chapter 12 leadership.ppt

© 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Basic Approaches to Leadership

Chapter TWELVE


What Is Leadership?What Is Leadership?

Leadership

The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

Management

Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members.

1-3

Introduction Introduction

Researchers have been trying to answer these questions for years:– What does it take to be a successful leader?– What is the most effective leadership style?

Early studies were based on two theories:– Trait Theory (focuses on leader qualities)– Behavior Theory (focuses on leader actions)


Trait TheoriesTrait Theories

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::

• ExtraversionExtraversion

• ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

• Openness Openness

• Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence

Leadership TraitsLeadership Traits::

• ExtraversionExtraversion

• ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

• Openness Openness

• Emotional Emotional IntelligenceIntelligence

Traits Theories of Leadership

Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from nonleaders.


Trait TheoriesTrait Theories

LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits found that predict No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

LimitationsLimitations::

• No universal traits found that predict No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.leadership in all situations.

• Unclear evidence of the cause and effect Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.of relationship of leadership and traits.

• Better predictor of the appearance of Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.and ineffective leaders.

Trait ApproachTrait Approach

Traits (examples)– Extraversion– Conscientiousness– Openness – Emotional Intelligence

Assumption: Leaders are born Goal: Select leaders Problems

– Traits do not generalize across situations– Better at predicting leader emergence than leader

effectiveness

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Leadership Trait Theory Leadership Trait Theory

Sir Francis Galton– One of the earliest leadership theorists– Wrote “Hereditary Genius” pub. 1869– Believed leadership qualities were genetic

This theory assumes physical and psychological characteristics account for effective leadership– Basic intelligence– Clear and strong values– High personal energy

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Leadership Trait Theory Leadership Trait Theory

Edwin Gheselli identified six traits for effective leadership:– Need for achievement– Intelligence– Decisiveness– Self-confidence– Initiative– Supervisory ability

Strength of Trait Approach Strength of Trait Approach Strength of Trait Approach Strength of Trait Approach

Intuitively appealing Century of research to support itGives us ideas of what we need to

look for in our leaders

WeaknessesWeaknesses WeaknessesWeaknesses

Subjective & ambiguous, uncertain at times

Fails to take situations into account

Too extensive and broadFocus solely on leader and not

the outcome of a particular trait

Skills ApproachSkills ApproachSkills ApproachSkills Approach

What leaders can do?

First approach to conceptualize & create a structure of process of leadership around skills

Describing leadership in terms of skills makes leadership available to everyone

Provides an expansive view of leadership that incorporates wide variety of components (i.e., problem-solving skills, social judgment skills)

Provides a structure consistent with leadership education programs

Strengths of Skills ApproachStrengths of Skills Approach

Breadth of the skills approach appears to extend beyond the boundaries of leadership, making it more general/less precise

Weak in predictive value; does not explain how skills lead to effective leadership performance

Skills model includes individual attributes that are trait-like

Criticisms of Skills ApproachCriticisms of Skills Approach

The Skills Approach provides a way to delineate the skills of a leader

It is applicable to leaders at all levels within the organization

The model can be tested with small and large organizations.

Skills inventory scores allow leaders to learn about areas in which they may wish to seek further training

Application of Skills ApproachApplication of Skills Approach

Style / Behavioral Style / Behavioral Approach Approach

Style / Behavioral Style / Behavioral Approach Approach

How leaders act / behave?

Leaders can be trained


Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:LLeadership behaviors can be eadership behaviors can be taught.taught.

Vs. Vs.

Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

• Behavioral theory:Behavioral theory:LLeadership behaviors can be eadership behaviors can be taught.taught.

Vs. Vs.

Trait theory:Trait theory:Leaders are born, not made.Leaders are born, not made.

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Behavioral ApproachBehavioral Approach

Ohio State Studies/U. of Michigan

– Initiating Structure/Production Orientation– Consideration/Employee Orientation

Assumption: Leaders can be trained Goal: Develop leaders Problem: Effective behaviors do not generalize across

situations

Style / Behavioral ApproachStyle / Behavioral Approach

Leadership is composed of two general kinds of behaviours:

– Task behaviours: facilitate goal accomplishment by helping group members to achieve their objectives

– Relationship behaviours: help subordinates feel comfortable with themselves, each other & the situation


Ohio State StudiesOhio State Studies

Initiating Structure

The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of sub-ordinates in the search for goal attainment.

Consideration

The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings.


University of Michigan StudiesUniversity of Michigan Studies

Employee-Oriented Leader

Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members.Production-Oriented Leader

One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.


The Managerial

Grid(Blake and Mouton)

The Managerial

Grid(Blake and Mouton)

E X H I B I T 12–1E X H I B I T 12–1

Sweat ShopAuthority-ComplianceEfficiency in results,

minimum human elements interference

Status QuoMiddle-of-the-Road

Adequate performance while balancing work and

employee morale

ImpoverishedExertion of minimum effort for

required work

Country ClubAttention to

needs of people,

friendly work tempo

Fully Functioning

TeamWork done

thru committed

people, trust & respect

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Managerial Grid Managerial Grid

Major management styles and concerns:

– Impoverished: low production, low people

– Sweatshop: high production, low people

– Country Club: high people, low production

– Status Quo: medium production, medium people

– Fully Functioning: high production, high people

Can leaders switch..?Can leaders switch..?

Oh, yes

Paternalism / Maternalism = the benevolent dictator – acts nice but is only really interested in the outcome; treats people as if they are dissociated from the task

Opportunism = Uses any combination of the basic five styles for personal advancement

Marked a major shift in the general focus of leadership research behaviours

Focuses on what leaders did and how they acted rather than personal characteristics.

Identified task and relationship behaviours form the core of the leadership process.

Provides a broad conceptual map to understand the complexities and provide opportunity to assess actions and subsequently change leadership style.

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Strengths of Style ApproachStrengths of Style Approach

Research on styles has not adequately shown how leaders styles are associated with performance outcome

Failed to find a universal style of leadership that could be effective in almost every situation.

Unclear whether high-high style is the best style in every situation.

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Criticism of Style ApproachCriticism of Style Approach

Style approach applies to nearly everything a leader does.

Can be applied at all levels in all types of organizations by:

- Questionnaires that assess task and relationship behaviours

- Grid seminars

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Application of Style ApproachApplication of Style Approach

Situational ApproachSituational ApproachSituational ApproachSituational Approach

Match with subordinates needs

Situational ApproachSituational Approach

Centered on the idea that subordinates vacillate along the developmental continuum of competence and commitment

Leader effectiveness depends on:

– assessing subordinate’s developmental position

– adapting his/her leadership style to match subordinate developmental level

S3

S1S4

S2

Low Supportive and Low DirectiveBehavior

High Directive and Low SupportiveBehavior

High Directive and High SupportiveBehavior

High Supportive and Low DirectiveBehavior

(B) DEVELOPMENT LEVEL OF FOLLOWER(S)DEVELOPED DEVELOPING

HIGH LOWMODERATE

D4 D1D2D3

(A) THE FOUR LEADERSHIP STYLES

DIRECTIVE BEHAVIOR

(High)

(High)(Low)

SUPPORTIVE BEHAVIOR

Levels of Development

• D1 - “Enthusiastic Beginner”

• D2 - “Disillusioned Learner”

• D3 - “Reluctant Contributor”

• D4 - “Peak Performer”

Low CompetenceHigh Commitment

Some CompetenceLow Commitment

Mod-High CompetenceMay Lack Commitment

High CompetenceHigh Commitment

Levels of Development

• D1 - “Enthusiastic Beginner” Directing S1

• D2 - “Disillusioned Learner” Coaching S2

• D3 - “Reluctant Contributor” Supporting S3

• D4 - “Peak Performer” Delegating S4

Low CompetenceHigh Commitment

Some CompetenceLow Commitment

Mod-High CompetenceMay Lack Commitment

High CompetenceHigh Commitment

Strengths of Situational ApproachStrengths of Situational Approach

Marketplace approval credible model for training employees to become effective leaders.

Practicality straightforward approach that is easily understood and applied in a variety of settings.

Prescriptive value clearly outlines what you should and should not do in various settings.

Leader flexibility stresses that effective leaders are those who can change their style based on task requirements and subordinate needs.

Differential treatment based on the premise that leaders need to treat each subordinate according to his/her unique needs.

Criticisms of Situational ApproachCriticisms of Situational Approach

Lack of an published research raises concerns regarding the validity of the approach

Further research is required to determine how commitment and competence are conceptualized for each developmental level

Does not account for how particular demographics influence the leader-subordinate prescriptions of the model

Fails to adequately address the issue of one-to-one versus group leadership in an organizational setting

ApplicationApplication

Often used in consulting because it’s easy to conceptualize and apply

Straightforward nature makes it practical for managers to apply

Breadth of situational approach facilitates its applicability in virtually all types of organizations and levels of management in organizations

Contingency Contingency TheoryTheory

Contingency Contingency TheoryTheory

Leader – Match Theory


CONTINGENCY THEORIESCONTINGENCY THEORIES

All Consider the Situation– Fiedler’s Contingency Model– Cognitive Resource Theory – Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership

Model– Path Goal Theory

Assumptions underlying the different models:Fiedler: Leader’s style is fixedOther’s: Leader’s style can and should be changed

Contingency TheoryContingency Theory

Most widely recognized one is Fiedler’s theory (1964) Fiedler believed that a person’s dominant leadership

style is a relatively fixed part of his personality, and is therefore difficult to change.

Effective leadership is contingent (dependant) on good match between leadership styles and situation.

LeadershipStyle

Situation

PhilosophyPhilosophy

1. All leaders are not effective in all situations

2. If the leadership style is a good match for the situation, then the leader will be effective

3. If the leadership style does not match the situation, then the leader will probably fail

Leadership Styles(According to Fiedler’s Theory)

Leadership Styles(According to Fiedler’s Theory)

1. Task Motivated 2. Relationship Motivated

Leadership style assessed through:Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale

LPC Score InterpretationLPC Score Interpretation

Score 73 or above = Relationship-motivated leader

(High LPC)

Score 64 or below = Task-motivated leader

(Low LPC)

Score is 65 to 72 = Mixture of both?

(Middle LPC)

Favorable---------------------Least favorable

1. Leader-member relations

2. Task structure

3. Position power

Situational VariablesSituational Variables

Group atmosphere, Degree of confidence, Loyalty, Attraction

Good Relationship• Group atmosphere

is positive• Subordinates trust,

like and get along with their leader

Bad Relationship• Group atmosphere

is unfriendly• Friction between

subordinates and leader

Leader Member RelationsLeader Member Relations

Highly Structured----------------Low Structure

High Structure• Clearly stated tasks • Few alternatives for

task accomplishment • Task completion can

be demonstrated• Few correct solutions

to task

Low Structure • No set rules to follow• Many alternative ways

to do a task• Can not verify the

correctness of task

Task StructureTask Structure

Authority of Leader

Strong• Can reward or

punish • Can hire or fire• Can give raise, rank

or pay

Weak• Can not reward or

punish • Can not hire or fire• Can not give raise,

rank or pay

Position PowerPosition Power

Contingency Model Leader-Member

Relations

Good Poor

Task Structure

High Structure

Low Structure

High Structure

Low Structure

Position Power

Strong Power

Weak Power

Strong Power

Weak Power

Strong Power

Weak Power

Strong Power

Weak Power

Preferred Leadership

Style

1 2 3

Low LPCs (≤ 57 )

Middle LPCs (58 – 63)

Task Task MotivatedMotivated

4 5 6 7

High LPCs (≥ 64)

Relationship MotivatedRelationship Motivated

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Low LPCs(≤ 57 )

Task Task MotivatedMotivated

1. It is supported by great deal of empirical research

2. It is the first theory to emphasize impact of situation on leaders

3. It is predictive of leadership effectiveness

4. Does not demand that that the leader fit and be effective in every situation

5. Provides useful leadership profile data

Strengths of Contingency TheoryStrengths of Contingency Theory

1. Does not adequately explain the link between styles and situations

2. Relies on LPC scale, which has a has low face validity and workability

3. Difficult to use in on-going organizations

4. Does not provide a remedy or solution; demands change of the leader / situation!

Weaknesses of Contingency TheoryWeaknesses of Contingency Theory

Explain the in-effectiveness of highly conscientious, loyal and hard working leaders in certain situations

Predict the effectiveness of a leader on changing him from one position to another in the same institution

To make management changes in the organizations to guarantee a good fit between the existing manager and particular work context

Application of Contingency TheoryApplication of Contingency Theory


Cognitive Resource TheoryCognitive Resource Theory

Research Support:

• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Research Support:

• Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals.

• Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.

Cognitive Resource Theory

A theory of leadership that states that the level of stress in a situation is what impacts

whether a leader’s intelligence or experience will be more effective.

Contingency Approach: Hersey & Blanchard Situational Model

Contingency Approach: Hersey & Blanchard Situational Model

Considers Leader Behaviors (Task & Relationship) – Assumes Leaders CAN change their behaviors

Considers Followers as the Situation– Follower Task maturity (ability & experience)– Follower Psychological maturity (willingness to take

responsibility)

Assumptions

–Leaders can and should change their style to fit their followers’ degree of readiness (willingness and ability)

–Therefore, it is possible to TRAIN leaders to better fit their style to their followers.


Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness; the more “ready” the followers (the more willing and able) the less the need for leader support and supervision.

LOW Amount of Follower Readiness HIGH

Amount of Leader Support &

Supervision Required HIGH LOW


Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness(Hersey and Blanchard)


WillingUnwilling

Able

Unable ?? ??

????

Follower Readiness

LeadershipLeadershipStylesStyles




WillingUnwilling

Able

Unable DirectiveDirective

??

????

Follower Readiness





WillingUnwilling

Able


High TaskHigh Taskand and

Relationship Relationship OrientationsOrientations

????

Follower Readiness





WillingUnwilling

Able




Supportive Supportive Participative Participative ??

Follower Readiness





WillingUnwilling

Able




Supportive Supportive Participative Participative MonitoringMonitoring

Follower Readiness



Leader–Member Exchange TheoryLeader–Member Exchange Theory

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

•Leaders select certain followers to be “in” (favorites)

Based on competence and/or compatibility & similarity to leader

•“Exchanges” with these “In” followers will be higher quality than with those who are “Out”

•RESULT: “In” subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction


Leader-Member Exchange TheoryLeader-Member Exchange Theory

E X H I B I T 12–3E X H I B I T 12–3


Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory

Premise

• Leader must help followers attaining goals and reduce roadblocks to success

•Leaders must change behaviors to fit the situation (environmental contingencies & subordinate contingencies)


The Path-Goal TheoryThe Path-Goal Theory

E X H I B I T 12–4E X H I B I T 12–4


Leader-Participation ModelLeader-Participation Model

Premise:

•Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when and when not to include subordinate participation in decision making

•Considers 12 contingency variables to consider whether or not to include subordinates in decision making


Contingency Variables in the Revised Leader-Participation Model

Contingency Variables in the Revised Leader-Participation Model

E X H I B I T 12–5E X H I B I T 12–5

1. Importance of the decision

2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision

3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision

4. How well structured the problem is

5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment

6. Whether followers “buy into” the organization’s goals

7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternatives

8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision

9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement

10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified

11. Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision

12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills

Case StudiesCase Studies

Analyze the leadership based on the different approaches you have learnt.

Which approach fits best in this case and why?

If you were in this position, which leadership approach you should have used? And why?


Which leadership theory (ies)

say(s) that a leader cannot be

trained?

Ohio State ModelOhio State Model

Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory

U. Of Michigan StudiesU. Of Michigan Studies

Path Goal Theory Path Goal Theory

All of the aboveAll of the above

Chapter Check-Up: Leadership


Which leadership theory (ies) say(s)

that a leader cannot be trained?


Fielder’s Contingency Theory is the only one which says a

leader’s style is fixed and cannot be trained. But, what do all of

the theories above have in common?

Ohio State ModelOhio State Model

Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory

U. Of Michigan StudiesU. Of Michigan Studies

Path Goal Theory Path Goal Theory

All of the aboveAll of the above



What one theory discussed in this chapter could What one theory discussed in this chapter could

readily explain how leaders often act towards readily explain how leaders often act towards

their followers in “Boot Camp” and why it may be their followers in “Boot Camp” and why it may be

very effective? very effective?

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory explains

that when followers are unwilling and unable, as many newly

enlisted Boot Camp attendees are, the leader should be highly

focused on providing task-based behaviors and not relationship-

based behaviors.

Behavior Behavior

BehaviorBehavior

(B) DEVELOPMENT LEVEL OF FOLLOWER(S)DEVELOPED DEVELOPING

HIGH LOWMODERATE

(A) THE FOUR LEADERSHIP STYLES

____________BEHAVIOR

(High)

(High)(Low)

BEHAVIOR

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