Working Paper 01-1: Price Level Convergence and Inflation ...
Chapter 11: Inflation. Inflation A continuous rise of the general price level General price level is...
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Transcript of Chapter 11: Inflation. Inflation A continuous rise of the general price level General price level is...
Chapter 11: Inflation Chapter 11: Inflation
Inflation
A continuous rise of the general price level
General price level is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI): The weighted average price of 400 goods & services sold in urban areas around the nation.
Inflation RatePercentage change of the CPI over the previous period
Inflation stayed under 5% during the 1960s
It averaged 7.7% in the first half and 10.6% in the second half of the 1970s
Since the early 1980s, inflation rate has declined to as low as 3% in the late 1990s
Demand-Pull Inflation
Inflation caused by an increase in the level of Aggregate Demand (1960s)
At full employment, expansion of the Aggregate Demand is inflationary with no additional output
Price Level
Output of Goods & Services
105
110
200 400
S
S
D1
D1
Full employment output
120D2
D2
D3
D3
Demand-Pull Inflation
Cost-Push InflationCost-Push Inflation
Inflation caused by an decrease in the level of Aggregate Supply (1970s & early 1980s)
Higher general price level and falling output of goods & services result in stagflation, inflation plus stagnation
Cost-Push InflationPrice Level
Output of Goods & Services
105
110
200 400
S1
S
D
D
Full employment outputS2
115
50
S3
Effects of Inflation
Equity effect: changing the pattern of income distribution from wage-earners to profit-makers
Efficiency effect: requiring greater investment in hedging against inflation in labor & business contracts
Output effect: recession resulting from cost-push inflation
Functions of Money
Medium of ExchangeMeasure of ValueStore of Value
Characteristics of Money
Limited in supplyWidely acceptedPortableDivisibleUniformDurable
Money Supply
Narrow definition: M1
– Currency: coins & bills (25%)– Demand Deposits: checking account
deposits (75%)
Money Supply
Broad definition: M2
– M1– Time Deposits: savings account deposits
(less than $100,000)
Money Supply Line
The quantity of money in circulation is controlled by the central bank
Quantity of Money
Interest Rate (%)
S
S
80
5
10
Money Demand
The amount of money demanded for transaction and speculative purposes depends: personal income and interest rate
At any level of personal income, quantity demanded of money is a negative function of interest rate
Money Demand Line
Quantity of Money
Interest Rate (%)
D
D
10
5
10080
Money Market Equilibrium
Quantity of Money
Interest Rate (%)
D
D
5
80
S
S
Federal Reserve System, FED
The central bank of the U.S.
Independent decision making unit with regional banks
In charge of money supply management and economic stabilization
Tools of Monetary Policy
Legal reserve ratio: ratio of cash reserves to deposits that banks are required to maintain
By lowering the ratio, banks will have more reserves to lend and invest, increasing the money supply
Tools of Monetary Policy
Discount rate: rate of interest the FED charges on loans to banks
By lowering the rate, banks encourage borrowing from the FED and lending to the public, increasing the money supply
Tools of Monetary Policy
Open Market Operations: FED’s purchases and sales of government bonds
By purchasing bonds and paying the sellers, the FED increases the money supply
Expansionary Monetary Policy
Increase the money supply by any one or combination of the above tools
Reduce the interest rate to encourage investment
Increase Aggregate Demand, creating employment & income
Expansionary Monetary Policy
Quantity of Money
Interest Rate (%)
D
D
5
80
S
S
S’
S’
4
85
Quantity Theory of Money
Equation of Exchange: MV = PQ
– M = money supply– V = income velocity of money: the rate of turn over of
money– P = general price level– Q = output of goods & services
Quantity Theory of Money
Write: P = (V/Q) M
Assuming V, Q, and V/Q constant, an increase in M causes a proportional increase in P
Inflation is caused by a rapid growth of the money supply
Money Supply Growth & Inflation
In 1960s, inflation was low and money supply growth constant at about 7%
In the 1970s, inflation rose as the money supply grew at an increasing arte to reach 10%
In the 1980s and 1990s, inflation fell as money supply grew at a declining rate to reach about 6%