Chapter 1 Dynamic Social Studies: The Subject You Will Teach Maxim Dynamic Social Studies for...

Chapter 1

Dynamic Social Studies:

The Subject You Will Teach

MaximDynamic Social Studies for Constructivist Classrooms, 8th Edition

Copyright ©2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

All rights reserved.

What Is Social Studies?

Social Sciences: Refers to several multifaceted disciplines that seek knowledge about societies and the relationships of individuals within societies

Social Studies: Is the title for the school subject that provides for a systematic study of the social sciences in a coordinated, integrated fashion




The Social Sciences

1. Geography: The study of people and places, the natural environment, and the capacity of the earth to support life

2. History: The systematic research, analysis, and interpretation of the past

3. Civics (Political Science): The study of the origin, development, and operation of political systems and public policy




The Social Sciences, con’t

4. Anthropology: The study of people to find out about their physical, social, and cultural development

5. Sociology: The study of society and social behavior by examining groups and social institutions such as the family, government, religion, business, or school

6. Economics: The study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services




Why Is Social Studies Important?

• NEA’s 1916 initiative: helping prepare youth for constructive participation in society

• Participatory Citizenship

• Preservation of Democracy




Major Goals of Elementary Social Studies

• Values and Beliefs: help children understand the core civic principles

• Knowledge: help children construct meaning by connecting new learning to previous experiences

• Thinking Skills: help children acquire and process information to investigate problems and make informed decisions




Dynamic Social Studies?

Placing children in a classroom environment that encourages them to rediscover the young social scientists within

1. Functional content

2. Constructivist teaching practices

3. Intrinsic motivation

4. Cross-curricular integration

5. Respect for diversity




Functional ContentCurriculum Scope and Sequence

Expanding Environment Curriculum• Kindergarten: Myself and Others• 1st grade: School and Family• 2nd grade: Neighborhood• 3rd grade: Community• 4th grade: Region and State• 5th grade: United States and Close Neighbors• 6th grade: Eastern Hemisphere• 7th grade: Western Hemisphere• 8th grade: The United States History




Functional ContentNCSS Curriculum Standards

• Culture• Time, Continuity, and Change• People, Places, and Environment• Individual Development• Individuals, Groups, and Institutions• Power, Authority, and Governance• Production, Distribution, and Consumption• Science, Technology, and Society• Global Connections• Civic Ideals and Practices




Constructivist Teaching Practice

• Instruction that is child-centered in approach and focuses on knowledge construction, not knowledge reproduction

• Emphasizes that students interpret new objects and events by trying to alter or modify existing mental structures that had formed as a result of their previous life experiences




Intrinsic Motivation

An internal impulse that provokes us to action or keeps us absorbed in certain activities

Factors

• Interest

• Pleasure

• Competence

• Self-determinationMaximDynamic Social Studies for Constructivist Classrooms, 8th Edition



Cross-Curricular Integration

• Seeking ways to bring together the various subject areas and relating the content to a central theme

• Working with obvious connections between the arts, humanities, and physical sciences




Respect for Diversity

• Adapting instruction to meet the special needs, talents, and interests of all students

• Keen awareness and consideration of each youngster as a distinct individual




Chapter 2

Diversity in the Classroom:

The Children You will Teach




Multicultural Education

• Tourist approach: special activities or projects related to cultural holiday or observance

Versus

• Multicultural education: students’ cultural backgrounds are used to develop instruction and curriculum




Why Multicultural Awareness Is Important

1. Cultural Pluralism: philosophy that likens our society to a salad bowl, pizza, mosaic, or patchwork quilt; each cultural retains identity but contributes to the whole

2. Cultural Identification: culture is reflected in a group’s artwork, literature, language, clothing, inventions, and traditions




Culturally Responsive Teaching

• Acknowledges the legitimacy of the cultural heritages of different ethnic groups

• Bridges meaningfulness between home and school

• Uses a wide variety of instructional strategies

• Incorporates multicultural information, resources, and materials in all subjects and skills taught




Culturally Responsive Strategies

• Know your community

• Seek family support

• Give equal attention to all groups

• Fill your classroom with fascinating things

• Invite visitors into your classroom

• Draw from the vast resources of the arts




Language Diversity

• Growing bilingual population

• Submersion: the practice of placing second language learners within a totally English speaking classroom

• Bilingual Teaching: using two languages as vehicles of instruction




Guidelines for Bilingual Instruction

1. Environmental Print: children learn to recognize words written in both English and their native language when they see them in print

2. Culturally conscious literature: helps strengthen cultural values and beliefs

3. Language Buddies: proficiency is enhanced with classmates’ explanations, modeling and assistance




Exceptional Children

• Ten to twelve percent of all children in the U.S. fall into the children with disabilities category

• PL 101-476 defines children with disabilities: A. as those with mental retardation; hearing

impairments, including deafness; speech or language impairments; visual impairments, including blindness; serious emotional disturbance; orthopedic impairments; autism; traumatic brain injury; other health impairments or specific learning disabilities

B. who by reason thereof need special education and related services




The Concept of Inclusion

1. State and federal laws mandate, support, and encourage it

2. Some parents of children with special needs were troubled that their children were required to attend separate programs

3. Educators, parents, and children have had rewarding experiences in inclusive environments




Opponents of Inclusion

1. Not all parents want their children with disabilities taken from their special programs

2. Many teachers feel inadequately prepared to provide for the special needs of children with disabilities in their classroom




Teaching Children with Disabilities

1. Learn about each specific disability

2. Maximize interactions between children with disabilities and nondisabled children

3. Individualize your program

4. Assess your classroom environment

5. Choose books that help children learn and appreciate diversity




Gifted Children

1. Verbal Skills: use advanced vocabulary; spontaneously create stories; explain complex processes; exchange ideas and information fluently

2. Abstractions: retain easily what they have heard or read

3. Power of Concentration: attentive to features of a new environment or experience; become totally absorbed in an activity

4. Intellect: carry out complex instructions; focus on problems and seek solutions; store and recall easily; memorize well; learn rapidly; explain ideas in novel ways; curious; ask questions

5. Behavior: sensitive to the needs and feelings of others; strong feelings of self-confidence.




Strategies for Gifted Children

1. Use faster-paced instruction for skills- and content-based learning so they can move more rapidly through the curriculum

2. Use inquiry and independent research projects that encourage independent learning

3. Use more advanced materials

4. Reorganize subject matter so they can explore issues across curricular areas and promote higher order thinking




Multiple Intelligences

1. Logical-Mathematical: good problem solvers, discover logical patterns, enjoy numbers and counting; understand cause and effect; curious; enjoy making predictions; ask questions

2. Linguistic Intelligence: master language; love the sound and rhythm of words; love reading and making up stories, poems, jokes and riddles; learn vocabulary easily





3. Musical Intelligence: enjoy producing or listening to music; appreciate forms of musical expressiveness

4. Visual-Spatial Intelligence: manipulate and create mental images; draw and paint superbly; enjoy building things; easily interpret and construct maps and models





5. Bodily-Kinesthetic: able to coordinate body movements and handle objects; dance, run, jump, throw, catch and climb better than their peers; enjoy making things with their hands

6. Interpersonal Intelligence: outgoing; in tune with others’ feelings and emotions; recognize moods and feelings of others; empathetic; understand people and work well with people




Multiple Intelligence

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: inner directed; understand themselves and their own strengths, weaknesses, and motivations; often quiet and work alone; confidence in their ability

8. Naturalist Intelligence: able to recognize flora and fauna; understand the natural world; use abilities in hunting, farming, and biological sciences




Gender

• Gender identity emerges from dynamic interactions of biological and environmental forces

• By age 5 or 6 children have already learned much of the stereotypical behavior of their gender

• Developmental Sexism: children grow enormously sexist in their perception of gender roles and choice of play activities

• Children learn that they permanently belong to a category called “boy” or “girl”




Strategies for eliminating gender bias in the classroom

1. Avoid stereotyping masculine and feminine roles

2. Use gender-free language whenever possible

3. Classroom materials should present an honest view of males and females

4. A balanced view of the contributions of men and women should be presented




Social Class

• Research shows a strong relationship between SES and school performance

• Contributing factors: – Poor health care for mother and child– Limited resources– Family stress– Interruptions in schooling– Discrimination




Other Explanations for Low Achievement

1. Low expectations – low self-esteem

2. Learned helplessness

3. Resistance cultures

4. Tracking




Chapter 3

Young Historians:

Coming Face to Face with the Past




What Is history?

• History is a narrative of the past

• Historical method: 1. Locate pertinent information

2. Examine sources for accuracy

3. Organize information into narrative




Sources of History

• Primary Sources: written and nonwritten clues produced at the time of the event

• Secondary Sources: evidence from someone at another time who didn’t witness the event




Why History Is Important

• By studying the past, young citizens will be better prepared to judge the present and future

• “Without history, a society shares no common memory of where it has been, of what its core values are, or of what decisions of the past account for our present circumstances” (National Center for History in Schools (1996))




How Should History Be Taught?

• Historical Narratives: Chronicles of real events that tell a story

1. Historical fiction2. Biographies3. Folk literature

• Historical narratives have the power to evoke emotion

• Children must also have opportunity to write their own narratives




Historical Fiction

• Historical Fiction: Realistic story set in the past• Gives children opportunity to vicariously

experience history• Selection Guidelines

1. It must tell an interesting story

2. It should be accurate and authentic

3. It should reflect the spirit and values of the times

4. It should contain authentic language

5. It should provide insight into today’s problems




Biographies

• Biographies: Tell the stories of the lives of real people

• Biographies of exemplary heroes provide superb models of citizenship

• Best biographies characterize the main character as true to life

• Should recognize individuals as real human beings with both strengths and weaknesses




Guidelines for Selecting Biographies

1. Story should be well-researched

2. Story should be carefully documented

3. The narrative of the person’s life should be fast moving

4. The writing should be clear and readable




Folk Literature

• Folk literature: Fables, myths, legends, and folktales

• Stories handed down by storytellers for generations

• They reflect those cultures’ beliefs, values, lifestyles, and histories

• They help children understand a culture’s past through its values, beliefs, and customs

• Carefully research the story content and place the story in context when using it




Textbooks

• Provide a broad overview of the topic to be taught

• Provide extensive treatment of subject matter organized from one grade to another

• Comprehensive teacher’s manuals assist teachers

• Beginning teachers find textbooks valuable• Textbook-based instruction can be effective

when topic is connected to children’s lives and is enhanced by resources and activities




Writing Historical Narratives

• Social studies provides contexts to write frequently and purposefully

• Children exposed to historical narratives develop an interest in using the styles of their favorite authors




Elements of a Narrative

• Setting: described early in the story; helps reader create picture of distinctive times

• Characters: the physical and emotional attributes; look, dress, feel

• Plot: sequence of events; the action; contains three parts-

1. A problem, conflict, or difficulty

2. Roadblocks

3. Solution




Storypath

• Begin by having children work in small groups to create a setting for the topic

• Children should create a mural to illustrate setting

• Children should then create characters

• Children then gain deeper understanding of the topic by learning about the chronology of the topic (the plot)




Primary Sources

• Connection with the past• Power to arouse interest• Written evidence versus nonwritten

evidence1. Written evidence: anything written down that

gives historians clues about people and past events (documents, diaries, letters, songs etc.)

2. Nonwritten evidence: artifacts (photos, paintings, coins, furniture, tools, etc.)




Children’s Simulated Historical Documents

• Children should have opportunity to create simulated written documents

• Teacher should review components of the writing process before creating simulated documents




Simulated Period Newspapers

• Offer thought-provoking writing form• Children express the content they are

learning• Children can also use other newspaper

formats such as the front page, editorial column, political cartoon, sports section, real estate, help wanted, classified, movie review, fashion page, food guide, advice column




Diaries

• Short, private accounts of and reactions to daily events

• Children come into contact with human emotions, values, and attitudes of the past

• Chronicle the events of people’s lives




Letters

• Friendly letters and diaries are conversational in style and express the writer’s account of important events

• Model letters from the past help children develop conversational style of writing




Oral Histories

• Someone telling stories of personal experiences related to particular places or times

• Children can also create simulated oral histories

• Interviews: Conducting interviews is a superb way to introduce children to the process of collecting oral histories




Nonwritten Sources: Artifacts

• Artifacts: photos, paintings, coins, furniture, tools, clothing, dishes, etc.

• Help historians reconstruct the story of human life

• Cemeteries hold historical clues

• Assemble a collection of artifacts and documents related to a historical topic or theme




Historical Inquiry

• Children should engage history the way historians do

• Meaningful historical inquiry comes from personal questions

• Children investigate historical problems, often expressed in the form of questions




Museums

• The world outside the classroom is a powerful learning experience

• Visiting living history or reenactments can help children visualize period clothing, houses, furnishing, tools and other artifacts

• Investigate museums within your community




Chronology

• Students demonstrate that they understand chronological organization of history when they can organize events and people into major periods of time and explain relationships between those people and events

• Use event chains and graphic timelines




Chapter 4

Young Geographers:

Investigating the People/Place Connection




What Is Geography?

• An integrative discipline that brings together the physical and human dimensions of the world in the study of people, places, and environments

1. Earth’s surface and processes that shaped it

2. Relationships between people and environments

3. Connections between people and places




Why Study Geography?

• Strong grasp of geography equips people to make better-informed decisions about how to use Earth’s resources

• Investigates the ways by which our land has influenced the way people live

• Children learn how to describe places, explain how these places came to be, and appreciate the delicate bond between humans and their physical environment




Why Study Geography?

1. Existential reason: need to understand the nature of our home

2. Ethical reason: knowledge of how to care for the fragile nature of the Earth

3. Intellectual reason: knowledge of interesting people, places, and things

4. Practical reason: people are better equipped to solve issues and problems




Five Themes of Geography

1. Location: Position on the Earth’s surfaceAbsolute Location: specific position on the Earth

Relative Location: place respective to other landmarks

2. Place: Physical and Human Characteristics

3. Relationships within Place: Humans and Environments

4. Movement: Humans Interacting on the Earth

5. Regions: How They Form and Change




Six Essential Elements of Geography

1. World in spatial terms

2. Places and regions

3. Physical systems

4. Human systems

5. Environment and society

6. Use of geography




How Should Geography be Taught?

• Goal: students who are knowledgeable and sensitive to make wise judgments about their environment; caring citizens

• Six Phase of Geography Instruction1. Observing2. Speculating3. Investigating4. Extending and reinforcing5. Evaluating




Observing

• Beginning of geographic inquiry

• Use direct observations

• Primary grades use multiple resources (photos, videos, maps, globes, atlases, charts, information books, periodicals, textbooks, virtual field trips)




Virtual Field Trips

• Benefits1. Hands-on learning permits students to interact with

real things

2. Students develop a greater appreciation for the environment

3. Examples observed in the field can be related to other classroom work

• Process1. Take field notes and make sketches

2. Discuss observations




Speculating

• Observations lay the foundation for more complex understandings

• Look for clues in the pictures and during the field trips

• Develop inferences that will be tested




Investigating

• Gathering information about locations and human characteristics of those places

• In early elementary grades, use literature, videos, resource persons, Internet sites or other suitable resources

• In middle and upper grades, use other investigative activities such as field work or library research




Extending and Reinforcing

• Use individual or small-group writing activities

• Construct models

• Make maps

• Study tables, charts, graphs

• Examine all types of literature

• Use stimulating data-gathering activities




Evaluating

• Making personal judgments about the situation

• Ask children to support personal opinion with sound reasons




Independent Projects

• Key Events of a Project1. Opening Event:

• should stimulate interest• could come from primary sources or secondary sources• recall previous experiences • begin with questions

2. Investigating and Producing Something• conducting an experiment• direct observation• Interviewing someone

3. Communicating or Sharing the Project




Benefits of the Project Approach

1. Confronts students with geography-related problems

2. Serves to focus research

3. Can involve the whole class, small groups, or individuals

4. Time flexibility: extend over a whole month or as little as a day

5. Children take the initiativeMaximDynamic Social Studies for Constructivist Classrooms, 8th Edition



Maps: Geographer’s Tools

• A map is a graphic representation of the earth’s surface

• Begin by helping children establish a basic idea of what maps are

• For younger children, awareness begins with the understanding that a map is a picture of some place on earth

• For young children, avoid the aerial view concept of maps




Beginning Map Skills Instruction

• First Steps1. Locating places2. Recognizing and expressing relative location3. Interpreting map symbols4. Developing a basic idea of relative size and

scale5. Reading directions6. Understanding that the globe is the most

accurate representation of the Earth’s surface




Three-Dimensional Maps

• Initial formal mapping experiences should be with a location thoroughly familiar to the children

• Begin in second grade by using concrete building material

• This phase of map construction is critical and leads them to understanding of the aerial view of maps




Flat Maps

• Three-dimensional maps can be easily transformed into a flat map

• In early grades consider constructing a model community:

1. As a way for children to learn about their community

2. As a way to master beginning map skills




Other Types of Maps

• Story maps: good children’s books offer opportunities for early mapping activities

• Mental maps: informally drawn representation of what a person thinks a place on Earth looks like




Refining Map Skills

• Map symbols

• Direction

• Scale

• The globe

• Latitude and longitude




Chapter 5

Young Political Scientists:

Future Citizens in Action




What Is Civics?

• Study of the political and legal system

• Study of our rights and responsibilities

• Study about how our government works




Why Is Civics Important?

• Goal of public education: prepare effective citizens

• Expand civic knowledge

• Develop participation skills

• Support the belief that in a democracy the actions of a person make a difference




How Should Civics Be Taught?

• Information experiences: include all the strategies teachers use to establish a cohesive, supportive, democratic classroom – Classroom management techniques– Classroom meetings– Rule setting– Classroom symbols– Classroom holidays

• Formal experiences: content-based instructional strategies that foster critical thinking




Formal Civics Instruction

• Goal is to develop a greater insight and appreciation for civic life

• Civic knowledge must have relevance to the students’ lives

• Children understand civics more by participating in the processes they are learning about– Elections and voting– Civic responsibility– Civic dispositions and virtues– Critical thinking




Civic Responsibility

• Goal: shift from imparting knowledge to producing citizens who are committed to civic participation

• Engage students in community service projects• Kids Around Town model

1. Knowing the local government2. Choosing a local issue to explore3. Researching the issue4. Analyzing the issue5. Solving the problem6. Taking action7. Assessing the project




Academic Controversies

1. The students choose a topic on which two well- documented positions can be prepared

2. Students are assigned to groups of four3. Each pair is assigned its tasks of knowing the position,

locating information on the position, and preparing persuasive arguments to defend the position

4. Each team presents its side of the issue5. Teams reverse perspectives by presenting the

opposing position6. Teams drop their advocacy and attempt to reach a

group decision by consensus7. The class develops a plan of action to implement its

final position




Civic Dispositions and Virtues

• In elementary grades, civic dispositions are introduced when students experience life in democratic classrooms

• Center for Civic Education identifies:– Individual rights to life, liberty, property, and

happiness– Public or common good– Justice– Equality of opportunity– Diversity– Truth– Patriotism




Literature

• Literature is a good source for learning about character

• Five themes of citizenship1. Honesty

2. Responsibility

3. Compassion

4. Respect

5. Courage




Critical Thinking

• Children must retain information and also think deeply about the material– Learn from it– Reason with it– Analyze it– Solve problems with it

• Critical thinking is a complex mental process; widely debated




Graphic Organizers

• Graphic organizers help students systematize their thinking

• Climbing a Decision Tree1. Decide what question to examine2. Abbreviate the decision3. Identify alternatives4. Discuss positive and negative

consequences of each alternative5. Record the consequences




Fact versus Opinion

• Facts: statements that are generally accepted as true and can be validated by evidence– Must be backed up with evidence

• Opinions: statements about what people believe or feel about something; cannot be proven true– Clue words signal opinions




Political Cartoons and Editorials

• Attempt to sway one’s opinion about a particular issue

• Political Cartoons– Deal with one central ideas– Fairly uncomplicated– Use symbols to express ideas

• Editorials– Serve same function as political cartoons– Use words to express ideas




Chapter 6

The Learning Cycle:

Teacher Scaffolded Social Constructivism




What Is Constructivism?

• Refers to the process by which children acquire and organize information

• Associated with theorists: Piaget and Vygotsky

• Children develop intelligence not by being told, but by building their own understandings




Piaget

• Schemata gradually become more complex• Happens through a sequence of adaptation

1. Assimilation: mental process that occurs when children integrate new knowledge and experiences with existing schema – results in equilibrium

2. Disequilibrium results when new information or experiences don’t match with existing schema

3. Accommodation: when children attempt to modify an existing schema

• Motivation: comes from children’s drive to either assimilate into or accommodate schemata in response to new experiences in their environment




Constructivist Learning

• Is a strategic problem-solving process by which learners are intrinsically driven to construct meaning from a new learning challenge

• Happens when the learner’s experiences are triggered or activated by the challenge of a new learning situation

• Teacher’s role is to create challenging situations for learners




Cognitive vs. Social Constructivism

• Cognitive constructivism: the idea that learning occurs within each individual learner

• Social constructivism: the idea that learning occurs as a result of people working together to make sense out of their world




What Is Social Constructivism?

• Centers on positive adult-student and student-student relationships

• Teachers make available absorbing materials and intriguing situations

• Teachers engages students in activities and provide some form of systematized intervention




Lev Vygotsky

• Believed that humans are different from animals because they make and use tools– Physical tools– Mental tools

• Humans pass on knowledge and skills through language during verbal interactions

• Zones of Development– Zone of Actual Development: learning tasks are

completed individually with no assistance– Zone of Proximal Development: learning tasks are

completed with just the right amount of assistanceMaximDynamic Social Studies for Constructivist Classrooms, 8th Edition



Scaffolding

• When teachers offer just the right amount of help for students as they attempt to bridge the gap between what they already know and what they need to learn

• Provides temporary support for children

• Teacher provides cueing, questioning, coaching, and support




The Learning Cycle

• Learning cycle is a student-centered, problem-solving teaching approach that creates conceptual change through social interactions

• Three major elements1. Exploration

2. Concept/skill development

3. Concept/skill application




The Exploration Phase

• Purpose1. Activate prior knowledge

2. Draw students into the lesson

3. Focus student’s attention on task with clear purpose




Activating Prior Knowledge

• Goal is to establish a connection between what they know and the new information

– Ausubel: Advanced Organizer– Huner: Anticipatory Set– Vygotsky: External Mediator

• External Mediator1. Class discussion with thought-provoking questions

2. Provocative objects or events

3. Graphic outlines of material to be covered




Discussion Sequence

1. Existing Knowledge: Ask question to stimulate recall

2. Thought Association: Ask question to draw comparisons

3. Rapid Recognition: Display symbols, terms to aid association

4. Quick Lesson Review: Ask questions to connect new learning with previous learning

5. Open Discussion: Ask open-ended questions to create interest or raise questions to investigate




Graphic Organizers

• Bubble Trees: use when relevant information can be categorized beneath a core understanding

• Prediction Charts: contain a statement or series of statements related to concepts or issues under study

• K-W-L: Table that identifies what children Know, what they Want to know, and what they Learned

• Semantic Webs: help students organize ideas




Graphic Organizers, con’t

• Venn Diagrams: graphic organizers that can be used to compare and contrast two divergent cognitive elements

• Cycles: type of graphic organizer that helps students visualize a series of connected events that occur in sequence and produce a repeated result




Establishing a Clear Purpose

• Children are always asking, “Why is this important?”

• Knowing what is expected is important– To find out something vitally interesting– Follow certain directions– Get a central idea– Stimulate personal thinking on deep subject

• Must be linked to prior knowledge and lessons• Generally comes last during introductory

sequence• Focuses student attention




The Development Phase

• The Main Learning Experience• Key Questions

– What basic concepts or skills are to be taught?– What learning materials should be used to explain

and clarify ideas for the students?– How can teachers assist children to construct key

concepts and skills?– What strategies could be used to make sure the

students understand the concept or master the skill?




Concept Analysis

• Concepts are the schemata• Class of ideas• Dynamic• Designated by a label• Concrete concepts: physical attributes• Abstract concepts: logical constructs• Concept analysis is the process of breaking

down a concept by identifying its defining features




Basic Skills

• Skills are mental or physical operations having a specific set of actions that are developed through practice

• Skills are best taught and reinforced as separate lessons

• Task analysis: process of identifying component parts of skills and sequencing the steps

• Modeling skills is highly effective and efficient– When teacher is perceived as capable professional– When students are convinced they can succeed




Materials for Instruction

• Brunner’s three levels of learning1. Enactive level: includes objects, people, places,

trips, visitors, and real-life classroom experiences

2. Iconic level: representations of real objects when the actual objects or places can not be accessed

3. Symbolic level: abstract ideas, symbols, language and logic

• Select materials that represent a balance of these three levels




Class Discussions

• A vital ingredient of constructivist classrooms

• Primary purpose of talk is to assist students in restructuring what they already know




Closed-ended Questions

1. They help determine whether students have learned the content

2. They help detect whatever misconceptions students have about the content

3. They help students check their own progress




Open-ended Questions

• Lead to more complex thinking

• Encourage analyzing and evaluating

• Students are generally more involved in the class discussion

• Teachers should plan their sequence of questions




Art of Questioning (Dewey)

1. Questions should not elicit fact upon fact, but should help students delve deeper

2. Questions should emphasize personal interpretations rather than literal and direct responses

3. Questions should not be asked randomly, but should be planned to lead to the next question

4. Teachers should periodically review important points so that previously discussed material can be placed into perspective

5. The end of the question-asking sequence should leave children feeling a sense of accomplishment




Framing Questions

• Ask the question

• Pause for 3 to 5 seconds (wait time)

• Call on someone to respond

• Pause for 3 to 5 seconds once more to give students time to think about a response




Concept/Skill Application Phase

• Opportunity to apply and practice a new skill or concept through special projects or independent activities

• Creativity and choice– Group murals– Story writing– Construction projects– Drama– Puppetry– Music

• Should result in constructing deeper meaning




Chapter 7

Cooperative Learning:

Student-Assisted Social Constructivism




What Is Cooperative Learning?

• Instructional model in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of any social studies topic

• Positive interdependence: all students work together to complete a task

• Vehicle for social constructivism




How Does Cooperative Learning Work?

• It is a classroom management strategy• Need to teach students how to work effectively in groups• Understand factors that influence group function

– Following directions– Keeping focused on the task– Completing responsibilities on time– Asking for help when you need it– Listening attentively to others– Contributing ideas when you have them– Considering the ideas and feelings of others– Offering encouragement to others– Making sure everyone has a chance to participate




Teaching Cooperative Learning Skills

• Cooperative learning skills can be taught

• Three suggestions1. Define the skill clearly and specifically

2. Ask students to characterize the skill

3. Practice and reinforce the skill

• Provide children with frequent and meaningful opportunities to function as group members




Group Composition

• Best for teachers to wait until October or November before using cooperative learning

• Common mistake: allowing students to work in groups of their own choosing

• Initial groups should be pairs • Primary grade children work best in pairs• By grade 3 or 4, groups of three will work

effectively• By upper elementary and middle school, groups

of four work effectively• Groups should be heterogeneously mixed




Group Composition, con’t

• Two-person Group: promotes relationships and ensures participation

• Three-person Group: changes two-person majority; participation is likely

• Four-person Group: allows for different perspectives, each member can express himself or herself




Common Roles in Groups

• Group Captain: reads the task aloud to group, checks to make sure everyone is listening, coordinates the group’s efforts

• Materials Manager: gathers, distributes, and collects books and resources

• Recorder: fills out forms and writes down and edits group’s report

• Illustrator: draws any pictures, graphs, charts, or figures• Monitor: keeps the group focused on the task• Coach: sees that everyone has a chance to participate




Types of Groupings

• Think-Pair-Share-Discussions

• Think-Pair-Square

• Numbered Heads Together

• Jigsaw

• Pick Your Spot

• Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (STAD)




Choosing a Reward System

• Bonus points added to all members’ scores when a team achieves an academic task

• Nonacademic rewards such as free homework passes, stickers, erasers or pencils, or extra recess time

• Social rewards such as smiles or verbal praise




Chapter 8

Inquiry and Problem Solving:

Cognitive Constructivism in Action




What Is Cognitive Constructivism?

• Active process• Driven by the learner• Presumes that development is a natural

biological process that is the same for all• Regards the purpose of social studies

instruction as a function of supporting the child’s needs and interests

• Role of the teacher is to provide an environment to explore problems




What Is Problem-Centered Instruction?

• Dewey: Problems can be thought of as anything that creates doubt and uncertainty in learners

• Three elements:1. Designing captivating classroom displays

(mini-museums)

2. Discussing the displays

3. Encouraging children’s questions




Mini-Museums

• Set aside exhibit areas in your classroom• Design inspirational exhibits• Allow children to explore, question, think, and

talk about these exhibits• Observational experiences do not guarantee the

acquisition of problem-solving skills• Couple the observations with carefully worded

questions• Encourage children’s questions




Inquiry Procedures

• John Dewey1. Students identify the problem or question to

investigate2. Students generate hypotheses or tentative

answers that can be verified3. Students collect data4. Students analyze the date and form

generalizations to apply to problem5. Students share their results with an

audienceMaximDynamic Social Studies for Constructivist Classrooms, 8th Edition



Locating Problems or Questions

• Student must initially encounter an attention-grabbing problem

• Problems must hold a high degree of mystery and appeal

• Problem must be something students are interested in

• Problems must be clear, understandable, and meaningful

• Problems must lie with the students’ range of ability




Generating Hypotheses

• Defined: educated guess, feeling, hunch, or suspicion

• Formulating hypotheses involves a certain amount of risk

• Teacher must attach importance to each individual’s input

• Teacher should dignify all responses• Purpose of hypotheses is to lead to data-

gathering phaseMaximDynamic Social Studies for Constructivist Classrooms, 8th Edition



Gathering the Data

• At this phase students actively search for knowledge

• Types of data-gathering activities– Surveys– Descriptive research– Historical research




Survey Research

• Survey: systematic collection of data that helps explain some characteristic of a particular group of people– 1st step: design precise questions based on

clarification of the problem– 2nd step: students offer predictions about responses

that become the categories for responses

• Sample strategy• Organize data and summarize in graphic form• Examine the data and draw conclusions




Descriptive Research

• Direct observation: includes all tangible, hands-on experiences that involve students in touching, handling, or trying out objects or events

• Indirect observation: makes use of information sources other than direct experiences




Historical Research

• Process of gathering and evaluating relevant information about the past




Organizing and Analyzing Data

• Children should use maps, graphs, charts, or graphic organizers

• Teacher should model the process of organizing

• Teacher should build in time for students to reflect on the data




Sharing Results

• Results should be shared with an authentic audience

• Use a variety of communication possibilities– Oral presentations– Graphic representations– Photographs– Audio or video tapes– Debates– Dramatic skits– Bulletin board displays




Creative Problem Solving (CPS)

• Creativity: novel or original behavior that produces an appropriate and productive result

• Four cognitive traits– Fluency– Flexibility– Originality– Elaboration

Systematic versus intuitive responsesMaximDynamic Social Studies for Constructivist Classrooms, 8th Edition



Model of Creativity

• Domain knowledge and skills

• Creative thinking and working skills

• Intrinsic motivation

• Three-step method– Brainstorming– The Mess: saying all that can be said– Idea-Finding: brainstorming possible remedies




Types of Thought-Provoking Questions

• Generate new ideas

• Adaptation

• Enlargement

• Condensation

• Substitution




Benefits of CPS

1. Higher feelings of self-confidence, self-esteem, and compassion

2. Wider exploration of traditional content subjects and skills

3. Higher levels of creative invention in content and skills




Chapter 9

Instructional Planning:

The Basis of Successful Teaching




Why Is Planning Important?

• Many preservice teachers underestimate the importance of planning

• Planning keeps lessons on course and assures the teacher that objectives are being addressed

• Planning can be time consuming• Planning starts at the beginning of the

year and includes a blueprint for the entire year




How Are Unit Plans Constructed?

• Comprehensive outlines for instruction created around a central idea

• Unit designs vary• Five step process

1. Select a topic for study2. Formulate goals and objectives3. Organize the content4. Select a rich variety of learning experiences5. Assess the degree to which the goals and

objectives have been met




Select a topic

• Topics should be of high interest• School A: has district-wide, textbook-based

social studies curriculum• School B: supplies comprehensive curriculum

guides and textbooks• School C: furnishes a curriculum guide and

textbook program• School D: believes teachers should plan in

response to state standards and student interests




Formulating Goals and Objectives

• Goals: broad, general statements of intended outcomes

• Objectives: statements that target the specific outcomes




Organizing the Content

• Begins with a thorough search of the content required to accomplish the objectives

• Can use factstorming: (ask questions about the topic, then ask questions about the subtopics)

• Expand the content through use of a variety of resources

• Include a summary paragraph of your content• Include an outline of the content




Selecting Learning Experiences

• Highest priority should be placed on balance and variety

• The younger the children, the greater the variety




Plan The Learning Experiences

• Phase 1: Introductory Activities should “hook” students into the unit content

• Phase 2: Developmental Experiences are the heart of the unit, in which activities are done independently, in small groups, or by whole class

• Phase 3: Culminating Activity allows students to review, summarize, or bring closure to the topic




Learning Experiences, con’t

• Sometimes the unit that follows is such a natural transition that neither a culminating activity for the first unit nor an introductory experience for the second is necessary

• Teachers should describe the specific activities– Blueprints: a brief description of the activity– Lesson plans: detailed descriptions of the

activity




Assessing Learning and Teaching

• Two strategies– Formative assessment: occurs as the unit is

being carried out; takes place daily and is part of all lessons

– Summative assessment: occurs at the end of the unit and measures final achievement




Authentic Formative Assessment

• Three criteria1. Students must apply knowledge they have

acquired

2. Students must complete a specified task within authentic contexts

3. The task or product must meet specified criteria

• Begins by re-examining the specific lesson objectives




Criteria for Authentic Formative Assessment

• Define the problem

• Brainstorm ideas

• Plan and design it

• Name it

• Patent it

• Market it




What to Do with Results

• Authentic assessments help establish the students’ areas of strengths

• Two helpful tools– Checklists: easy to use– Rubrics: identify important strengths and

weaknesses; break down the performance and assign a number to represent quality




Summative Assessment

• A summary of what the student accomplished at the end of the unit

• Often uses tests generated by teachers

• May include standardized testing

• Portfolios: a collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress, and achievement




Portfolios

• May include student writings, art products, photographs, independent research reports, projects, favorite books, and other work samples

• Countless ways to organize• Students must take active role in selecting

material• Must address instructional objectives• Should include individual conferences with

students so they can reflect on their work




Chapter 10

Key Instructional Resources:

Going Beyond the Ordinary




Doing Something Real

• Realia: Refers to any activities that use real materials

• A hands-on approach requires students to play an active part in the learning process rather than passively read a textbook

• Concept of hands-on social studies is based on the belief that children should learn with the methods of natural exploration they naturally use while trying to make sense of the world around them




Authentic Resources

• Field Trips: Good field trips for elementary school youngsters involve students as active participants

• Resource Persons: People from the world outside of school who come to the classroom to share some skill or knowledge with the students




Depictions of Reality

• Videos, Filmstrips, and Slides: Great because they involve action and transport students to other times

• Pictures and Study Prints: Children can envision people, places, events, or feelings that are difficult to perceive in other ways




Level of Questioning

• Literal Level: Simply being able to name, list, and describe specific details about items being observed

• Inferential Level: Speculating about such things as character traits, missing details or elements, or cause-and-effect relationships

• Critical Level: Interpreting feelings and values




Integrating the Arts

• Overall aim is to help students gain a sense of a culture’s human spirit by examining the great works of art of its people

• Exposure to the arts must not stop at examining and responding

• Children should be able to re-create expressive art products to reinforce understandings, authenticity, and accuracy




The Visual Arts

• Illustrations: Children can record what they have learned

• Music: Children can learn about various musical expressions while using music to express their understanding

• Creative Movement and Dance: Children can examine the role of dance in different cultures and respect differences in cultures

• Drama: Children can reveal their feelings, express their understanding, and learn about other cultures through drama




Textbooks

Benefits– Easy to use– Convenient instructional package– Carefully researched– Systematic body of content

Problems– Written too unimaginatively for young children– Often the only source of content– Substitute for hands-on instruction




Trade Books

Support social studies instruction by supplying facts, concepts, and ideas for children’s own investigations and projects – Historical fiction– Biographies– Folk literature




Newspapers

• Begin by teaching children how to read a newspaper

• Consider using other types of news sources– Electronic newspapers– Current affairs periodicals




Computers

• Tutorial Software: Software programs that introduce knowledge and skills and reinforce them

• Problem-Solving Software: Software that presents highly complex situations where students face a dilemma, must choose from alternatives, and devise a solution

• Simulation Software: Software that reproduces something real




Computers, con’t

• Word Processing: Software that is designed to facilitate the efficient collecting, revising, storing, and printing of text

• Telecommunications: Software that allows one to connect to the Internet

• Hypermedia (Presentation Software): Software that combines video, graphics, animation, and text to communicate information in a thought-provoking way




Chapter 1 Dynamic Social Studies: The Subject You Will Teach Maxim Dynamic Social Studies for...

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