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Transcript of Chapter 2 – Measurement and Calculations Taken from Modern Chemistry written by Davis, Metcalfe,...
Chapter 2 – Measurement and Calculations
Taken from Modern Chemistry written by Davis, Metcalfe, Williams
& Castka
Scientific Method
– Describe the purpose of the scientific method.– Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative
observations.– Describe the differences between:
– Hypotheses– theories – and models
Section 1 - Objectives
Section 2-1The Scientific method is a logical approach to
solving problems by observing and collecting data, creating a hypothesis, testing the same, and formulating theories that are supported by data.
1. Not sleeping at night , something, before I go to bed is impacting my sleep
2. List the foods I eat and activities I take part in3. Hypothesis that by eliminating something I will get a better nights sleep4. Test the same5. Come up with theory supported by data
Section 2-1 (continued)
Observing and Collecting DataObserving is using our senses to obtain
information (data).
The data fall into to categories:– Qualitative – descriptive (the ore has a red-brown
color)– Quantitative - numerical (the ore has a mass of
25.7 grams)
A system is a specific portion of matter in a given region of space that has been selected for study during an experiment or observation
Section 2-1 (continued)
A hypothesis is a testable statement.“if...then”
Formulating Hypothesis
•If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased.
•If the size of the molecules is related to the rate of diffusion as they pass through a membrane, then smaller molecules will flow through at a higher rate.
Section 2-1 (continued)
Testing a hypothesis requires experimentation.
Testing Hypothesis
•If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased. (The scientist will use 10 separate cups of water and increase the temperature in each by 5° C and then measure how much sugar will go into solution.)
•If the size of the molecules is related to the rate of diffusion as they pass through a membrane, then smaller molecules will flow through at a higher rate.•(The scientist will use 1 membrane and 5 different size molecules and then measure how the diffusion rate through the membrane.)
Section 2-1 (continued)
A model in science is often used as an explanation of how phenomenon occur and how data or events are related.
Theorizing
A theory is a broad generalization that explains a body of facts or phenomena.
Section 2-1 (continued)
Experimental Design – POGIL POGIL
Units of Measurement
Notes on section 2.2 only pages 33-38.
Section 2 - Homework
Units of Measurement
– Distinguish between: – A quantity– A unit– And a measurement standard.
– Identify SI units for:– Length– Mass– Time– Volume – Density
– Distinguish between mass and weight– Perform density calculations– Transform a statement of equality to a conversion
factor.
Section 2 - Objectives
Section 2-2Measurements represent quantities.A quantity is something that has a magnitude and a
size or amount.
My mass and height
Section 2-2 (continued)
Le Systeme International d’Unites or SI
Different 75 000 is what we in the U.S. would know as 75,000
Commas in other countries represent decimal points.
SI Measurements
Section 2-2 (continued)
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. SI Standard is the kilogram (kg).
SI Base Units - MassMass
~2.2 pounds
The gram (g) which is 1/1000th of a kilogram is more commonly used for smaller objects.
Section 2-2 (continued)
Mass should not be confused with weight.
Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull on matter
SI Base Units – MassMass (continued)
Mass is measured with a balance. Weight is measured with a
spring scale..
Section 2-2 (continued)
SI standard is the meter (m).
SI Base Units – LengthLength
To express longer distances the kilometer (km) is used, = 1000 meters
1 meter = 39.3701 inches
Section 2-2 (continued)
Combinations of SI base units form derived units.
Derived SI units
EXAMPLES
m2 = length x widthOthers are given there own name…
kg/m∙s2 This is a pascal (Pa) and it is used to measure pressure.
Section 2-2 (continued)
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.
Derived SI Units (continued) – VolumeVolume
The derived SI unit for volume would be a m3
Instead scientist often us a non-SI unit called the liter (L) which is equal to one cubic decimeter.
1 L = 1.05669 quarts
Section 2-2 (continued)
Density is the ratio of mass to volume, written as mass divided by volume..
Derived SI Units (continued) – DensityDensity
D = m/v
Earth based reference
The density of H2O @ 4 ° C = 1 g/cm3
Section 2-2 (continued)
We are going to practice by finding the
Derived SI Units– Density Density (continued)
Section 2-2 (continued)
Derived SI Units– Density Density (continued)
Section 2-2 (continued)
A conversion factor is a ratio derived from the equality between two different units that can be used to convert from one unit to another.
General equation
Conversion Factors
Section 2-2 (continued)
We can deriver a conversion factor when we know the relationship between the factors we have and the units we what.
Conversion Factors - Deriving Conversion FactorsDeriving Conversion Factors
Section 2-2 (continued)
Practice
Conversion Factors - Deriving Conversion FactorsDeriving Conversion Factors
HW / Classwork (depends) – Section review bottom of page 42 questions 2-5 all
Section 2-2 (continued)
Conversion Factors – Metrics (step method)Metrics (step method)
The next slide will teach you about:
King henry died by drinking chocolate milk under no pressure
Decimal Moves to right
Decimal Moves to left
SmallerUnits
LargerUnits
Remember
The decimal moves the way you are
steppingDeci- (d)
10-1Centi- (c)
10-2Milli- (m)
10-3
Deka- (da)10
Hecto- (h)102
Kilo- (k)
103
____________
Liters
Meters
Grams
Base
Micro (µ)
10-6nano- (n)
10-9pico (p)
10-12
Decimal Moves to right
Decimal Moves to left
SmallerUnits
LargerUnits
Remember
The decimal moves the way you are
steppingDeci- (d)
10-1Centi- (c)
10-2Milli- (m)
10-3
Deka- (da)10
Hecto- (h)102
Kilo- (k)
103
____________
Liters
Meters
Grams
Base
Micro (µ)
10-6nano- (n)
10-9pico (p)
10-12
Step Practice HW
Using Scientific Measurements
– Distinguish between accuracy and precision.– Determine the number of significant figures in
measurements.– Perform mathematical operations involving
significant figures. – Convert measurements into scientific notation.– Distinguish between inversely and directly
proportional relationships
Section 3 - ObjectivesHW Notes on this section with
these objectives in mind
Section 2-3 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy refers to the closeness of measurements to the correct or accepted value.
Precision refers to the closeness of a set of measurements made in the same way.
Section 2-3 (continued)
Accuracy and Precision (continued) – Percent ErrorPercent Error
Percent error = ----------------------------------------------------- x 100( VALUEACCEPTED – VALUEEXPERIMENTAL)
VALUEACCEPTED
% error is positive (+) when the VALUEACCEPTED is greater than VALUEEXPERIMENTAL
% error is negative (-) when the VALUEACCEPTED is less than VALUEEXPERIMENTAL
Section 2-3 (continued)
Accuracy and Precision (continued) – Percent ErrorPercent Error
Percent error = ----------------------------------------------------- x 100( VALUEACCEPTED – VALUEEXPERIMENTAL)
VALUEACCEPTED
EXAMPLE 1(time estimation)
EXAMPLE 2(penny density)
Section 2-3 (continued)Accuracy and Precision (continued) – Error in MeasurementError in Measurement
Some error or uncertainty always exists in any measurement.
ReasonsSkill of measurerconditions (temperature, air pressure,
humidity etc)Instruments themselves
Section 2-3 (continued)
Accuracy and Precision – Error in MeasurementError in Measurement
ONLY NEED TO COPY THE RED
Ways to Improve Accuracy in Measurement1. Make the measurement with an instrument that has the highest level of
precision. The smaller the unit, or fraction of a unit, on the measuring device, the more precisely the device can measure. The precision of a measuring instrument is determined by the smallest unit to which it can measure.
2. Know your tools! Apply correct techniques when using the measuring instrument and reading the value measured. Avoid the error called "parallax" -- always take readings by looking straight down (or ahead) at the measuring device. Looking at the measuring device from a left or right angle will give an incorrect value.
3. Repeat the same measure several times to get a good average value. 4. Measure under controlled conditions. If the object you are measuring could
change size depending upon climatic conditions (swell or shrink), be sure to measure it under the same conditions each time. This may apply to your measuring instruments as well.
(continued)
Using Scientific Measurements
– Determine the number of significant figures in measurements.
– Perform mathematical operations involving significant figures.
Section 2.3 (second) - Objectives
HW Notes on this section with
these objectives in mind
Pgs 46-50
Section 2-2 (continued)
Accuracy and Precision – POGIL POGIL
Up to Problem # 22
Section 2-3
Significant figures (‘Sig figsSig figs’) in a measurement consist of all the digits known with certainty plus one final digit, which is uncertain or is estimated.
Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Determining the number of significant – Determining the number of significant
digitsdigits 1) ALL non-zero numbers (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) are
ALWAYS significant.
2) ALL zeroes between non-zero numbers are ALWAYS significant.
3) ALL zeroes which are SIMULTANEOUSLY to the right of the decimal point AND at the end of the number are ALWAYS significant.
4) ALL zeroes which are to the left of a written decimal point and are in a number >= 10 are ALWAYS significant.
EXAMPLES
12 eggs
2001 Dalmations
172.00 Kg
10000. L
Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Determining the number of – Determining the number of
significant digits significant digits (continued)
Number # Significant Figures Rule(s)48,923 5 13.967 4 1
900.06 5 1,2,40.0004 (= 4 E-4) 1 1,4
8.1000 5 1,3501.040 6 1,2,3,4
3,000,000 (= 3 E+6) 1 110.0 (= 1.00 E+1) 3 1,3,4
Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Rounding – Rounding (continued)
Digit following Last digit Example
Round to 3 Sig Figs
greater than 5 Increased by 1 42.68 g 42.7 g
Less than 5 Stay the same 42.32 m 42.3 m
5, followed by nonzero Increased by 1 2.7851 cm 2.79 cm
5, not followed by nonzero
AND preceded by an odd digit
Increased by 1 4.635 kg 4.64 kg
5, not followed by nonzero
AND preceded by an even digit
Stay the same 78.65 mL 78.6 mL
Section 2-3 Significant Figures – Sig Figs & Rounding – Sig Figs & Rounding (continued)
PRACTICE # 1(only front side)
PRACTICE # 2(only front side)
Section 2-3 Significant Figures (continued) – Addition or subtraction with – Addition or subtraction with
Significant FiguresSignificant Figures When adding or subtracting decimals, the
answer must have the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as there are in the measurement having the FEWEST digits to the right of the decimal point.
Example
25.1 g 2.03 g______27.13 g as seen on a calculator, BUT using the above rule
you would round the answer to 27.1 g
Section 2-3 Significant Figures (continued) – Multiplication & Division – Multiplication & Division
with Significant Figureswith Significant Figures
For multiplication or division the answer can have no more significant figures than are in the measurement with the fewest number of
significant digits.
Density = mass ÷ volume
Example
3.05 g_______
8.47 mL= 0.360094451 g/mL CALCULATOR
ANSWER
But using the rule we go to 3 sig figs giving us 0.360 g/mL
WARNING: do not let your friend the calculator screw up your answer!
Section 2-3 Significant Figures (continued) – Conversion Factors & – Conversion Factors &
Significant DigitsSignificant Digits When using conversion factors there is no uncertainty – the conversion are exact.
Example
_______ 100 cm
m x 4.608 m = 460.8 cm
Practice BreakPractice break (the other sides & more)
HW in advance: Notes to the end of the chapter for Friday
PRACTICE # 1(only back side)
PRACTICE # 2(only back side)
TONIGHT’S HW
Section 2-3 Scientific Notation
In scientific notationscientific notation, numbers are written in the form M x 10n, where M is a number
greater than or equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is a whole number.
Examples
149 000 000 km 1.49 x 108 km
0.000181 m 1.81 x 10-4 m
1.49e8
1.81e-4
Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – addition & subtractionusing Scientific Notation – addition & subtraction
To add or subtract you must make the exponents the same
Examples - adding
1.49 x 104 km
1.81 x 103 km
14.9 x 103 km 1.49 x 104 km
1.81 x 103 km 0.181 x 104 km
16.71 x 103 km 1.671 x 104 km
EITHER OR
16.7 x 103 km Remember rounding 1.67 x 104 km
Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – addition & subtractionusing Scientific Notation – addition & subtraction
UNITS TOO (don’t get UNITS TOO (don’t get tripped up on this)tripped up on this)
Examples
1.49 x 105 km
5.02 x 104 m
Becomes 1.49 x 108 m
Becomes 0.00502 x 108 m
Becomes 1.49502 x 108 m
Rounding Becomes 1.50 x 108 m
Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – Multiplicationusing Scientific Notation – Multiplication
M factors are multiplied and ns are added
Remember general form M x 10n
Examples
1.49 x 108 m
1.81 x 10-4 m
2.969 x 104 m
2.97 x 104 m Rounded
Section 2-3 Scientific Notation (continued) – Mathematical Operations – Mathematical Operations using Scientific Notation – Divisionusing Scientific Notation – Division
M factors are divided and ns are subtracted
denominator from numerator
Examples
5.44 x 107 g
8.1 x 104 mol
= 0.6716049383 x 103 g/mol
_____________
= 6.7 x 102 g/mol
Section 2-3 Scientific Notation - Practice
PRACTICE
PRACTICE KEY
Joke BreakA man jumps into a NY City cab and asks the cab driver, “Do you know how to get to Carnegie Hall?”The cabbie turns around and says , “Practice, practice , practice!”
PRACTICE Adding & Subtracting
PRACTICEMultiplying & Dividing
PRACTICESig Figs
Key to Sig Figs
Section 2-2 (continued)
Significant Figures – POGIL POGIL HW
Chapter Review
Key
Section 2-3 Direct & Inverse Proportions
Graphing Practice Graphing Practice
What the results should look like:
Chapter Summary Questions
HW – pages 60-6127, 31, 34, 36, 43, 48 & 57
Back
Supplemental Scientific Notation Material
27
Density = Mass / Volume
5.03 g / 3.24 mL
= 1.552496...... g/mL
Rounded = 1.55 g/mL
31
0.603 L x 1000 ml/L
= 6.03 x 102 mL
34
((1.54 g/cm3 – 1.25 g/cm3) / 1.54 g/cm3) x 100%
= 18.8311.....%
Rounded = 18.8 %
Percent error = ----------------------------------------------------- x 100%( VALUEACCEPTED – VALUEEXPERIMENTAL)
VALUEACCEPTED
36
a) Fourb) Onec) Sixd) Three
43
a) 8.278 x 104 mg
b) 2.5766 x 10-2 kg
c) 6.83 x 10-2 m3
d) 8.57 x 108 m2
48
Density = Mass / Volume
57.6 g / 40.25 cm3
= 1.4310559....... g/cm3
Rounded = 1.43 g/cm3
57
a) 2 g fat = 15 calories1g = 7.5 Cal 8 Cal/g
a) 0.6 kgb) 2 x 105 μgc) One; the value 2 g limits the number of
significant figures for these data.
Supplemental Scientific NotationAdding (or substracting)
PRACTICE
Adding & Subtracting
Approximately, how much further from the sun is Saturn than Earth. Earth is approximately 9.3 × 107 miles from the sun and Saturn is approximately 8.87 × 108 miles from the sun.
(8.87 × 108) – (9.3 × 107)
= (8.87 × 101 × 107) – (9.3 × 107)
= (88.7 × 107) – (9.3 × 107)
= (88.7 – 9.3) × 107
= 79.4 × 107
= 7.94 × 101 × 107
= 7.9 × 108
Saturn is approximately 7.9 × 108 miles more from the sun than Earth is.
Supplemental Scientific NotationMultiplying & Dividing
PRACTICEMultiplying & Dividing