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Chapter 10 From Seven Hills to Three

Continents:The Art of Ancient Rome

Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 12e

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The Roman World

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Goals

• Understand the great innovations of Roman architecture and how these innovations contributed to the expanse of the Roman Empire.

• Explore Pompeii for its information about Roman art and architecture.

• Examine the types, methods, and subject matter of Roman wall painting.

• Understand what Roman portraiture says about Roman society.

• Understand the political nature of Roman art and architecture, especially as it communicates ideas of power for the emperor and empire.

• Examine changes in Roman art and architecture as a result of expansion of the Roman Empire and the incorporation of the conquered cultures.

THE MIGHTY EMPIRE OF ROME

At its greatest extent, the Roman Empire stretched from Mesopotamia in the east to

Spain in the west, and from North Africa in the south to Britain in the north. The Roman

Empire was a "multicultural" entity.

Roman Art and the Modern World: Roman art and architecture has influenced the

Modern World. A major Roman building innovation was concrete construction.

From Village to World Capital: The village founded by Romulus on April 21, 753 B.C.

grew over a period of 900 years to become the capital of the greatest empire the world had

ever known.

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10.1 The Republic (509-27 B.C.)

• Understand the great innovations of Roman architecture and how these innovations contributed to the expanse of the Roman Empire.

• Discuss Roman architectural contributions, particularly concrete and the rounded arch.

• Examine the ways in which Roman art is different from the classical art of the Greeks.

The Republic

Kings, Senators, and Consuls: A Republic was established following the

expulsion of the Etruscan kings in 509 B.C. Power was vested mainly in a senate

and in two elected consuls.

The Craze for Greek Art: During the Republic, the Romans developed a special

interest in and taste for Greek art.

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Roman Architectural Innovations

• Examine the contributions of the Romans in architecture. Consider structural elements as well as materials.

Roman Architecture

A Harbor God's Eclectic Temple: Roman Temple architecture shows a blending of Etruscan and Greek features,

and emphasizes the front of the building.

10-1 Temple of "Fortuna Virilis" (Temple of Portunus), Rome, Italy, ca. 75 B.C.

Title: Forum Boarium - Temple of Fortuna Virilis (Portunus) Description: flank, cella wall with five engaged columns

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Temple of “the Sibyl”

A Round Temple on a Cliff: The form of the Temple of "the Sibyl" is derived from the Greek round or tholos temple type.

10-2 Temple of "the Sibyl" or of "Vesta," Tivoli, Italy, early first century B.C.

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Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia

Concrete Transforms a Hillside: The Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Palestrina is an impressive example of

concrete construction on a massive scale.

10-3 Reconstruction drawing of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestrina, Italy, late second centuryB.C.

Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Praeneste Praeneste. Base of Temple of Fortuna 1

by Erik Olson (model)

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Sculpture and Republican Verism

• Examine the early funerary sculpture of the Roman culture.

• Understand the form and purpose of Roman portraiture.

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Figure 10-4 Reconstruction drawing of the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia, Palestrina, Italy, late second century BCE.

Sculpture

The Social Context of Portraits: Roman Republican sculpture is noted for its patrician portraits employing a verism derived from the patrician cult of ancestors and the practice of making likenesses of the deceased from wax death-masks. In the funerary relief, figures are shown bust-length (cut off at the base of the chest) in the Etruscan tradition.

10-4 Funerary relief with portraits of the Gessii, from Rome (?), Italy, ca. 30 B.C. Marble, approx. 2' 11/2" high Courtesy of Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Archibald Cary Coolidge Fund.

10-5 Relief with funerary procession, from Amiternum, Italy, second half of first century B.C. Limestone, approx.

2' 2" high. Museo Nazionale d'Abruzzo, L'Aquila.

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Funerary Procession

Head of a Roman patrician

10-6 Head of a Roman patrician, from Otricoli, Italy, ca. 75–50 B.C. Marble, approx. 14" high.

Museo Torlonia, Rome.

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Portrait of a Roman general

An Old Man's Head on a Young Man's Body: It was also the practice in sculpture during the

Republican period to place portrait heads on youthful, heroic bodies.

10-7 Portrait of a Roman general, from the Sanctuary of Hercules, Tivoli, Italy, ca. 75–50 B.C.

Marble, approx. 6' 2" high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome.

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The surviving portraits of prominent Roman Republican figures appear to be literal reproductions of individual faces. Although their style derives to some degree form Hellenistic and Etruscan, and perhaps even Ptolemaic Egyptian, portraits, Republican portraits are one way the patrician class celebrated its elevated position in society. These patricians did not ask sculptors to make them appear nobler than they were. Instead, they requested brutally realistic images of distinctive features.

Denarius with portrait of Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar Breaks the Rules: The portrait of Julius Caesar appears on a silver denarius Inscribed with his newly acquired title, dictator perpetuus.

10-8 Denarius with portrait of Julius Caesar, 44 B.C. Silver, diameter approx. 3/4". American Numismatic Society, New York.

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10.2 The Early Empire (27 B.C. – 98 A.D.)

• Explore Pompeii for its information about Roman art and architecture.

• Understand the role of the Colosseum and amphitheater in Roman life.

• Understand the concepts, methods and materials of Roman house construction and why it is significant.

• Examine the types, methods, and subject matter of Roman wall painting.

• Understand the development of Roman art and architecture as the empire expands and develops.

POMPEII AND THE CITIES OF VESUVIUS

POMPEII AND THE CITIES OF VESUVIUS

Buried by a Volcano: Pompeii was destroyed in the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79.

Oscans, Samnites, and Romans: Pompeii was first settled by the Oscans and later by the Samnites.

Sulla founded a new Roman colony on the site in 80 B.C.

An Archeological Park: So much of the city has been preserved that it has been called a "living city

Of the dead."

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Roman Architecture in Pompeii

• Understand the role of the Colosseum and amphitheater in Roman life.

• Understand the concepts, methods and materials of Roman house construction and why it is significant.

POMPEII AND THE CITIES OF VESUVIUS

Buried by a Volcano:

Pompeii was destroyed in the sudden eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE. Many prosperous towns were buried in a single day. When researchers first explored the buried cities in the 18t city, the ruins had been undisturbed for nearly 1,700 years.

Oscans, Samnites, and Romans:

Pompeii was first settled by the Oscans and later by the Samnites. Sulla founded a new Roman colony on the site in 80 BCE.

An archeological park:

So much of the city has been preserved that it has been called a "living city of the dead."

ArchitectureThe Heart of Pompeii:

The typical Roman town was planned originally with a centrally located public square or civic center (forum) located at the intersection of the main north-south street, the cardo, and the main east-west street, the decumanus.

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Architecture

The Heart of Pompeii: The typical Roman town was planned originally with a centrally located public square or

civic center (forum) located at the intersection of the main north-south street, the cardo, and the main east-west

street, the decumanus.

10-9 Aerial view of the forum, Pompeii, Italy, second century B.C. and later.

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Plan of the forum of Pompeii

10-10 Plan of the forum of Pompeii, Italy, second century B.C. and later.

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Aerial View of the amphitheater in Pompeii

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Gladiators and wild animals:Shortly after the Roman's took control of Pompeii, two of the towns wealthiest officials

used their own funds toerect a large ampitheater at the southeastern end of town. It is the earliest such

structure known and could easilyseat 20,000 spectators.

A painting on the wall of a Pompeian house records a brawl between the Pompeians and their neighbors, the

Nucerians, during a gladiator contest. The fighting left many seriously wounded and led to the closing of the

amphitheater for a decade.

10-11: Aerial view of the amphitheater, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 70 BCE.

Atrium of the House of the Vettii

For Patricians and Ex-Slaves: A domus, or single-family house, had a plain exterior; the focus was

on the interior spaces. The parts of the house are fauces, atrium, impluvium, cubicula, tablinum,

triclinium, and peristyle. The House of the Vetti had a large peristyle, but no tablinum.

10-13 Atrium of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Italy, rebuilt A.D. 62–79

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Roman Wall Painting

• Examine and compare the four styles of Roman wall painting.

Painting

Painted Walls Everywhere: A large number of paintings decorating interior walls indicate both the

prosperity and the tastes of the inhabitants of Pompeii. Many paintings have been removed from walls

and placed in the Naples Archeological Museum

The First Style and Greek Mural Painting: The First Style imitates marble panels using painted

stucco relief. The wall is divided into three parts, with a dado at the bottom, a middle section (with the

large, imitation marble panels), and an upper part of the wall with a cornice, a frieze, and another

cornice. Each panel is outlined with stucco. The cornices are also modeled in stucco.

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Brawl in the Pompeii amphitheater

10-12 Brawl in the Pompeii amphitheater, wall painting from House I,3,23, Pompeii, Italy, ca.

A.D. 60–79. Approx. 5' 7" X 6' 1". Museo Nazionale, Naples.

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First Style wall painting in the fauces of the Samnite House

The First Style and Greek Mural Painting: The First Style imitates marble panels using painted

stucco relief. The wall is divided into three parts, with a dado at the bottom, a middle section (with the

large, imitation marble panels), and an upper part of the wall with a cornice, a frieze, and another

cornice. Each panel is outlined with stucco. The cornices are also modeled in stucco.

10-14 First Style wall painting in the fauces of the Samnite House, Herculaneum, Italy, late second century B.C.

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Dionysiac Mystery Frieze, Second Style

The Second Style and the Triumph of Illusionism: The Second Style shows imaginary three

dimensional worlds. The illusion is that the wall surface has receded.

Dionysiac Mysteries at a Pompeian Villa: An example of Second Style painting is found in the

Villa of the Mysteries, where rites associated with the Dionysiac Mysteries are celebrated in a

continuous frieze running round all four walls of the room. The life-size figures appear as if on a

shallow ledge against a backdrop of painted panels.

10-15 Dionysiac mystery frieze, Second Style wall paintings in Room 5 of the Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, Italy, ca. 60–50 B.C. Frieze approx. 5' 4" high.

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Second Style wall paintings

Perspective Painting in Antiquity: The Second Style painting in Cubiculum M of the Villa of

Publius Fannius Synistor shows "picture-window" vistas with illusionistic architecture on side and

back walls. Sacred precincts with images of Diana-Lucina (goddess of the moon) and Hecate (ruler of

the night), each flanked by picturesque architectural vistas, appear near the room's entrance. The

buildings are piled one above the other and painted in pastel colors. The vistas of colonnades and

temples appear on the rear wall.

10-16 Second Style wall paintings (general view and detail of tholos) in Cubiculum M of the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor, Boscoreale, Italy, ca. 50–40 B.C. Approx. 8' 9" high.Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

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Gardenscape

An Empress's Painted Garden: The Second Style wall painting from the Villa of Livia, Primaporta,

shows a continuous illusionistic gardenscape on all four walls.

10-17 Gardenscape, Second Style wall painting from the Villa of Livia, Primaporta, Italy, ca. 30–20 B.C. Approx. 6' 7" high. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

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Third Style wall painting

The Third Style: Elegance and Fantasy: The Third Style shows delicate linear fantasies against

monochrome backgrounds. Cubiculum 15 of the Villa of Agrippa Postumus is decorated with

elegantly attenuated architectural forms that frame small, floating landscapes. The painting from the

Vatican Virgil shows framed panels with atmospheric landscapes.

10-18 Detail of a Third Style wall painting from Cubiculum 15 of the Villa of Agrippa Postumus, Boscotrecase, Italy, ca. 10 B.C. Approx. 7' 8" high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

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The old farmer of Corycus

10-19 The old farmer of Corycus, folio 7 verso from the Vatican Vergil, ca. A.D. 400–420.

Tempera on parchment, approx. 121/2" X 12". Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Rome.

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Fourth Style

Nero and the Fourth Style: The Fourth Style includes illusionistic elements and framed panels

against a monochrome (white) background. The paintings in the Domus Aurea, supervised by the

court painter Fabullus, show thin, delicate architectural frameworks in the upper section of the wall.

The daintiness of the design is emphasized by the creamy white background. These paintings became

the source for the "grotesque" style that emerged in the Renaissance

10-20 Fourth Style wall paintings in the Domus Aurea of Nero, Rome, Italy, A.D. 64–68.

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Fourth Style wall paintings in the Ixion Room

On the Eve of the Eruption: In Fourth Style wall paintings, the lower zone (dado) has geometric panels. The middle section has larger panels with architectural views in perspective. Monochrome panels are decorated with delicate floral borders with figures of maenads and satyrs floating in the center. Figurative panels with mythological scenes, and elaborate architectural scenes in perspective appear at frieze level.

10-21 Fourth Style wall paintings in the Ixion Room (Triclinium P) of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Italy ca. A.D. 70–79.

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Neptune and Amphitrite Wall Mosaic

Greek Myths on Roman Walls: The panel of Neptune and Amphitrite is framed by a scalloped pattern of sea shells. Different hues of blue set the main tone. The figures of Neptune and Amphitrite stand in a pentagonal panel of gold tesserae under a shell-like canopy. Neptune stands with a blue cloak draped over his left shoulder and right arm holding a golden trident; he has a tanned and youthful body but white hair and beard. His pose is inspired by Greek statues of Poseidon. Amphitrite, his consort, leans on a pillar. She raises her blue cloak with her right hand while holding a scepter in her left hand. Her pose imitates a Greek statue of Venus.

10-22 Neptune and Amphitrite, wall mosaic in the summer triclinium of the House of Neptune and Amphitrite, Herculaneum, Italy, ca. A.D. 62–79.

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Pretentious Private Portraits

Pretentious Private Portraits: The house in which the portrait of a husband and wife was

found was first thought to have been owned by Paquius Proculus, a baker. Later (in 1926) the

owner was identified as Terentius Neus, a lawyer.

10-23 Portrait of a husband and wife, wall painting from House VII,2,6, Pompeii, Italy, ca.A.D. 70–79. Approx. 23" X 201/2". Museo Nazionale, Naples.

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Painting the Inanimate

Painting the Inanimate: Still life with peaches shows illusionistic effects of light and shadow.

10-24 Still life with peaches, detail of a Fourth Style wall painting from Herculaneum, Italy, ca. A.D. 62–79. Approx. 14" X 131/2". Museo Nazionale, Naples.

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Pax Romana and Augustus

• Understand the nature of sculpture in the Roman Empire under Augustus.

THE EARLY EMPIRE

Antony and Cleopatra Vanquished: In 31 B.C., Octavian defeated Mark Antony in the Battle of

Actium and became the undisputed master of the Roman world as the emperor Augustus. The battle

signaled the end of the absorption of the Hellenistic kingdoms into the Roman empire. The old

Roman Republic ended in 27 B.C. when the Senate conferred on Octavian the title of Augustus.

The Pax Romana: The peace and prosperity Augustus brought to the Mediterranean world and

which prevailed for two centuries is known as the Pax Romana. During this time a number of public

works were commissioned throughout the empire. Augustus and the Julio-Claudians (27 B.C.–A.D.

68).

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Portrait of Augustus as general

The Son of a God Rules Rome: The youthful portrait of Augustus is idealized in the Greek

manner.

10-25 Portrait of Augustus as general,from Primaporta, Italy, copy of a bronze original of ca.20 B.C. Marble, 6' 8" high. Vatican Museums, Rome.

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Portrait bust of Livia

A Never-Aging Empress: The idealized portrait of Livia is derived from images of Classical Greek

goddesses.

10-26 Portrait bust of Livia, from Faiyum, Egypt, early first century A.D. Marble, approx. 131/2" high. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen.

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10-27 Ara Pacis Augustae, Rome, Italy, 13–9 B.C. (view from the southwest).

The Augustan Peace Commemorated: The Ara Pacis Augustae celebrates the establishment of

Peace by Augustus. The processions carved in relief on the north and south sides depict a specific

event.  

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Ara Pacis Augustae

10-28 Female personification (Tellus?), panel from the east façade of the Ara Pacis, Rome, Italy,13–9 B.C. Marble, approx. 5' 3" high.

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Female personification

10-29 Procession of the imperial family, detail of the south frieze of the Ara Pacis,

Rome, Italy, 13–9 B.C. Marble, approx. 5' 3" high.

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Procession of the imperial family

10-30 Maison Carrée, Nîmes, France, ca. A.D. 1–10.

Rome Transformed into a Marble City: Augustus boasted that he had found Rome a city of brick

and transformed it into a city of marble.

An Augustan Temple Inspires Thomas Jefferson: The classicizing style of the so-called Maison

Carrée was admired by Thomas Jefferson, who used it as the model for his design of the State Capitol

in Richmond, Virginia.

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Maison Carrée

10-31 Pont-du-Gard, Nîmes, France, ca. 16 B.C.

The Fruits of the Pax Romana: The three-story aqueduct-bridge known today as the Pont-du

Gard demonstrates the skill of Rome's engineers.

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Pont-du-Gard

10-32 Porta Maggiore, Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 50.

Claudian Rustication: Constructed at a point where two of Rome's water lines and two major roads

converged, the Porta Maggiore is an outstanding example of the Roman rusticated masonry style.

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Porta Maggiore

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Figure 10-33 SEVERUS and CELER, plan (above) and section (below) of the octagonal hall of the Domus Aurea (Golden House) of Nero, Rome, Italy, 64–68 CE.

Nero's Architectural Revolution: Nero's Domus Aurea was richly decorated with marble paneling, painted and gilded stucco, and frescoes. The design of the octagonal hall shows an inventive new approach to concrete architecture.

10-34 Aerial view of the Colosseum, Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 70–80.

The suicide of Nero in A.D. 68 brought an end to the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Following a period of

civil strife, Vespasian emerged as the new emperor. Vespasian, whose family name was Flavius, was

succeeded by his Titus. After Titus's death in A.D. 81, Vespasian's second son, Domitian, became

emperor.

A Triumph of Roman Engineering: The Colosseum was built using concrete. The oval seating area

is supported by a complex system of concrete barrel vaults. The exterior, made of travertine, is divided

into four bands. The large arched openings that pierce the lower three are framed by engaged columns

with Tuscan Doric capitals at the bottom, then Ionic capitals, and Corinthian capitals on the third

level. The huge amphitheater in Rome known as the Colosseum was begun by Vespasian andcompleted by Titus in A.D. 80.

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The Flavians (A.D. 69-96)

10-35 Portrait of Vespasian, from Ostia, Italy, ca. A.D. 69–79. Marble, approx. 16" high. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

Vespasian and the Revival of Verism: The simple tastes of Vespasian are apparent in his portrait,

which perhaps deliberately resuscitates the veristic tradition of the Republic.

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Portrait of Vespasian

10-36 Portrait bust of a Flavian woman, from Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 90. Marble, approx. 2' 1" high. Museo Capitolino, Rome.

An Elegant Flavian Woman: A portrait bust of a young woman is notable for its elegance and

delicacy and for the virtuoso rendering of the differing textures of hair and flesh.

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An Elegant Flavian Woman

10-37 Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after A.D. 81.

A New Arch for a New God: Erected after Titus's death by Domitian, the single arched opening is

framed by engaged columns with Composite capitals. The spandrels contain reliefs of winged female

Victory figures.

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Arch of Titus

10-38 Spoils of Jerusalem, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after A.D. 81. Marble, approx. 7' 10" high.

The Spoils of Jerusalem: Two large, deeply carved relief panels on the inside of the passageway

show the triumphal parade of Titus down the Sacred Way after his return from the conquest of Judaea

at the end of the Jewish Wars in A.D. 70.

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The Spoils of Jerusalem

10-39 Triumph of Titus, relief panel from the Arch of Titus, Rome, Italy, after A.D. 81.Marble, approx. 7' 10" high.

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Triumph of Titus

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Figure 10-40 Plan of Timgad (Thamugadi), Algeria, founded 100 CE.

Plan of Timgad

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10.3 High Empire ( 96 – 192 A.D.)

• Understand the political nature of Roman art and architecture, especially as it communicates ideas of power for the emperor and empire.

• Examine the architectural development of the Roman forum, the markets, the triumphal arches and, in particular, the Pantheon.

• Examine Roman portrait, memorial and funerary sculpture as it developed in the high Empire in Rome and in the colonies.

• Understand the influences on Roman ‘mummy’ painting. 

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Art under Trajan in Spain, Africa, Italy

• Understand the political nature of Roman art and architecture, especially as it communicates ideas of power for the emperor and empire.

• Examine artistic development and formal changes, especially issues of space and narration in the Column of Trajan.

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Architecture of the High Empire

• Examine the architectural development of the Roman forum, the markets, the triumphal arches and, in particular, the Pantheon.

• Explore the luxuries of Hadrian!

10-40 Plan of Timgad, Thamugadi (Algeria), founded A.D. 100.

The Roman Empire at Its Peak: Under Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines in the second century

A.D., the Roman Empire reached its greatest geographic extent and the height of its power.

Trajan (A.D. 98–117)The First Spanish Emperor: Under Trajan, the first non-Italian to become

emperor, Romeexpanded its rule even further abroad. Trajan instituted a number of social

programs to secure thewelfare of the Roman people. A New Colony in Africa: A new colony for army veterans, founded by Trajan

in A.D. 100 at Timgadin North Africa, follows a plan that resembles a Roman military encampment.

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High Empire

10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus , Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated A.D. 112, model.

Museo della Civiltà Romana, Rome.

Rome's Greatest Forum: The huge Forum of Trajan in Rome includes a triumphal arch, a

colonnaded open square, a basilica, a temple, two libraries, and a giant commemorative column with a

tomb at its base.

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Forum of Trajan

10-42 Column of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated A.D. 112.

The Column and Tomb of Trajan: The colossal freestanding column is decorated with a

continuous spiral narrative frieze depicting Trajan's two successful campaigns against the Dacians.

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Column of Trajan

10-43 Apollodorus of Damascus , Markets of Trajan, Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 100–112, reconstruction drawing.

Shopping in Imperial Rome: The Markets of Trajan, built as a multilevel complex on the slope of

the Quirinal hill, house both shops and administrative offices.

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Markets of Trajan

10-44 Interior of the great hall of the Markets of Trajan, Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 100–112.

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Interior of the great hall of the Markets of Trajan

10-45 Arch of Trajan, Benevento, Italy, ca. A.D. 114–118.

The Triumphal Arch as Billboard: Relief panels illustrating Trajan's achievements cover both

façades of the Arch of Trajan at Benevento.

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Arch of Trajan

10-46 Funerary relief of a circus official, from Ostia, Italy, ca. A.D. 110–130. Marble, approx. 1' 8" high.

Vatican Museums, Rome.

Races in the Circus Maximus: Employing the technique of continuous narration, a relief shows chariot

racing in the refurbished Circus Maximus in Rome.

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Funerary relief of a circus official

10-47 Portrait bust of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem, Israel, ca. A.D. 130–138. Bronze, approx. 2' 11" high. Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

A Greek Beard for a Roman Emperor: An idealized portrait of a bearded Hadrian was modeled on

statues of mature Greek men. 10-47 Portrait bust of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem, Israel, ca.

A.D. 130–138. Bronze,approx. 2' 11" high. Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

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Hadrian (A.D. 117–138)

10-48 Pantheon, exterior view, Rome, Italy, A.D. 118–125.

The Pantheon, Temple for All Gods: The Pantheon, a huge temple dedicated to all the gods, is one

of the best-preserved buildings of antiquity. The cylindrical drum enclosing the interior space is

topped by a concrete hemispherical dome pierced in the center by an oculus.

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Figure 10-49 Longitudinal and lateral sections of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.

Pantheon

10-50 Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, A.D. 118–125.

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Interior of the Pantheon

10-51 Canopus and Serapeum, Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli, Italy, ca. A.D. 130–138.

A Well-Traveled Emperor's Retreat: Hadrian's villa at Tivoli includes a pool and an artificial grotto,

called the Canopus and Serapeum, which commemorated the emperor's trip to Egypt. The Canopus,

however, is lined with marble copies of Greek statues and has an arcuated Corinthian colonnade at

one end.

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Hadrian's Villa

10-52 Al-Khazneh ("Treasury"), Petra, Jordan, second century A.D.

A Baroque Tomb in a Jordanian Mountain: The so-called "Treasury" at Petra is cut into the living

rock face of the cliff. The design of the two-story façade utilizes a Greek architectural vocabulary, but

the elements have been articulated in a "baroque" manner that ignores Classical rules.

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Treasury

10-53 Model of an insula, Ostia, Italy, second century A.D. Museo della Civiltà Romana, Rome.

The Crowded Life of the City: Insulae are multi-story apartment blocks with exposed brick façades

in which shops occupied the ground floor and families lived in apartments on the upper floors.

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Ostia

10-54 Ceiling and wall paintings in Room IV of the Insula of the Painted Vaults, Ostia, Italy,

Early third century A.D.

Painted Vaults and Mosaic Pavements: Some of the finer apartments had mosaic floors and

painted walls and ceilings.

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Insula of the Painted Vaults

10-55 Neptune and creatures of the sea, floor mosaic in the Baths of Neptune, Ostia, Italy, ca. A.D. 140.

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Neptune and creatures of the sea

10-56 Funerary reliefs of a vegetable vendor (left) and a midwife (right), from Ostia, Italy,

second half of second century A.D. Painted terracotta, approx. 1' 5" and 11" high respectively.

Museo Ostiense, Ostia.

Tombs of Working Men and Women: Communal tombs at Ostia in the second century A.D. were

usually constructed of brick-faced concrete with façades that resembled those of the insulae. Many

were adorned with small, painted terracotta plaques that recorded the activities of middle-class

merchants and professional people.

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Funerary reliefs

10-57 Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 161. Marble, approx. 8' 11/2" high.

Vatican Museums, Rome.

Succession by Adoption: In A.D. 138, Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius, whom he required at the

same time to adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. On Hadrian's death, Antoninus Pius became

emperor. When he died 23 years later, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus became Rome's first co

emperors.

Classical and Non-Classical Art in Antonine Rome: On one side of the pedestal of the column of

Antoninus Pius is a Classical relief illustrating the apotheosis of Antoninus and his wife Faustina the

Elder. On two other sides are identical representations of the decursio, in which the stocky figures

signal a break with Classical convention.

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The Antonines (A.D. 138–192)

10-58 Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 161.

Marble, approx. 8' 11/2" high. Vatican Museums, Rome.78

Column of Antoninus Pius

10-59 Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 175. Bronze, approx. 11' 6" high. Campidoglio, Rome.

Disquieting Antonine Portraits: The larger-than-life-size, gilded-bronze equestrian statue of Marcus

Aurelius shows the emperor weary and thoughtful.

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Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius

10-60 Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, detail of a relief from a lost arch, Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 175–180. Marble, approx. life size. Palazzo dei Conservatori,

Rome.

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Portrait of Marcus Aurelius

10-61 Sarcophagus with the myth of Orestes, from Rome, Italy, ca. A.D. 140–150. Marble, 2' 71/2" high.

Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland.

Cremation Gives Way to Burial: In the second century A.D., Romans began to favor burial over

cremation, which in turn led to a demand for sarcophagi. Orestes on Roman Sarcophagi: The story of the Greek tragic hero Orestes

carved in relief in acontinuous-narrative composition decorates one side of a Western type

sarcophagus.

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10-62 Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait of a woman, from Melfi, Italy, ca. A.D. 165–170.

Marble, approx. 5' 7" high. Museo Nazionale del Melfese, Melfi.

A Mortal Venus's Coffin: All four sides of an Eastern type sarcophagus are carved with images of

Greek gods and heroes in architectural frames, while on the lid is carved a portrait of the deceased

woman reclined on a bed in the tradition of Etruscan sarcophagi. 10-62 Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait of a woman, from Melfi,

Italy, ca. A.D. 165–170.Marble, approx. 5' 7" high. Museo Nazionale del Melfese, Melfi.

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Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait of a woman

10-63 Mummy portrait of a man, from Faiyum, Italy, ca. A.D. 160–170. Encaustic on wood,

approx. 14" high. Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, Charles Clifton Fund.

Mummy Portraits in Roman Egypt: In Roman Egypt the traditional stylized portrait mask buried

with the dead in mummy cases was replaced with realistic portraits painted in encaustic on wood.

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Mummy portrait of a man

84

Late Roman Sculpture and Painting

• Examine Roman portrait, memorial and funerary sculpture as it developed in the High Empire in Rome and in the colonies.

• Understand the influences on Roman ‘mummy’ painting. 

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10.4 Late Empire (192-337 A.D.)

• Understand the cultural influences that bring about changes in Roman art and architecture in the Late Empire period.

• Relate aspects of Roman culture and their influence in today's life.

• Understand how power, order and lost individuality are expressed in the art of the Late Empire.

• Examine the changes brought about in the art and architecture in the time of Constantine.

• Consider the Roman Empire as a bridge between the ancient and medieval and modern worlds. 

10-64 Painted portrait of Septimius Severus and his family, from Egypt, ca. A.D. 200. Tempera on wood, approx. 14" diameter. Staatliche Museen, Berlin.

A Civilization in Transition: At the end of the 2nd century A.D. the power of Rome was beginning

to decline.

The Severans (A.D. 193–235)

An African Rules the Empire: The African-born emperor Septimius Severus, his wife, Julia Domna,

and their two sons, Caracalla and Geta, appear in a tondo portrait from Egypt painted in tempera. The

head of Geta was later erased by Caracalla.

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THE LATE EMPIRE

10-65 Portrait of Caracalla, ca. A.D. 211–217. Marble, approx. 14" high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

A Portrait of a Ruthless Emperor: A marble head shows the ruthless character and suspicious

nature of Caracalla.

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A Portrait

10-66 Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, relief from the Arch of Septimius Severus,

Lepcis Magna, Libya, A.D. 203. Marble, approx. 5' 6" high. Castle museum, Tripoli.

The NonClassical Style Takes Root: A relief from the Arch of Septimius Severus in Lepcis Magna

shows non-Classical elements such as front-facing and floating figures.

88

Chariot procession of Septimius Severus

10-67 Plan of the central section of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, A.D. 212–216. The

bathing, swimming, and exercise areas were surrounded by landscaped gardens, lecture halls,

and other rooms, all enclosed within a great concrete perimeter wall.

A Gigantic Roman Health Spa: The huge Baths of Caracalla in Rome were built with brick-faced

concrete. The symmetrical design includes a circular domed caldarium, a groin-vaulted frigidarium, and a

tepidarium. Also part of the complex were lecture halls, libraries, colonnaded exercise courts, and a

large swimming pool.

3-D Model of Caracalla

89

Plan of the central section of the Baths of Caracalla

10-69 Portrait bust of Trajan Decius, A.D. 249–251. Marble, approx. 31" high. Museo Capitolino, Rome.

Murder and Civil War: During the turbulent third century A.D., many emperors ruled only briefly

before being murdered. Soul Portraits of Soldier Emperors: Portraits of the soldier emperors in

the third century A.D. arenotable for their emotional content and for their technical virtuosity. The

nude, larger-than-life-sizebronze portrait of the short-lived emperor Trebonianus shows him with a

small head and a thickwrestler's body.

90

The Soldier Emperors (A.D. 235–284):

10-70 Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus, from Rome, Italy, A.D. 251–253. Bronze,

approx. 7' 11“ high. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Rogers Fund.

91

Heroic portrait of Trebonianus Gallus

10-71 Battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), from Rome, Italy, ca.

A.D. 250–260. Marble, approx. 5' high. Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome.

Barbarians and Philosophers: The front of the Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus shows a chaotic battle

scene filled with writhing and highly emotive figures. The piled-up figures are spread evenly across the

entire relief with no illusion of space behind them. The sarcophagus of a philosopher shows a Roman

philosopher seated on a throne flanked by two standing women in a frontal composition.

92

Battle of Romans and barbarians

10-72 Sarcophagus of a philosopher, ca. A.D. 270-280. Marble, approx. 4' 11" high.

Vatican Museums, Rome.

93

Sarcophagus of a philosopher

94

Figure 10-73 Plan and reconstruction drawing of the Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon, third century CE.

A Critique of the Pantheon: The Temple of Venus at Baalbek ignores Classical traditions of design in its insertion of an arch into the pediment of the gabled columnar façade and in the introduction of scalloped edges around the circular domed cella.

Pantheon

10-74 Portraits of the four tetrarchs, ca. A.D. 305. Porphyry, approx. 4' 3" high. Saint Mark's, Venice.

Power Shared and Order Restored: Diocletian established the tetrarchy and adopted for himself the

title of Augustus of the East. He ruled the East together with a Caesar of the East. The other two

tetrarchs ruled as the Augustus and the Caesar of the West. Individuality Lost: The tetrarchs are shown in two pairs of porphyry

portraits without anyindividuality.

95

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (A.D. 284–306)

10-75 Model of the Palace of Diocletian, Split, Croatia, ca. A.D. 300–305. Museo della Civiltà Romana, Rome.

A Fortified Palace for a Retired Emperor: Diocletian's walled palace at Split was laid out like a Roman castrum.

A colonnaded court leads to the entrance to the imperial residence, which has a temple-like façade with an arch

inserted into the pediment.

96

Palace of Diocletian

97

Changes in the Late Empire

• Understand the cultural influences that bring about changes in Roman art and architecture in the Late Empire period.

• Understand how power, order and lost individuality are expressed in the art of the Late Empire.

98

From Constantine to the Modern World

• Examine the changes brought about in the art and architecture in the time of Constantine.

• Consider the Roman Empire as a bridge between the ancient and medieval and modern worlds.

10-76 Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, A.D. 312–315 (south side).

Constantine and the Rise of Christianity: Following the defeat of Maxentius at the battle at the Milvian Bridge,

Constantine ended the persecution of Christians. In 325, at the Council of Nicaea, Christianity became the official

religion of the Roman Empire. A New Arch with Old Reliefs: The Arch of Constantine utilized refashioned reliefs

from earlier monuments. Theshallow Constantinian reliefs show poorly modeled undistinguished figures that are

squat in proportion and havemechanical gestures and repeated stances.

99

Constantine (A.D. 306–337)

10-77: Distribution of largess, detail of the north frieze of the Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy,

312-31:5 CE. Marble, approx. 3' 4" high.Late Empire

100

Arch of Constantine

10-78: Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca. 315-33:0 CE. Marble,

approx. 8' 6" high. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

Late Empire 101

Portrait of Constantine

10-79: Reconstruction drawing of the Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine), Rome, Italy, ca. 306-31:2 CE.

Late Empire

102

Basilica Nova

10-80: Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (exterior)

103

Aula Palatina

10-81: Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (interior)

104

Aula Palatina

10-82: Coins with portraits of Constantine. Nummus (left), 307 CE. Billon, diameter approx. 1". American Numismatic Society, New York. Medallion

(right), ca. 315 CE .Silver. Staatliche Münzsammlung, Munich. Late Empire

105

Coins with portraits of Constantine

106

Discussion Questions

What are some of the unique elements of Roman art and architecture that distinguish it from Greek and other art of the same time period?

In what ways does Roman art and architecture incorporate the arts of conquered peoples from England to Egypt?

What does the presence of veristic portrait art of the Romans say about Roman culture?

Why does the art under Constantine begin to move away from the verism of the High Empire?