Chapter 11 Language Aquisition

Outline

First Language Acquisition Second Language Acquisition Individual Differences in Second

Language Acquisition Instruction and L2 Acquisition

Terminology:

first language, native language, mother tongue= L1 = NL

second language= L2 = SL second langage acquisition

=SLA = L2 acquisition foreign language= FL target language =TL interlanguage= IL

11.1 First Language Acquisition

Objectives: 1. What is L1 acquisition? What

are the differences between learning and acquisition?

2. What are L1 acquisition theories?

3. How does a child acquire his mother tongue?

What is L1 acquisition?

L1 acquisition: It is the term most commonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their native language or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term language learning. (P268)

Acquisition- naturally in communicative situations

Learning-a conscious process

Discussion: what’s the difference between acquisition and learning? List

them.language acquisition language learning

in communicative settingsSubconscious process Acquired competenceImplicit knowledgeProcedural knowledge

In schoolsConscious processKnowledge of rulesExplicit knowledge Declarative knowledge

Approaches to L1

The behaviorist approach The innateness approach The interactionist approach

The behaviorist approach (say what I say) B.F. Skinner

The behaviorist views: Mind/Brain is a blank. Language is learnt. Language

learning is a matter of imitation and habit formation.

Learning by making a stimulus-response connection through habit-formation, imitation, repetition, reinforcement, conditioning.

Listening and responding to input is sufficient

Example ： Peter (24 months) is playing with a dump truck.

A=Adult. A: What happened to it? P: (looking under chair for it) Lose it.

Dump truck! Dump truck!Fall!Fall! A: Yes, the dump truck fell down. P: Dump truck fell down. Dump truck.

Criticism: Behaviorism only offers a partial

explanation of some regular and routines aspects of children’s early language learning.

It can’t account for the normal language development of children who rarely imitate and practice.

It fails to explain acquisition of more complex grammatical structures.

The innateness approach (It’s all in your mind)

The innateness hypothesis: 1. Mind is not a blank. 2. Children are biologically programmed for

language and that language develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop.

3. Chomsky originally referred to this special ability as LAD and later as UG, which is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common to all languages. E.g. Children learn to walk and doesn’t have to be taught.

4. Natural language serves as a trigger to activate the device. Once it is activated, the child is able to discover the structure of the language.

5. This approach also claims that this built-in ability is linked in some manner to physiological maturation.

The interactionist approach （ A little help from my friends ）

Intellectual development is the result of the interaction of hereditary and environmental factors.

Knowledge is not merely transmitted verbally but must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner.

Language itself is not a separate innate characteristic, but one of several abilities resulting from cognitive maturation, and it is structured by reason.

In conclusion, each of the theories may help to explain a different aspect of children’s language development. And the nature of language acquisition is still an open question.

1. Behaviorism explains the acquisition of simple grammar.

2. Innatism seems plausible in explaining the acquisition of complex grammar.

3. Interactionism explains how children learn to use language.

Early Stages Age Characteristics

Example

Babbling 3—10 months

Velar consonants

Vowels,fricatives,nasals

Syllable-type sounds

[k] [g][a:][n]ba, ma

Holophrastic(one-word)

12—18 months

(1---1.5 years old)

simple complex idea

Milk!Sheep! Truck!

Two-word 18—20 months

(1.5—2 years old)

Combinations tied to the context

Baby chair

Early Stages Age Characteristics

Example

Telegraphic speech

24—36 months(2—3 years old)

"Telegraphic" sentence structures of lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes

I want ball.Cat drink.Car going?Daddy go?

Later multiword stage

36+ months Grammatical or functional structures emerge

I want a ball.My cat is drinking milk.

11.2 SLAObjectives: 1. What is SLA? 2. What is the development of SLA? 3. What is contrastive analysis?

What is negative transfer and interference?

4. What is the difference between an error and a mistake? What is Error analysis? How to classify the errors? What are the causes of errors?

5. What is interlanguage? What is its main feature?

L2 Acquisition L2 Acquisition: It can be defined as

the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside of a classroom (P273). Second language acquisition is closely related to the fields of linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, sociology, and education.

Second can refer to the learning of a third or fourth language in addition to the mother tongue.

History of SLA

Contrastive analysis (comparison of L1 & L2)

Error analysis (analysis of

learner errors)

Interlanguage (analysis of learner language)

Contrastive analysis (CA, 1950s)

Contrastive analysis : researchers systematically compare the first language and the target language.(P274)

Lado (1957) Positive transfer (facilitation)

vs Negative transfer (interference)

Transfer Transfer: “Transfer is influence that the

learner’s L1 exerts on the acquisition of an L2”.

Ellis (1997: 51) Positive transfer (facilitation) : language

learning consists mostly of the projection of the system of the first language to the system of the second language. Thus, language learning will be successful when the two languages happen to be similar. (Lado)

Negative transfer (interference): Language learning will be unsuccessful when the second language happens to be very different. Lado (1957)

Transfer L1 influence on L2: Pronunciationn/l e.g. knife vs. lifer/l e.g. fried rice vs. flied riceΘ/d e.g. thirty vs. dirty L1 influence on L2: Syntax I very much like you.

L1 influence on L2: Semantics or

pragmatics (Chinglish)We like to kick the ball. His skin was smiling, but not his flesh.People Mountain People Sea.If you don’t good good study, I’ll give you

some color to see see.

Criticism of CA It predicted some difficulties that

were not observed in L2 learners. It failed to predict some difficulties

that were observed in L2 learners. It was more successful in

phonology than in other areas of language, and declined in the 1970s as learning difficulties began to be explained by other factors.

Error Analysis (EA, 1960s)

Error Analysis: It was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues.In second language acquisition, error analysis studies the types and causes of language errors. It is a reaction against CA(NL-TL comparison), with an emphasis on the learner.

It views errors as evidence of IL, a rule-governed system, not as something of pedagogical interest only.

Mistakes versus errors: Mistake: Incorrect forms caused by

lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other performance. e.g. know the rules, carelessly make the mistake “I goed home yesterday.”

Errors: Incorrect forms in speech and writing by a non -native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of the target language. e.g. 我不去―― I not go.

The purposes of error analysis:

(i) Identify strategies which learners use in language learning

(ii) Try to identify the causes of learner errors

(iii) Obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.

Classifying errors Interlingual errors(语内错误 ):

results from language transfer, i.e. caused by learners’ native language. e.g. 我来自中国，广州。―― *I come from China, Guangzhou.

Intralingual errors（语际错误） : results from faulty or partial learning of target language, may caused by influence of one TL item upon another. （ developmental error)

He is coming. He comes. *He is comes.

Causes of errors1.Over-generalization e.g. he can sings, we are hope, it is occurs, he

come from2.Ignorance of rule restriction e.g. The man whom I saw him.3. Incomplete application of rules e.g. T: Do you read much? S: Yes, I read much. T: Ask her how long it takes. S: How long it

takes?4. False concepts hypothesized e.g. a) When I first saw him, he was too young. b) I was very lazy to stay at home. ∵This soup is very hot. I can’t drink it. This

soup is too hot to drink. ∴Avoid exercises based on contrast and

transformation

EA steps:

Collect errors Identify errors Classify errors Quantify errors Analyze source Remedy e.g. pattern drill

Problems with E.A.

Total reliance on errors in the absence of other information (not the whole picture)

Difficulty in determining what an error is an error

Difficulties identifying causes of errors

Interlanguage (1970s)Definition: The term that refers to

the systematic knowledge of a second language which is independent of both the learner' first language and the target language. Interlanguage is a term coined by Selinker. (Larry Selinker)

interlanguageMother tongue

Target language

The charateristics of interlanguage

Interlanguages are systematic. Interlanguages are also dynamic. Its main feature is fossilization

Feature: Fossilization

Interlanguage pattern which seem not to change, even after extensive exposure to or instruction in the TL.

Cessation of IL learning. Stabilization is the first sign of

fossilization.

Factors hypothesized to influence fossilization

Internal factors: 1. Age---brains lose plasticity, features cannot

be mastered 2.Lack of desire to acculturate--make no efforts

to adopt TL cultural norms External factors: 1. Communicative pressure Persistent pressure to communicate ideas

that require the use of language that exceeds the learner’s linguistic competence leads to fossilization.

2. Lack of learning opportunity Learners lack opportunities for receiving

input and also for using the L2. 3. The nature of the feedback on learner’s use

of L2 Positive cognitive feedback (signaling ‘I

understand you’) results in fossilization; negative feedback (signaling ‘I don’t understand you’) helps avoid fossilization.

11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language

Acquisition Questions 1. Why are some learners more

successful than others? 2. What are the types of individual

differences?

11.3 Individual Differences in Second Language AcquisitionIndividual differences are as follows (Ellis

2004): Abilities: Intelligence, language

aptitude(语言学能 ), memory Propensities （倾向性） : Learning style,

motivation, anxiety, personality, willingness to communicate

Learner cognitions about L2: Learner beliefs

Learner actions: Learning strategies

Language aptitude

--the natural ability to learn a language,

--the specific ability a learner has for an L2.

• Language aptitude tests -The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) (Carrol and Sapon, 1959)

Language aptitude test MLAT components Phonemic coding ability（语音编码能力）

Grammatical sensitivity （语法敏感性） Inductive language learning ability

（归纳能力） Rote-learning ability (for learning a

foreign （机械记忆能力） language) Suitable for Grade 9-12 students and

adults

Language aptitude test

-The Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB)

Suitable for Grade 7-12 students Predicts the four factors that influence

foreign language study verbal intelligence motivation auditory ability grade point average （一般学业成绩）

Cognitive style An individual’s preferred way of

processing information and dealing with other people.

Common division into field-dependent( 场依赖） field-independent （场独立）

镶嵌图形测试

Cognitive style (propensity) Field-dependent people（场依存）

see things holistically have trouble seeing internal structure are people-oriented find social interaction easy

Field-independent people（场独立） are more analytical see parts rather than the whole are more individualistic are less social

Field-dependent vs. field-independent

Field-dependent Field-independent

Dull Bright

Formulaic learner Analytic learner

Extrovert Introvert

Data-gatherers Rule learners

High sociability Low sociability

Reflection

What type of learners are you? Which perform better at the

structure?

Hansen and Stansfield experiment

Subjects: 293 beginner learners of Spanish at American Universities

Result: field independent learners are more successful all around.

The reasons: （认知重构能力强） First, they are more likely to analyze

the structure items . Second, they may more actively

process the input they receive to build up hypotheses about how the language works.

Third, they would develop a broader and deeper understanding of the structure of the language.

Personality traits

Anxious self-confident Risk-avoiding Risk-taking Shy Adventuresome Introverted Extroverted Inner-directed Other-directed Reflexive Impulsive Imaginative Uninquisitive Creative Uncreative

Personality traits

Trait most studied: whether learners are extroverted (outgoing) or introverted

Extrovert: sociable; dislikes solitude; takes risks; impulsive

Introvert: introspective; quiet; reserved; better understanding of forms

Personality traits Hypotheses

extroversion is a positive factor, since: more input (Krashen 1985) more interaction (Long, 1985) more output (Swain, 1985) introversion is a positive factor, since

better at learning and using higher cognitive skills

Hypotheses extroverts are more fluent in spontaneous

oral language, but aren’t any more accurate

introverts are good at reading and learning of grammar

Learning strategies Learning strategies are the particular

approaches or techniques that learners use to try to learn an L2.(p281)

Three major types of learning strategies:

Cognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies Social strategies

Cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies refer to the

steps or operations used in problem solving that need direct analysis,transformation or synthesis of learning materials.

E.g. repeating words, classifying words according to their semantic attributes, predicting outcomes, summarizing, using visual images, transferring, and elaboration to integrate new ideas with known information

Metacognitive strategies Metacognitive strategies make use of

knowledge about cognitive processes and constitute attempts to regulate language learning by means of planning, monitoring and evaluating.

E.g. selective attention for key words, planning of the outline, monitoring the output, checking comprehension by answering questions

Social strategies

Social strategies concern the ways in which learners choose to interact with other learners and native speakers.

E.g. cooperation , questioning for clarification, self-talk to reduce anxiety

Finding Good language learners are flexible and

appropriate in their use of learning strategies. They show awareness of the learning process and their own learning styles.

Successful learners use more strategies than unsuccessful learners.

Different aspects of L2 learning require different strategies. E.g. communicative skill---seek foreigners; linguistic competence—rehearsing a new word

1. What impact does teaching have on L2 learning?

2. What is Form-focused instruction? What are the research issues in this field?

3. What is Learner-instruction matching? What is aptitude-treatment interaction? Examples?

4. What is Strategy training? Examples?

11.4 Instruction and L2 acquisition

Form-focused instruction: Instruction which draws attention to the forms and structures of the language within the context of communicative interaction.

The significance of form-focused instruction:

Enhance accuracy Destabilize interlanguage grammars e.g.

correct persistent errors; draw students’ attention to errors of the majority; point out the difference of a particular structure between L1 and L2;

Instruction and L2 acquisition

Learner-instruction matching: involves an attempt to ensure that the teaching style is suited to the learner.

It is based on the assumption that learners have different learning styles and that they will learn most effectively if the instruction matches their particular learning styles.

E.g. Some students are good at segmenting sounds in speech they hear while less effective at identifying the grammatical functions of words in sentences.

Instruction and L2 acquisition

Aptitude-treatment interaction the concept that some instructional

strategies (treatments) are more or less effective for particular individuals depending upon their specific abilities. As a theoretical framework, ATI suggests that optimal learning results when the instruction is exactly matched to the aptitudes of the learner.

Strategy instruction(training)

Strategy instruction(training)（英语学习策略能力的培养） : explicit instruction in how to apply language learning strategies—as part of the foreign language curriculum.( Andrew Cohen, 2003)

e.g. (morning) ohio---Ohio, a very cold morning in winter in Ohio

efficient--- 一飞身－－一飞身就上 18楼 ----高效