Chapter 1 · PDF fileEdwin Guthrie (1886 -1959) ... rather than Guthrie’s temporal...
Transcript of Chapter 1 · PDF fileEdwin Guthrie (1886 -1959) ... rather than Guthrie’s temporal...
Introducing PsychologyChapter 1
The Scientific Method
Identify a specific problem or question Formulate a hypothesis Collect data through observation and
experiment Analyze the data
Hypothesis
An educated guess about the relationship between two variables
The researcher has some evidence for suspecting a specific answer
The Researcher states what he expects to find, expressing it in such a way that it can be proved or disproved
Goals of Psychology
Describe – Gather info about behavior being studied to present what is known
Explain – Explain why people and animals behave the way the do
Predict – Predict what organisms will do, what people will feel or think in various situations
Control – Influence or control behavior in helpful ways
Basic Science
The pursuit of knowledge about natural phenomena for its own sake
Applied Science
Discovering ways to use scientific findings to accomplish practical goals
600-300 B.C.Ancient Greece and Rome
Roots of Psychology
Philosophy – a means of exploring and understanding the general nature of many aspects of the world, primarily through introspection
Physiology – the scientific study of living organisms and of life-sustaining functions and processes, primarily through observation
Roots of Psychology
In ancient Greece, the two fields did not differ much.
Both philosophers and physiologists believed that understanding could be reached without observations
Hippocrates 460-377 B.C.
Father of medicine Differed from
philosophers and physicians of the day through his unorthodox belief that disease was not a punishment from the gods.
Hippocrates 460-377 B.C.
Speculated that biological malfunctions, not demons, caused mental illness.
Hippocrates 460-377 B.C.
Used empirical observations to study medicine
Saw the mind as a separate distinct entity that controlled the body
Thought the body was composed of physical substance, whereas the mind is ethereal
Hippocrates 460-377 B.C.
Proposed the mind resides in the brain. Based upon observations that when
either side of the brain was injured, spasms were observed in the opposite side of the body.
Mind-Body Dualism
The philosophical belief that the mind is qualitatively different from the body.
Plato vs. Aristotle
Contemporaries of Hippocrates.
Two very different views of reality
Plato on Reality
Reality does not exist in the concrete objects that we see and touch, but reality only exists in the ideal, abstract forms of the objects in a timeless dimension of pure thought—in our minds
Aristotle on Reality
Reality lies only in the concrete world of objects. Plato’s abstract forms were only derivations of the concrete objects.
Aristotle on Reality
Did not believe in dualism. Believed the mind does not exist in its own right, merely a by-product of anatomical and physiological activity.
Empiricist
One who believes that we acquire knowledge through empirical methods, obtaining evidence through experience, observation, and experimentation.
Rationalist
One who asserts that knowledge is most effectively acquired through logical methods, using philosophical analysis to understand the world and people’s relation to it.
Empiricist vs. Rationalist
Both approaches have merit.
1300-1600The Renaissance Period
1300-1600 The Renaissance
The birth of science as we know it Direct observation was established as
the basis for knowledge Theory should guide and give meaning
to observations But theories should be amended or
abandoned, based upon observations
1600-1850The Early Modern Period
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
French philosopher Agreed with Plato’s
rationalist view that the introspective, reflective method was better than the empirical method.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Believed in mind-body dualism
Believed that man has innate (versus acquired) knowledge
John Locke (1632-1704)
British empiricist philosopher
Believed humans born without knowledge and therefore seek knowledge through empirical observation
John Locke (1632-1704)
His term for the human condition is tabula rasa, meaning “blank slate” in Latin—Experience writes knowledge upon us
Schools or Approaches in Psychology
Structuralism
First major school of thought in Psychology
Goal was to understand the mind by analyzing its elements, such as particular sensations or thoughts.
Less interested in how people think than it what they think
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
German, considered by many to be the founder of modern psychology
Forerunner to structuralism Method of study a form of
self-observation called introspection
Wundt Laboratory in Leipzig
Wundt set up the first laboratory for the study of psychology, but was limited to introspection as the sole method of research.
Edward Titchner (1867-1927)
Studied under Wundt, then later at Cornell University
Became a leader in structuralism with views similar, but not identical to Wundt’s
Edward Titchner (1867-1927)
He changed his mind about structuralism later in life
It proposed too many elementary sensations, no means for understanding thought processes
Edward Titchner (1867-1927)
And too rigidly tied to a single methodology: introspection
Structuralism died out, but gave rise to functionalism
Functionalism
First U.S.-born movement in Psychology Focuses on active psychological
processes rather than on passive psychological structures or elements
Ask the questions: What do people do, and why do they do it?
Functionalism
Functionalists view humans as actively engaged in processing their sensations and formulating their actions
Agree on questions to ask, but are widely diverse in the methods for finding those answers and in the answers they find.
William James (1842-1910)
Leader in the functionalist movement, guided functionalism toward pragmatism (a view of science and psychology that asserts that knowledge is validated by its usefulness).
William James (1842-1910)
Author of the very influential book Principles of Psychology (1890)
Influence of Functionalism
Functionalism, like structuralism did not survive as an organized school of thought
However, its influence remains widespread today, particularly in specializations that stress flexibility in research or the practical use of results.
Associationism
More an influential way of thinking than a rigid school of psychology
Mainly interested in middle- to higher-level mental processes such as learning.
Opposite of structuralism that insisted on studying only elementary sensations
Associationism
Associationism examines how events or ideas can become associated in the mind, thereby resulting in learning.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
First experimenter to apply associationist principles systematically.
Studied the effect of repetition on memory and learning.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
He only used himself as a subject
Made break-through discovery about the role of active rehearsal (conscious repetition) in recollection.
Edwin Guthrie (1886-1959)
Guthrie did further work on Ebbinghaus’ ideas, testing animals.
Showed that two observed events become associated through temporal contiguity
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
Held that “satisfaction” rather than Guthrie’s temporal contiguity is the key to forming associations.
Called this principle the Law of Effect
The Law of Effect
Over time the actions (“the effect”) for which an organism is rewarded (“the satisfaction”) are strengthened and therefore more likely to occur again in the future.
In contrast, actions that are followed by punishment, are weakened, less likely to occur again in the future.
Influences of Associationism
Ebbinghaus, Guthrie & Thorndike followed functionalist tradition of using various methods in research.
Associationism in its strictest form has not survived because too simplistic
Has had an influence on behaviorism
Psychology In the 20th Century
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
A forerunner of cognitivism. Argued that the self should be
studied in its social context. Unable to attain a PhD
because most schools refused to allow women at the time. Attended classes at Harvard & Clark as non-student.
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
She became first female president of both the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Nobel prize-winning Russian physiologist
Discovered classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs
Classical Conditioning• Discovered accidentally
in 1927 by Ivan Pavlov while studying the process of digestion in dogs.
• Wanted to understand how a dog’s stomach prepares to digest food when something is placed in its mouth.
Classical Conditioning• Discovered that the
mere sight or smell of food was enough to get the dog to start salivating.
Pavlov’s Experiment
• Pavlov rang a tuning fork and then immediately placed meat powder on the dog’s tongue.
• After a few repetitions, the dog would salivate as soon as it heard the tuning fork, even if the meat powder was not placed on his tongue.
Pavlov’s Experiment
• Neutral stimulus – The tuning fork, something that had nothing to do with the response to meat prior to conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiment
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – an event that leads to a certain, predictable response without prior training. Food leads to salivation without the dog needed to be trained to salivate when smelling meat.
Pavlov’s Experiment
• Unconditioned response (UCR) – a reaction that occurs naturally and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) – an ordinarily neutral event that, after training, leads to a response such as salivation.
Pavlov’s Experiment
• Conditioned response (CR) – the response to a conditioned stimulus
classical conditioningControlling an animal’s or a person’s responses in such a way that an old response becomes attached to a new stimulus
Classical Conditioning
• Occurs gradually• Each pairing of the CS with the UCS
strengthens the conditioning• Timing is an issue. Conditioning is
strongest when the CS is introduced just before the UCS
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Behaviorism
Psychology should focus only on the relationship between the observable behavior and the environmental events or stimuli.
Conjectures about internal thoughts and ways of thinking are just speculation
John Watson (1878-1958)
American founder of radical behaviorism
Any behavior can be shaped or controlled
John Watson (1878-1958)
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee you to take any one at random, and train him or her to become any type of specialist I might select - doctor, lawyer, merchant chief and, yes, even beggar man or thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors."
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Radical behaviorism in modern times most closely tied to the work of Skinner
Distinguished between two kinds of learned behavior: respondent & operant
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Respondent behavior, the type studied by Pavlov, elicited by a definite stimulus, involuntary
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Operant behavior, cannot be certainly elicited, largely voluntary, probability of behavior repeated when reinforced
Gestalt Psychology
Psychological phenomenon are best understood when viewed as organized, structured wholes—that is, holistically—not when analyzed into myriad components.
Movement grew as a reaction to behaviorism and structuralism
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
Started the Gestalt movement with fellow German psychologists Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler.
Gestalt Psychology Criticism
Has produced an abundance of theory and very little data.
Experimentation under the Gestalt approach tends to lack careful experimental controls.
Unprecise definition of terms
Cognitivism
Emphasizes the importance of thought as a basis for understanding much of human behavior
The study of how people learn, structure, store, and use knowledge (Neisser, 1967)
Cognitivism
How is knowledge acquired, stored, transformed, and used?
What is consciousness, and where do conscious ideas originate?
What is the nature of perception and memory? What is thought? How do these abilities develop?
Biological Psychology
Also called psychobiology Attempts to study behavior by carefully
studying physiology (the scientific study of living organisms and life-sustaining functions) and anatomy (the study of the structures of living organisms)
Biological Psychology
Not really an organized school of thought but rather the affirmation that biological theorizing and experimentation are desirable bases for studying psychological problems
Evolutionary Psychology
Based upon Darwin’s theory of natural selection and evolution(1859), the goal is to explain behavior in terms of an organism’s evolved adaptations to a constantly changing environmental landscape
Psychodynamic Psychology
One of the oldest and most controversial and influential schools of psychology.
Emphasizes the importance of conflicting unconscious mental processes
Stresses the importance of early childhood experiences on the adult personality
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Developed by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud
Major contributions• Significance of
unconscious and dreams
• Free association• Defense mechanisms
• Conscious - current awareness• Preconscious - not aware of material but
it’s retrievable (via ordinary retrieval)• Unconscious - not aware of material but it’s
not retrievable (via ordinary retrieval)
Levels of Consciousness
Conscious = Tip of Iceberg
ID EGO
SUPEREGO
The Structure of Personality
The Id – Reservoir of Psychic Energy
Most primitive part of the mind; what we are born with
Source of all drives and urgesOperates according to the pleasure
principle and primary process thinking
The Structure of Personality
The Ego- Executive of Personality
The part of the mind that constrains the id to reality
Develops around 2-3 years of ageOperates according to the reality
principle and secondary process thinkingMediates between id, superego, and
environment
The Structure of Personality
The Superego-Upholder of Values and Ideals
The part of the mind that internalizes the values, morals, and ideals of society
Develops around age 5Not bound by reality
The Structure of Personality
Neo-Freudians
Several of Freud’s disciples who rebelled and formulated their own versions of the theory.
A greater emphasis on conscious as opposed to unconscious processing
Influence of key human relationships on how one views the world
Humanistic Psychology
In response to that rather negative view of psychodynamic theory which sees man controlled by environmental events in his childhood
Humanistic psychology emphasizes free will and the importance of human potential
Humanistic Psychology
Holistic rather than analytical approach Emphasizes conscious rather than
unconscious experience in development An analytic approach like that of Freud’s
attempts to break down a personality into its constituent components
Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic approach doesn’t attempt to divide a personality into smaller elements
Argues that the essence of the personality is lost through such divisions
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
A leading humanistic psychologist
Proposed that all people possess an innate drive toward self-actualization (striving to reach their potential)
Self-Actualized have in common
An objective view of reality, acceptance of their nature (both of their strengths and their weaknesses)
A commitment to their work A need for autonomy, coupled with empathy
for humankind Resistance to blind conformity, and drive to be
creative in work and in life
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Followed Maslow’s emphasis on self-actualization, but stressed that it was dependent upon the relationship between the mother and child
Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
If the mother meets the child’s need for unconditional love (unconditional positive regard), the child will probably be well-adjusted.
Many of the problems we have as adults are due to a lack of positive regard
Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic approach has provided valuable insight into human nature
It’s theories are somewhat less comprehensive than some other approaches
Research base supporting this approach is somewhat limited