagram showing Different Sources of Water in Lower
Kuttanad
Table 3.4: REGION: NORTH KUTTANAD
Ownership of the House
% Type of House
% Source of
Energy for Lighting
% Fuel used for Cooking
%
Own 70.83
Pacca 25.88 Electricity 94.12 Fire wood 57.94
Kutcha 30.59 Solar 1.18 Kerosene 1.59
Hut 43.53 Kerosene 4.70 Cooking gas 40.47
Rented 21.67
Pacca 30.77 Electricity 88.46 Fire wood 69.23
Kutcha 26.92 Solar 0 Kerosene 3.85
Hut 42.31 Kerosene 11.54 Cooking gas 26.92
Joint family
7.5
Pacca 22.22 Electricity 77.78 Fire wood 55.56
Kutcha 33.33 Solar 0 Kerosene 11.11
Hut 44.45 Kerosene 22.22 Cooking gas 33.33 Source: survey
The table 3.4 shows matrix of ownership of house, type of house,
source of energy for lighting and fuel used for cooking. Most of the
households own their house the type of house is not pacca and many
households rely on firewood as the source of fuel for cooking.
Own well
Neighbour well
Public well
KWA connection
Public Tap
Public pond
River
177
Fig. 3.3: Pie Diagram showing Different Sources of Water in North Kuttanad
The pie diagram shows 26.66 per cent of households of North
Kuttanad relied on their own well as the source of water, 16.67 per cent relied
on Kerala Water Authority connection and 13.34 per cent relied on public tap.
3.14 The Economic Activities of the Kuttanad Region
The economic activities in the Kuttanad region can be studied from
their income, source of income, monthly expenditure, asset holdings and from
the behaviour of the economic practices in the Kuttanad region.
3.14.1. Annual Household Income
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the annual household income of
the people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
Own well
Neighbour well
Public well
KWA connection
Public Tap
Public pond
River
178
Table 3.5: Annual Household Income
Region 0≤x<25000 (`)(`)(`)(`)
25000≤x<50000 (`)(`)(`)(`)
x≥50000 (`)(`)(`)(`)
Total
Upper Kuttanad 80 40 20 140
Lower Kuttanad 76 48 16 140
North Kuttanad 56 40 24 120
Total 212 128 60 400
Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes amount of household income in rupees.
The test statistic, �� = 5.45283
Degrees of freedom = 4
P-value = 0.24390
Since the P-value is large, the annual household income of the people
and the region classifications are independent. So 53 % of the people in the
Kuttanad region have annual household income in between 0 and 25,000,
32 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have annual household income in
between 25,000 & 50,000 and the remaining 15 % have annual household
income more than 50,000.
3.14.2. Source of Income
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the various source of income of the
people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
179
Table 3.6: Source of Income
Agriculture Fishing Business Employed Others Total
Upper Kuttanad 48 32 28 24 8 140
Lower Kuttanad 48 32 28 24 8 140
North Kuttanad 32 36 28 16 8 120
Total 128 100 84 64 24 400
Source: Survey
The test statistic, �� = 4.571429
Degrees of freedom = 8
P-value = 0.802245
Since the P-value is large, the various sources of income of the people
and the region classifications are independent. The source of income from
agriculture is 32 %, the source of income from fishing is 25 %, the source of
income from business is 21 %, the source of income from employment is
16 % and the income from other sources is 6 % in the Kuttanad region.
3.14.3. Monthly Expenditure Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the monthly expenditure of the
people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
Table 3.7: Monthly Expenditure
Region 0≤x<2000
(`)(`)(`)(`) 2000≤x<4000
(`)(`)(`)(`) 4000≤x≤6000
(`)(`)(`)(`) Above 6000
(`)(`)(`)(`) Total
Upper Kuttanad 12 32 72 24 140
Lower Kuttanad 32 12 72 24 140
North Kuttanad 12 32 48 28 120
Total 56 76 192 76 400
Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes the monthly expenditure in rupees.
The test statistic, �� = 28.96527
Degrees of freedom = 6
P-value = 0.0000617645
180
Since the P-value is small, the monthly expenditure of the people
depends upon the regions. In the upper Kuttanad region, 8.58 % of the people
have monthly expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 22.86 % of the people have
monthly expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 51.42 % of the people have
monthly expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 17.14 % of
the people have monthly expenditure above 6000 rupees.
In the lower Kuttanad region, 22.86 % of the people have monthly
expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 8.58 % of the people have monthly
expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 51.42 % of the people have monthly
expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 17.14 % of the
people have monthly expenditure above 6000 rupees.
In the north Kuttanad region, 10 % of the people have monthly
expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 26.67 % of the people have monthly
expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 40 % of the people have monthly
expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 23.33 % of the
people have monthly expenditure above 6000 rupees.
3.14.4. Mode of Savings
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the mode of savings of the people
in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
181
Table 3.8: Mode of Savings
Region B
anks
Co-
oper
ativ
es
Pos
t offi
ces
SH
G’s
Chi
tty
Priv
ate
finan
cial
in
stitu
tions
Mon
ey le
nder
s
Rel
ativ
es
Frie
nds
Ow
n P
F a
ccou
nt
Insu
ranc
e
Oth
ers
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad
60 72 20 43 41 19 8 1 0 1 52 0 317
Lower Kuttanad
30 43 17 35 38 17 7 0 1 1 29 0 218
North Kuttanad
20 52 10 24 28 14 5 0 1 1 48 1 204
Total 110 167 47 102 107 50 20 1 2 3 129 1 739
Source: Survey
The test statistic, �� = 26.65146
Degrees of freedom = 22
P-value = 0.224764
Since the P-value is large, the different types of modes of savings of
the people and the region classifications namely, the Upper Kuttanad, Lower
Kuttanad and North Kuttanad region are independent.
14.89 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in the
Banks, 22.6 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in the
Co-operatives, 6.36 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings
in the Post offices, 13.8 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their
savings in the S H G’s, 14.48 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have
their savings in the Chitty, 6.77 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have
their savings in the Private financial institutions,2.71% of the people in the
182
Kuttanad region have their savings in the Money lenders, 0.13 % of the
people in the Kuttanad region have their savings among their own relatives,
0.27 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings among their
own friends, 0.41 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in
their own P F account, 17.45 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have
their savings in the insurance companies and the remaining 0.13 % of the
people in the Kuttanad region have their savings in other financial institutions.
3.14.5. Amount of Liabilities
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the amount of liabilities of the
people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
Table 3.9: Amount of Liability
Region 0≤x<5000
(`)(`)(`)(`) 5000≤x<10000
(`)(`)(`)(`) x≥10000 (`)(`)(`)(`)
Total
Upper Kuttanad 64 32 16 112
Lower Kuttanad 72 24 18 114
North Kuttanad 48 35 24 107
Total 184 91 58 333 Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes amount of liabilities in rupees. The test statistic, ��= 8.641414
Degrees of freedom = 4
P-value = 0.070715
Since the P-value is large, the amount of liabilities of the people and
the region classifications are independent. 55.25 % of the people in the
183
Kuttanad region have liabilities in between 0 & 5000, 27.33 % of the people
in the Kuttanad region have liabilities in between 5000 & 10,000 and 17.42 %
of the people in the Kuttanad region have liabilities more than 10,000.
3.14.6. Purposes of Loans
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the various purposes of loans of
the people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
Table 3.10: Purposes of Loans
Region
Con
stru
ctio
n
Agr
icul
ture
Bus
ines
s
Edu
catio
n
Mar
riage
Pur
chas
e of
la
nd/p
rope
rty
Med
ical
ex
pens
es
Oth
ers
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad 9 42 9 15 10 5 14 8 112
Lower Kuttanad 8 43 8 16 11 5 16 7 114
North Kuttanad 9 41 8 14 10 7 14 4 107
Total 26 126 25 45 31 17 44 19 333 Source: Survey
The test statistic, ��= 2.217682
Degrees of freedom = 14
P-value = 0.999844
Since the P-value is large, the various purposes of loans of the people
and the region classifications are independent. 7.81 % of the people in the
Kuttanad region have taken loans for construction purposes, 37.84 % of the
people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for agriculture purposes, 7.51
% of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for business
184
activities, 13.51 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for
education purposes, 9.31 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken
loans for marriage purposes, 5.11 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have
taken loans for Purchase of land or property, 13.21 % of the people in the
Kuttanad region have taken loans for medical expenses, 5.7 % of the people
in the Kuttanad region have taken loans for other purposes.
3.14.7. Sources of Loans
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the various sources of loans of the
people in the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
Table 3.11: Sources of Loans
Region
Ban
ks
Co-
oper
ativ
es
Pos
t offi
ces
SH
G’s
Chi
tty
Priv
ate
finan
cial
in
stitu
tions
Mon
ey le
nder
s
Rel
ativ
es
Frie
nds
Ow
n P
F a
ccou
nt
Insu
ranc
e
Oth
ers
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad
30 58 3 51 12 5 36 1 0 2 1 1 200
Lower Kuttanad
18 52 4 48 8 4 46 1 0 2 2 1 186
North Kuttanad 14 51 4 42 8 2 39 1 1 3 1 0 166
Total 62 161 11 141 28 11 121 3 1 7 4 2 552
Source: Survey
The test statistic, ��= 12.6209
Degrees of freedom = 22
P-value = 0.943198
185
Since the P-value is large, the various sources of loans of the people
and the region classifications are independent. 11.23 % of the people in the
Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Banks, 29.17 % of the people in
the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Co-operatives, 1.99 % of the
people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Post offices, 25.55 %
of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the S H G’s, 5.07
% of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Chitty, 1.99
% of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the Private
financial institutions, 21.92 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken
loans from the Money lenders, 0.54 % of the people in the Kuttanad region
have taken loans from their own relatives, 0.18 % of the people in the
Kuttanad region have taken loans from their own friends, 1.27 % of the
people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from their own P F account,
0.73 % of the people in the Kuttanad region have taken loans from the
insurance companies and the remaining 0.36 % of the people in the Kuttanad
region have taken loans from other financial institutions.
3.14.8. Asset Holding
It is pointed out that there exists significant difference between the
amount of asset holdings of the people in the Upper Kuttanad, Lower
Kuttanad and North Kuttanad region.
186
Table 3.12: Asset Holding
Region 0≤x≤25,000
(`)(`)(`)(`) 25,000≤x≤50,000
(`)(`)(`)(`) x≥50,000
(`)(`)(`)(`) Total
Upper Kuttanad 47 60 33 140
Lower Kuttanad 31 67 42 140
North Kuttanad 16 51 53 120
Total 94 178 128 400 Source: Survey * x- Here x denotes amount of assets in rupees.
The test statistic, ��= 20.81203
Degrees of freedom = 4
P-value = 0.000345
Since the P-value is small, the asset holdings of the people depends
upon the three regions. In the upper Kuttanad region, 8.58 % of the people
have their monthly expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 22.86 % of the people
have their monthly expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 51.42 % of the
people have their monthly expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the
remaining 17.14 % of the people have their monthly expenditure above 6000.
In the lower Kuttanad region, 22.86 % of the people have their monthly
expenditure in between 0 & 2000, 8.58 % of the people have their monthly
expenditure in between 2000 & 4000, 51.42 % of the people have their
monthly expenditure in between 4000 & 6000, and the remaining 17.14 % of
the people have their monthly expenditure above 6000. In the north Kuttanad
region, 10 % of the people have their monthly expenditure in between 0 &
2000, 26.67 % of the people have their monthly expenditure in between 2000
& 4000, 40 % of the people have their monthly expenditure in between 4000
187
& 6000, and the remaining 23.33 % of the people have their monthly
expenditure above 6000.
3.15 The Environmental Challenges on the Kuttanad Region due to
Economic Activities
The environmental challenges on the Kuttanad region due to the
economic activities like Agricultural practices, Inland fishing practices,
Industrial activities, Travel and Tourism and Construction activities can be
studied from the major environmental issues like Shrinkage of backwaters,
Increasing salinity,Contamination of water resources, Decreasing availability
of drinking water,Increase in pests, Aggressive growth of water
weeds,Reduction in fish population and variety,Improper discharge of waste,
Increasing incidence of diseases.
3.15.1. Agricultural Practices
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the major environmental issues in
the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
188
Table 3.13: Environmental Challenges on the Kuttanad Region due to Economic Activities
Region
Shr
inka
ge o
f ba
ckw
ater
s
Incr
ease
in
flood
Incr
easi
ng
salin
ity
Con
tam
inat
ion
of w
ater
re
sour
ces
Dec
reas
ing
avai
labi
lity
of
drin
king
wat
er
Incr
ease
in
pest
s
Agg
ress
ive
grow
th o
f w
ater
wee
ds
Red
uctio
n in
fis
h po
pula
tion
and
varie
ty
Impr
oper
di
scha
rge
of
was
te
Incr
easi
ng
inci
denc
e of
di
seas
es
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad 5 7 1 5 3 9 8 7 7 8 60
Lower Kuttanad 4 8 8 7 2 8 9 8 7 8 69
North Kuttanad 6 5 7 6 2 9 9 9 7 7 67
Total 15 20 16 18 7 26 26 24 21 23 196
Source: Survey
The test statistic, �� = 7.092872
Degrees of freedom = 18
P-value = 0.98932
18
8
189
Since the P-value is large, the effect of the major environmental issues
is similar in all the three regions. 7.65 % of the Kuttanad region has shrinkage
of backwaters due to the effect of agricultural practices, 10.2 % of the
Kuttanad region has the increase in flood due to the effect of agricultural
practices, 8.16 % of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the
effect of agricultural practices, 9.18 % has the contamination of water
resources due to the effect of agricultural practices, 3.57 % has decrease the
availability of drinking water due to the effect of agricultural practices,
13.27 % has the increase in pests due to the effect of agricultural practices,
13.27 % has the aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad region due
to the effect of agricultural practices, 12.25 % has the reduction in fish
population and variety due to the effect of agricultural practices, 10.72 % has
the improper discharge of waste due to the effect of agricultural practices and
the remaining 11.73 % has the increasing incidence of diseases due to the
effect of agricultural practices.
Due to the agricultural practices the major environmental issue in the
Kuttanad region is increase in pests and aggressive growth of water weeds.
The other major environmental issues in their order of significance are
reduction in fish population and variety, increasing incidence of diseases,
improper discharge of waste, increase in flood, contamination of water
resources, increasing salinity, shrinkage of backwaters, decreasing availability
of drinking water.
3.15.2. Inland Fishing Practices
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the major environmental issues in
the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
190
Table 3.14: Inland Fishing Practices
Reg
ion
Shr
inka
ge o
f ba
ckw
ater
s
Incr
ease
in fl
ood
Incr
easi
ng
salin
ity
Con
tam
inat
ion
of
wat
er r
esou
rces
Dec
reas
ing
avai
labi
lity
of
drin
king
wat
er
Incr
ease
in p
ests
Agg
ress
ive
grow
th o
f wat
er
wee
ds
Red
uctio
n in
fish
po
pula
tion
and
varie
ty
Impr
oper
di
scha
rge
of
was
te
Incr
easi
ng
inci
denc
e of
di
seas
es
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad
5 3 2 7 3 3 9 8 7 3 50
Lower Kuttanad
6 2 3 6 3 3 8 9 7 3 50
North Kuttanad
6 5 8 7 3 3 8 8 7 3 58
Total 17 10 13 20 9 9 25 25 21 9 158
Source: Survey
The test statistic, �� = 5.540198
Degrees of freedom = 18
P-value = 0.997733
19
0
191
Since the P-value is large, the effect of the major environmental issues
is similar in all the three regions. 10.76 % of the Kuttanad region has
shrinkage of backwaters due to the effect of inland fishing practices, 6.33 %
of the Kuttanad region has the increase in flood due to the effect of inland
fishing practices, 8.22 % of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity
due to the effect of inland fishing practices,12.66 % has the contamination of
water resources due to the effect of inland fishing practices, 5.7 % has
decreasing availability of drinking water due to the effect of inland fishing
practices, 5.7 % has the increase in pests due to the effect of inland fishing
practices, 15.82 % has the aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad
region due to the effect of inland fishing practices, 15.82 % has the reduction
in fish population and variety due to the effect of inland fishing practices,
13.29 % has the improper discharge of waste due to the effect of inland
fishing practices and the remaining 5.7 % has the increasing incidence of
diseases due to the effect of inland fishing practices.
Due to the inland fishing practices the major environmental issue in the
Kuttanad region is reduction in fish population and variety and the
aggressive growth of water weeds.
The other major environmental issues in their order of significance are
improper discharge of waste, contamination of water resources, shrinkage of
backwaters, increasing salinity, increase in flood, decreasing availability of
drinking water, increase in pests and the increasing incidence of diseases.
3.15.3. Industrial Activities
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the major environmental issues in
the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
192
Table 3.15: Industrial Activities
Region
Shr
inka
ge o
f ba
ckw
ater
s
Incr
ease
in fl
ood
Incr
easi
ng s
alin
ity
Con
tam
inat
ion
of
wat
er r
esou
rces
Dec
reas
ing
avai
labi
lity
of
drin
king
wat
er
Incr
ease
in p
ests
Agg
ress
ive
grow
th o
f w
ater
wee
ds
Red
uctio
n in
fish
po
pula
tion
and
varie
ty
Impr
oper
dis
char
ge
of w
aste
Incr
easi
ng in
cide
nce
of d
isea
ses
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad 1 1 1 1 3 2 3 1 3 2 18
Lower Kuttanad 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 16
North Kuttanad 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 3 2 18
Total 3 3 3 4 7 6 9 3 8 6 52
Source: Survey
The test statistic, �� = 0.872685
Degrees of freedom = 18
P-value = 1
19
2
193
Since the P-value is large, the effect of the major environmental issues
is similar in all the three regions. 5.77 % of the Kuttanad region has shrinkage
of backwaters due to the effect of industrial practices,5.77 % of the Kuttanad
region has the increase in flood due to the effect of industrial practices, 5.77
% of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the effect of
industrial practices, 7.69 % has the contamination of water resources due to
the effect of industrial practices, 13.46 % has decrease the availability of
drinking water due to the effect of industrial practices, 11.54 % has the
increase in pests due to the effect of industrial practices, 17.31 % has the
aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad region due to the effect of
industrial practices, 5.77 % has the reduction in fish population and variety
due to the effect of industrial practices, 15.38 % has the improper discharge of
waste due to the effect of industrial practices and the remaining 11.54 % has
the increasing incidence of diseases due to the effect of industrial practices.
Due to the industrial practices the major environmental issue in the
Kuttanad region is the aggressive growth of water weeds and the
improper discharge of waste.
The other major environmental issues in their order of significance are
decreasing availability of drinking water, increase in pests, increasing
incidence of diseases, contamination of water resources, reduction in fish
population and variety, increasing salinity, increase in flood and the shrinkage
of backwaters.
3.15.4. Travel and Tourism
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the major environmental issues in
the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
194
Table 3.16: Travel and Tourism
Region
Shr
inka
ge o
f ba
ckw
ater
s
Incr
ease
in fl
ood
Incr
easi
ng
salin
ity
Con
tam
inat
ion
of
wat
er r
esou
rces
Dec
reas
ing
avai
labi
lity
of
drin
king
wat
er
Incr
ease
in p
ests
Agg
ress
ive
grow
th o
f wat
er
wee
ds
Red
uctio
n in
fish
po
pula
tion
and
varie
ty
Impr
oper
di
scha
rge
of
was
te
Incr
easi
ng
inci
denc
e of
di
seas
es
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad 4 7 8 8 8 7 9 6 4 4 65
Lower Kuttanad 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 6 3 4 52
North Kuttanad 5 5 5 9 8 7 8 7 5 5 64
Total 12 16 18 23 22 21 25 19 12 13 181
Source: Survey
The test statistic, �� = 2.407704
Degrees of freedom = 18
P-value = 0.999995
19
4
195
Since the P-value is large, the effect of the major environmental issues
is similar in all the three regions. 6.62 % of the Kuttanad region has shrinkage
of backwaters due to the effect of travel and tourism, 8.84 % of the Kuttanad
region has the increase in flood due to the effect of travel and tourism, 9.95 %
of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the effect of travel and
tourism, 12.71 % has the contamination of water resources due to the effect of
travel and tourism, 12.16 % has decrease the availability of drinking water due
to the effect of travel and tourism, 11.6 % has the increase in pests due to the
effect of travel and tourism, 13.81 % has the aggressive growth of water weeds
in the Kuttanad region due to the effect of travel and tourism, 10.5 % has the
reduction in fish population and variety due to the effect of travel and tourism,
6.63 % has the improper discharge of waste due to the effect of travel and
tourism and the remaining 7.18 % has the increasing incidence of diseases due
to the effect of travel and tourism.
Due to travel and tourism the major environmental issue in the Kuttanad
region is the aggressive growth of water weeds and the contamination of
water resources.
The other major environmental issues in their order of significance are
decreasing availability of drinking water, increase in pests, reduction in fish
population and variety, increasing salinity, increase in flood, increasing
incidence of diseases, shrinkage of backwaters and the improper discharge of
waste.
3.15.5. Construction Activities
Chi-square test for independence of attributes is used to study whether
there is any significant difference between the major environmental issues in
the upper Kuttanad, lower Kuttanad and north Kuttanad region.
196
Table 3.17: Construction Activities
S
hrin
kage
of
back
wat
ers
Incr
ease
in fl
ood
Incr
easi
ng s
alin
ity
Con
tam
inat
ion
of
wat
er r
esou
rces
Dec
reas
ing
avai
labi
lity
of
drin
king
wat
er
Incr
ease
in p
ests
Agg
ress
ive
grow
th
of w
ater
wee
ds
Red
uctio
n in
fish
po
pula
tion
and
varie
ty
Impr
oper
di
scha
rge
of w
aste
Incr
easi
ng
inci
denc
e of
di
seas
es
Tot
al
Upper Kuttanad
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 16
Lower Kuttanad
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 2 16
North Kuttanad
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 2 15
Total 3 3 3 15 3 3 3 3 5 6 47
Source: Survey
The test statistic, �� = 0.365556
Degrees of freedom = 18
P-value = 1
19
6
197
Since the P-value is large, the effect of the major environmental issues
is similar in all the three regions. 6.38 % of the Kuttanad region has shrinkage
of backwaters due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38 % of the
Kuttanad region has the increase in flood due to the effect of construction
activities, 6.38 % of the Kuttanad region has the increasing salinity due to the
effect of construction activities, 31.92 % has the contamination of water
resources due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38 % has decrease the
availability of drinking water due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38
% has the increase in pests due to the effect of construction activities, 6.38 %
has the aggressive growth of water weeds in the Kuttanad region due to the
effect of construction activities, 6.39 % has the reduction in fish population
and variety due to the effect of construction activities, 10.64 % has the
improper discharge of waste due to the effect of construction activities and the
remaining 12.77 % has the increasing incidence of diseases due to the effect
of construction activities.
Due to construction activities the major environmental issue in the
Kuttanad region is the contamination of water resources and increasing
incidence of diseases.
The other major environmental issues in their order of significance are
improper discharge of waste, decreasing availability of drinking water,
increase in pests, reduction in fish population and variety, increasing salinity,
198
increase in flood, shrinkage of backwaters and the aggressive growth of water
weeds.
Backwaters have immense potential to generate higher income and
sustenance to the inhabitants of the Kuttanad region. Backwaters are scarce
and therefore have high value. The economic activities in the backwater
region bring about many environmental challenges, which in turn affect the
livelihood of the inhabitants. Backwaters are tagged a great global value for
the carbon sequestration potential and the innate biodiversity potential.