Challenging False

Perceptions:

Boosting

Students Career

Decision Making

Self-Efficacy

By Catherine Cash, EdD, MA, GCDF

University of Central Florida

School of Social Work

Presentation Objectives

I. Understand the factors that influence student’s career decision

making self-efficacy

II. Identify theoretical approaches that may be applied to

conceptualize the career decision making process

III. Acquire advising strategies that may be applied to enhance

student’s career decision making self-efficacy

Presentation Outline

– Part I: Factors associated with career decision making self-efficacy

– Part II: Theoretical frameworks

– Part III: Advising strategies to career decision making self-efficacy

– Part IV: Review and discuss case studies

Factors Influencing

Students Career

Decision Self-Efficacy

Part I

Why is Self-Efficacy Important?

– It influences students behavior within

particular situations.

– Positively related to influencing students

overall performance:

Social integration

Academic persistence

Career/major choice satisfaction

Workforce competency

(Freudenberg, Cameron, & Brimble, 2011)

Making a Distinction

Career Decision Making Self-

Efficacy (CDMSE)

– “I think I can. I think I can.”

– Self-efficacy is defined as “people’s

beliefs about their own capabilities

to perform (547).”

– CDMSE is: (a) the ability to recognize

potential careers and (b) the belief

that you are competent enough to

make career decisions.

(Bullock-Yowell, McConnell, & Schedin, 2014; Nilsen 2009)

Bandura Social Cognitive Theory

Sources of Self-Efficacy

Psychosocial and Affective

States

Indirect Experiences

Verbal Persuasion

Opportunities for Mastery

(Bandura, 1986)

Psychosocial & Affective States

– Cognitive interpretation of psychosocial and affective states

– Leong and Chervinko (1996) found strong association between

career indecision and adverse personality traits

– Fear of commitment or the unknown, perfectionism, negative

self-talk…etc.

– Conklin, Dahling, and Garcia (2013) found major changing

repeatedly = greater self-doubt & anxiety

(Akhtar, 2008)

Indirect Experiences

– Observation

– Students who are unsure of their abilities

may enhance their self-efficacy by observing

others

Make similarities between model and self

Identify group norms through social

comparisons

Preview tasks and roles before taking

action

(Akhtar, 2008)

Verbal Persuasion

– Messages from peers, teachers, academic advisors, or parents may

strengthen or weaken a students self-efficacy

– Receiving evaluative feedback from a creditable and

knowledgeable source is key

Authentic and developmentally appropriate

Constructive, objective, and specific

– Criticism has a negative effect and decreases self-efficacy

(Akhtar, 2008)

Mastery Experiences

– Gaining experience from performance

– Considered one of the most “robust, influential, and authentic”

contributors of self-efficacy (Fong & Krause, p. 251, 2014; Bandura,

1997)

– Usher and Pajares (2008) asserted that insight gained from

mastery experiences are a better predictor of self-efficacy than the

actual performance (p. 757)

(Akhtar, 2008)

Relevant Theories and

Research

Part II

Career Choice Competencies

Accurate self-assessment

Gathering occupational information

Goal setting

Making plans for the future

Problem solving

Career Decision Making Process

Self-Assessment

Identify and Research Options

Evaluate and Prioritize

Take Action and Try Options

Reflect and Re-evaluate

Cognitive Information Processing

(CIP) Theory

Self-Talk

Self-Awareness

Monitoring and Control

– Negative thinking may impact

students skills to accurately self-

assess their abilities and consider

potential careers.

– Career thinking is asserted as

metacognitions, which influence the

cognitive strategies individuals use

to solve career issues.

(Bullock-Yowell, McConnell, & Schedin, 2014 )

CIP Research

– Saunders, Peterson, Sampson, and Reardon (2000) identified within their study that negative career thoughts explained 61% of the variance within career indecision.

– Undecided students struggle with greater levels of negative career thinking and lower levels of career decision making and self-efficacy (Bullock-Yowell, McConnell, Schedin, & 2014).

– Cunningham and Smothers (2010) asserted from their research that students who repeatedly change majors tend to have lower levels of self-efficacy, problem-solving, and decision making skills

Strong correlations between: (a) career decision making and self-efficacy and (b) major changing and self-efficacy

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Factors Influencing CDM

• Personal evaluation of your ability in comparison to others

Self-observation generalizations

• Your perspective on how the world works

Worldview generalizations

• Your ability to cope, realistically evaluate your abilities, and engage in problem solving

Task approach skills

• Prior learning experiences Actions

(Hughey, Nelson, Damminger, & McCalla-Wriggins, 2009)

Social Cognitive Career Theory

(SCCT)

Contextual Support

Outcome Expectations

Goals Performance

Self-efficacy

(Adapted from Bolkan, Pedersen, Stormes, & Manke, 2018)

Career Theory Performance Model

Family, friends, mentors, academic advisors…etc.

SCCT Research

CDMSE influences

Perceived major

Career outcome expectations

Affective major commitment predicts

CDMSE

Positive outcome expectations

Fit between perceived skills & major influences

Affective major commitment

CDMSE

- Conklin, Dahling, and Garcia (2013) asserted the following from their research:

Academic Advising

Strategies

Part III

SOAR Model of Career

Development

Self-Awareness

Opportunity Awareness

Aspirations Results

1) Recognize strengths 2) Identify opportunities 3) Establish academic and

career outcomes 4) Identify measurable

results that will signify achievement of outcomes

(Kumar, 2007)

Fits into an Appreciative

Advising Approach

Disarm

Discover

• Self-Awareness Dream

• Opportunity Awareness Design

• Aspirations Deliver

• Results Don’t Settle

SOAR Model Tenants

1. Students are unique individuals and full of potential

2. Many opportunities are available; however, access is not evenly distributed

3. It is possible to have many opportunities and suitable choices

4. Students capability to seize an opportunity depends on motivation, skills, and personality

5. Necessary to enhance self-awareness and self-efficacy of external requirements and expectations (i.e., teachers, employers, …etc.)

6. The SOAR model can be applied frequently and requires flexibility as students career development evolves over time

(Kumar, 2007, p. 10)

Cyclical Developmental Process

Self-Awareness

Where am I now?

Evaluation and review

Opportunity

Where do I want to be?

Research and explore

Determine necessary skills

Aspirations

How do I get there?

Plan development

and goal setting

Results

Record achievements

(Kumar, 2007, p. 33)

Self-Awareness is Key

Self-awareness

Self-assessment

Self-efficacy

Self-promotion

Self-management

Other-awareness

Team effectiveness

Interpersonal skills

(Kumar, 2007, p. 78)

Enhancing CDM Self-Awareness

– What are some career fields that interest you?

– Do you have so many interests that none stand out? Which ones have you

identified?

– What are your strongest abilities? Why do you consider these strong?

– What do you value? What is important to you in a job?

– Have you used any career resources to explore your interests? Which ones?

– Are you feeling pressure to make a certain decision to please others?

– What if anything is standing in your way of making a commitment to a

major?

(Gordon, 2006)

CDM Self-Efficacy and Self-Assessment

Rate yourself for each statement , along a scale from 0 to 4: 0 = not considered, 1 = poorly, 2 = partially, 3 = adequately, 4 = optimally

1. I am able to express the full value of my personal, academic and extracurricular experiences (part-time jobs, internships, voluntary work,…etc.)

2. I am able to explain how my interests and values relate to possible major choices and career ideas

3. I am aware of the strengths and limitations associated with my personality

4. I have an accurate, complete picture of my career profile – my unique mix of skills, experience, interests, knowledge and personal attributes – that makes me stand out in the employment marketplace

5. I maintain comprehensive evidence which convincingly demonstrates my strengths and interests (resume, portfolio, list of achievements,…etc.)

6. I am able to maintain a positive self-image and realize how this influences my life and work

7. I have a high-level of self-management skills (meet deadlines, stay organized, achieve goals,…etc.)

8. I am able to accept and learn from both success and failure in a positive manner

(Adapted from Kumar, 2007, p. 37)

Tasks to Support Self-Awareness

1. Have the student engage in an “I am” exercise

2. Discuss the connection between their strengths and particular

majors or careers

3. Brainstorm with students the skills and qualities they will need to

develop to be successful in major or career choice

4. Assist students in considering top five personal and career values

5. Help students identify activities on campus that motivate and

inspire them

(Kumar, 2007)

Fostering Self-Efficacy

Reduce the risk of failure

• Expectations or issues

Discuss perceived obstacles

• What has worked well?

• What has not worked well?

• How else can the problem be resolved?

Offer Constructive feedback

Challenging Negative Thinking

– Challenge the student to consider the legitimacy behind their thoughts.

Is the student assuming a negative outcome?

Is the student overemphasizing the situation?

What is the worst case scenario?

What are the positives associated with the situation?

Are there alternative ways to consider the situation?

Is the student setting unrealistic standards?

Cognitive Restructuring False

Perceptions

Identify beliefs the student has

about the situation

Discuss how it is making the student feel

Consider evidence that supports their

belief

Identify evidence that does not support their

belief

Identify an alternative perspective

together

Acknowledge how the new perspective

makes them feel

Determine anxiety

producing situation

(Concordia University, 2019)

Cognitive Restructuring Example

Situation “I will never find the right major. There are so many things I am interested in doing. I’m not sure where to start.”

Thoughts - I will never graduate. - I will choose the wrong major.

Feelings - Anxious - Overwhelmed

Evidence that supports the thought

- My friends all declared their major. They all seem to know what they are doing.

Evidence that doesn’t support the thought

- My parents told me they changed their major a few times when they started college.

Alternative to consider - Choosing a major is a process that requires exploration and evaluation. I need to develop a plan to narrow down my choices.

Outcome I feel less overwhelmed and stressed with the process.

(Concordia University, 2019)

Decision-Making Self-Awareness

– Have students consider their decision making style:

How do you usually make decisions?

How do you differentiate between a good and bad decision?

What outcomes would you like as a result of the decision you

are currently trying to make?

How do you set goals for yourself? Do you usually meet them?

What academic and career goals have you set for yourself? How

will you fulfill them?

(Gordon, 2006; Arroba, 1977 )

Rational

Emotional

Intuitive

Avoidant

Hesitant

Compliant

Career Decision Making

Difficulties

Lack of Readiness

Lack of Information

Inconsistent Information

• Gati, Kraus, and Osipow (1996) identified three categories of CDM difficulty

• Identify the source that is causing career decision making difficulty

• Focus on enhancing specific area that needs improvement

(Bullock-Yowell, McConnell, & Schedin, 2014 )

Goal Setting: Creating an Action

Plan

– SMART (i.e., Specific, Measurable, Attractive, Realistic, and Time-bound) Goals

Future goal: Realized by:

Present goals: Realized by:

Action steps: How am I going to attain my goals?

Assignment Resources or Personal Support (family, friends,

mentors,…etc.)

Deadline

1.

2.

3.

(Kumar, 2007)

Tasks to Support Career Decision

Making

1. Major Decision Balancing Sheet: (1) create list of top major choices and (2) identify barriers with pursuing possible choices and strategies to prevent possible barriers

2. Assign students the responsibility to research particular majors and career areas using career planning tools (occupational outlook handbook, ONET,…etc.)

3. Encourage students to job shadow to observe individuals in the field of interest

4. Weigh the pros and cons of future options that are associated with the major or career area of interest

5. Teach students goal setting and career action planning (Kumar, 2007)

Tasks to Support Opportunities

1. Offer students opportunities for mastery experiences (internships, workforce opportunities in field of interest…etc.)

2. Have students connect with faculty to research areas of specialization

3. Encourage involvement in major related networking opportunities

4. Attend a graduate school fair or job fair

5. Urge students to review vacancies within career area of interest using job search sites

6. Record and review skills and achievements to use as evidence within the interviewing process

(Kumar, 2007)

Tasks to Support Results after

Graduation

1. Identify transferable skills to market to employers

2. Design or refine resume and cover letter

3. Understand employers recruitment process

4. Decide which employers or organizations match criteria

5. Encourage students to develop a 30-60 second elevator pitch

6. Research graduate school requirements

(Kumar, 2007)

Case Study Scenarios

Part IV

Case Study 1

Susan, age 20, entered the university as an undecided undergraduate, but she was considering both animal science and communications as two possible areas of study. In her first semester, she completed a Student Success Skills course, which was designed to help students explore major and career options. Although Susan completed the academic and career exploration assignments that were required for the course, she did not invest much into the experience. The assignments involved several parts: taking interest inventories, reviewing academic majors and curricular requirements, exploring career-related information, and interviewing a senior student in a major of interest.

Susan stated that her high school teachers and school counselors had encouraged her to pursue a science career because she had received good grades in math. Susan indicated that she thought animal science would be a good choice because she likes animals. She also talked about becoming a veterinarian, but she had not been exposed to that career field nor could she describe in any depth the elements that attracted her to the occupation. She also considered communications as a major because her father had told her that she would be good in public relations.

(Adapted from Steele, 2003)

Case Study 1: Goal Setting

Future goal: Finish my bachelor’s degree Realized by: Graduation

Present goals: Identify the right major fit Realized by: Sophomore year

Action steps: How am I going to attain my goals?

Assignment Resources or Personal Support (family,

friends, mentors,…etc.)

Deadline

1. Identify specific skills and tasks associated with career fields of interest.

Academic advisor, career center, faculty

By the end of the semester

2. Engage in job shadowing or volunteering experience

Career center, faculty, volunteer organization

By the end of the semester

3. Create a pro and con list for each major of interest. Consider your personal interests, values, and skills…ect.

Academic advisor, career center, faculty

By the end of semester

Case Study 2

Natalie, age 35, has just started taking courses at the community college. She is the

first in her family to go to college. When she meets with you for the first time, she

states she is confused on the differences between an Associate of Science and

Associate of Art degree. She shares that she would like to pursue a Business degree

in the future at the university, but she does not believe she will be able to afford

attending the university and is unsure of her chances for admission.

She states that she dropped out of high school at a young age to have her son, and

completed the GED exam. She shares that she is interested in Business as a major

based on her families recommendation. She would like a career that provides a

stable job income and opportunities. However, she also shares she is uncertain

about her choice and was also considering Nursing. She is struggling to make a

career/major decision for herself and asks you to recommend the best major for

her since she is new to college.

Case 2: Reframing

Situation “I do not believe I will be able to afford the university and I am unsure of my chances of admission.”

Thoughts - It is too costly - I am not good enough to be admitted.

Feelings - Hopeless - Pressure

Evidence that supports the thought

- I am the first to go to college in my family. My parents always said the university was very costly and competitive.

Evidence that doesn’t support the thought

- Funding opportunities may be available though the financial aid office. I have made all A’s and B’s thus far.

Alternative to consider - The university is costly, but I may be eligible for financial aid and I may be able to obtain a scholarship. I am a good student academically with a 3.2 GPA.

Outcome I feel more hopeful and confident in my ability as a student.

Case Study 2: Goal Setting

Future goal: Transfer to a 4 year institution Realized by: Junior year

Present goals: Identify the right major fit Realized by: Sophomore year

Action steps: How am I going to attain my goals?

Assignment Resources or Personal Support (family, friends,

mentors,…etc.)

Deadline

1. Research career related information on Business and Nursing occupations

Career center By the end of the semester

2. Start reviewing scholarship opportunities and speak to a financial aid representative

Academic advisor Financial aid Mentor

By the end of the semester

3. Identify top universities and meet with an admission specialist

Academic advisor By the end of sophomore year

Case Study 3

Kim is a 35-year-old senior graduating at the end of semester with a major in

English literature. She has not placed a lot of time or thought into preparing for a

career after college. She is torn between moving away to find a good job or staying

close to her children. She has been looking locally for a job, but has found that

most jobs require a business degree or another specific degree. She expresses that

she love’s literature and expected it all to work out when she declared the major.

However, as graduation draws near she is feeling the pressure to obtain

employment. She has a considerable amount of student loans and shares with you

that her oldest will be in college in a few years. She does not know where to begin

in the process and feels lost.

(Adapted from Kansas State University, 2019)

Case Study 3: Goal Setting

Future goal: Obtain Employment Realized by: Six months after graduation

Present goals: Prepare for the workforce Realized by: End of senior year

Action steps: How am I going to attain my goals?

Assignment Resources or Personal Support (family,

friends, mentors,…etc.)

Deadline

1. Identify career areas that a Literature major can branch into and discuss the pro’s and con’s of moving versus staying local

Advisor Career Center Faculty

End of the semester

2. Develop resume and cover letter designed for specific fields of interest

Career Center End of the semester

2. Develop an elevator pitch and practice interviewing

Career Center End of the semester

References

– Akhtar, M. (2008). What is self-efficacy? Bandura’s 4 sources of efficacy beliefs. Retired

from http://positivepsychology.org.uk/self-efficacy-definition-bandura-meaning/.

– Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

– Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

– Bullock-Yowell, E., McConnell, A. E., & Schedin, E. A. (2014). Decided and undecided

students: Career self-efficacy, negative thinking, and decision-making difficulties.

NACADA Journal, 34(1), 22- 34.

– Bolkan, S., Pedersen, W. C., Stormes, K. N., & Make, B. (2018). Predicting 4-year

graduation: Using social cognitive carere theory to model the impact of prescriptive

advising, unit load, and students’ self-efficacy. Journal of Student Retention: Research,

Theory & practice, 0(0), 1-21.

References

– Concordia University. (2019, October 2). Examples of Cognitive Restructuring.

Retrieved from https://www.concordia.ca/students/health/topics/stress-

management/examples-of-cognitiverestructuring.html.

– Conklin, A.M., Dahling, J. J., & Garcia, P. A. (2013). Linking affective commitment,

career self-efficacy, and outcome expectations: A test of social cognitive career

theory. Journal of Career Development, 40(1), 68-83.

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psychosocial development on major-changing behavior. NACADA Journal, 30(2), 65 -

71.

– Fong, C. J., & Krause, J. M. (2014). Lost confidence and potential: A mixed methods

study of underachieving college students’ sources of self-efficacy. Social Psychology

Education, 17, 249 - 268.

References

– Freudenberg, B., Cameron, C., & Brimble, M. (2011). The importance of self:

Developing students’ self efficacy through work integrated learning. The

International Journal of Learning, 17(10), 479 - 496.

– Gordon, V. (2006). Career advising: An academic advisor’s guide. San Francisco, CA:

Jossey-Bass.

– Hughey, K. F., Nelson, D. B., Damminger, J. K., & McCalla-Wriggins, B. (2009). The

handbook of career advising. In Koring, H. , & Reid, B. C. (Eds.) Using student

development theory to inform career advising (pp. 97-112). San Francisco, CA:

Josey-Bass.

– Kansas State University Academic Advising Graduate Programs. (2019). Academic

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https://kstateacademicadvisinggraduateprogram.org/final-project/academic-

advising-case-studies/.

References

– Kumar, A. (2007). Personal, Academic & Career Development in Higher Education. Oxon: Routledge.

– Nilsen, H. (2009). Influence on student academic behavior through motivation, self-efficacy and value-expectation: An action research project to improve learning. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology, 6, 545 - 556.

– Steele, G. (2003). A research-based approach to working with undecided students: A case study illustration. NACADA Journal, 23(1 & 2), 10-20.

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