PS3880E

Human Trafficking in South East Asia

Group Research Report

Research Question: What challenges do non-governmental

organizations face in the effective reintegration of trafficked

children in Cambodia?

Daphne Goh A0070715LJosephine Lee A0084338YNamira Nasir A0085181ERachel Chng A0078623Y

Submission date: 25 July 2014

Word Count: 7,739

1

Table of Contents

Executive Summary 4

1. Introduction 5

2. Why is Child Trafficking a Problem in Cambodia? 6

3. What is Effective Reintegration? 8

4. General Background - Cambodia’s Reintegration Industry 10

5. Limitations to Analysis 15

6. Literature Review 16

7. Key Findings

7.1 Lack of Substantial State Support and Collaboration

7.2 Lack of Strong Child Protection Mechanisms

7.2.1 Weak Protection in Legal Proceedings

7.2.2 Weak Child Protection Networks

7.3 Education

7.3.1 Poor Quality of National Education System

7.3.2 Lack of Access to Education and Rights

7.4 Lack of Skills and Funds

7.5 Familial Ties

17

17

19

20

21

23

23

24

26

29

8. Political Obstacles 30

9. Analysis and opportunities 32

10. Conclusion 34

Bibliography

2

Executive summary

Child trafficking is a form of human trafficking that is problematic on various

accounts, such as the extreme vulnerability of their social, cultural and economic

positions. We are particularly keen about understanding the reintegration of trafficked

children due to the extremely vulnerable positions that follow, or deepen,  even after

being rescued. In this paper, we identified key obstacles in the reintegration efforts of

non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These obstacles present NGOs and the

Cambodian government not as hurdles that are insurmountable, but can be flipped on

its head to be points of intervention both in the procedural, as well as socio-political

process of reintegrating a trafficked victim. Furthermore, we concur that the current

focus on problems faced by NGOs in reintegration efforts deals with the symptoms of

child trafficking, and that a more effective gauge of their success has to focus on the

effectiveness and sustainability of the reintegrating a child back into a safe

environment.

3

1. Introduction

The protection of children from violence, exploitation and abuse is weak in most parts

of the world despite near universal ratification of the UN Convention on the Rights of

the Child (CRC).1 This is largely due to the lack of parallel development between

improved legislation and changes in state and private capacities and practices. In

recent years, international legal instruments have been established to tackle the issue

of child trafficking and exploitation, such as The International Labor Organization

(ILO) Convention 182 on Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labor and the

Trafficking Protocol to the Palermo Protocol on Transnational Organized Crime. Yet,

despite the number of international, national instruments and organizations to protect

the rights of the child, children still remain vulnerable to human rights abuses.

According to UNICEF, a total of 1.2 million children are trafficked every year.2

In Cambodia, child trafficking occurs in a myriad of industries and sectors, such as

the fishing industry, sex trade, forced marriages and domestic servitude. Cambodian

children are also found to be begging, doing street work as well as being forced to

scavenge refuse of work in quarries.3

Child trafficking is a form of human trafficking that is problematic on various

accounts, such as the extreme vulnerability of their social, cultural and economic

positions. We are particularly keen on studying the reintegration of trafficked children

due to the extremely vulnerable positions that follow and/or deepen, even after being 1. Landgren, Karin. "The Protective Environment: Development Support For Child Protection." Human Rights Quarterly 27, no. 1 (2005): 2142 UNICEF. "Trafficking." Child Protection Information Sheet . http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/Trafficking.pdf (accessed July 23, 2014). 3Cody, Claire. Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking: 'Towards' Good Practice in Cambodia. Cambodia: The National Committee to Lead Suppression of Human Trafficking, Smuggling Labour and Sexual Exploitation, 2012.

4

rescued. Our research is thus focused on the obstacles present in the child reintegration

component with regards to helping trafficked children assimilate back into safe and

nurturing environments.  We concur that the reintegration of trafficked children is the

most important aspect of dealing with the problems of human trafficking, yet it is also the

most problematic and cumbersome due to political inability and the lack of capacity, as

well as a reintegration process that is expensive and prolonged, well beyond the resources

and project-based work of non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Through our

research, we hope to uncover key points for intervention that may help pave the way

for a reintegration process that is better managed, executed, and monitored.

2. Why is child trafficking a problem in Cambodia?

In order to understand the problem of child trafficking in Cambodia, we need to first

understand the context that has propelled it to the forefront of our attention. The concept

of poverty is imperative in understanding why Cambodian children are at such high risk

of trafficking. Cambodia’s recent history, colored by massive violence and destruction

first during the civil war, followed by genocide during the Khmer Rouge regime under

Pol Pot, has left the society, economy and polity in ruins. As such, social and political

institutions, norms and practices have all but been destroyed to such a great extent that

even after 36 years since the Vietnamese liberation, the Cambodian society is still in the

midst of recovery from this horrific past and many people still live below the poverty line.

34% of the country’s population is estimated to be absolutely poor, concentrated in

remote rural areas, with an earning of less than US$1 per day4 and lacking basic

amenities for survival. This means that one in every four child aged 0-59 months lived

4 Hong, Rathavuth, and Vinod Mishra. ", “Effect of Wealth Inequality on Chronic Under-nutrition in Cambodian Children." Journal of Health Population and Nutrition 24, no. 1 (2006): 89.

5

in the poorest 20% households.5 This puts children in the lowest 20% of society at the

greatest risk of exploitation, abuse and violence that is often marginalized and

overlooked by the rest of society.

Although economy has been growing, income and welfare disparities are widening,

particularly between rural and urban areas,6 highlighting the fact that growth does not

always trickle down the lowest rungs of society. Furthermore, the destruction of modes

of public service provisions under the Khmer Rouge regime meant that Cambodia’s

government systems remain unclear and discontinuous in its recovery and development,

exacerbating the problem of poverty through the lack of government and public health

service provisions. As a result, deprivation and vulnerability as outcomes of poverty7 has

greatly increased the susceptibility of children in these communities to be subjected to

trafficking, exploitation and abuse.

In addition, families during the Khmer Rouge regime were taught that productive time

is spent on the field, not in the classrooms. Such legacies have influenced familial

relations in present day Cambodia. This mindset, coupled with poverty, drives families to

see children not as innocent and growing human beings with the need to be nurtured, but

as economic beings capable of earning keep for the family. As such, poverty has driven

families to contribute a supply of children for child labor in order to support family

livelihood.[U1]  The focus on short term gains, immediate income generation to alleviate

poverty, at the expense of long term family planning, development of the child, has

resulted in the concept of children as laborers that exists in a feedback loop reinforcing

and perpetuating the cycle of exploitation, deprivation and vulnerability.

5 Ibid. 91. 6. Varis, Olli. "Poverty, Economic Growth, Deprivation, and Water: The Cases of Cambodia and Vietnam." AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 37, no. 3 (2008): 227.7 Ibid., 225.

6

3. What is effective reintegration?

Borrowing Reimar et al.’s (Figure 1) phased model of reintegration, reintegration is a

process of recovery and socio-economic inclusion of children after a trafficking

experience that continues beyond one’s reintegration back into his/her family or

alternative residence. It encompasses securing his/her internal well-being and

ensuring the environment the child is reintegrated back into is safe from any future re-

trafficking/abuses.8

Figure 1: What is reintegration? (The National Committee to Lead Suppression of Human Trafficking,

Smuggling, Labour and Sexual Exploitation, 2012)

The reintegration of a child back into his/her community is vital for his/her

development because trafficked children, if not reintegrated, do not have a network of

support from families and friends, and will become vulnerable to traffickers’ threats

and exploitation. Trafficked victims may also be exposed to a range of health

8 Reimer, J.K., E. Langeler, Seng Sophea, and Sok Montha. The Road Home: Towards a model ‘reintegration’ and considerations for alternative care for children trafficked for sexual exploitation in Cambodia. C: World Vision Cambodia, 2007. and Cody Claire, 2012. and Muco, Ervin. "Trafficking in Human Beings: Paradigms of a Successful Reintegration into Society (Albanian case)." European Scientific Journal 4 (2013): 93.

7

concerns 9 such as the lack of food, water, and unsanitary conditions. A goal of

reintegration is that an individual gains a sense of belonging and is treated and

respected equally as a member of the family and society.10

In determining the success of reintegration that goes past family identification and

assessment, our analysis interest lie in exploring the factors that affect effective and

sustainable reintegration. This means that an evaluation of reintegration efforts has to

incorporate the idea of sustainable and effective reintegration that go past the

procedural nature of the reintegration process. Firstly, effective reintegration tries to

address the problem of reintegrating the child back to a safe environment that

prevents him/her being re-trafficked or exploited.  Secondly, sustainable reintegration

points to the importance of keeping the child in the community for an extended period

of time that sees the opportunities for economic and social development of the child.

This means that attention, education, and support also need to extend to the family

and wider community in order for reintegration of the child to be deemed successful.

9 Ibid.10 Cody Claire, 2012.

8

4. General Background - Cambodia’s reintegration industry

The Royal Government of Cambodia has taken significant steps in combating child

trafficking in the past decade, inching towards its fulfillment of Article 48 of the

Cambodian Constitution, as well as upholding the ratification of Article 19 of the

United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child signed in 1992. 11

In order to meet its commitment to protect children, the Ministry of Social Affairs,

Veteran and Youth Rehabilitation (MOSAVY) works to reduce trafficking in

partnership with intergovernmental agencies such as IOM, UNHCR and UNICEF.12

In its efforts to combat child trafficking, MOSAVY has established the Sub-

Committee on Combating Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children in

December 2000.13 The Royal Government of Cambodia has also set up the Anti-

trafficking and Reintegration Office (ATRO) in an effort to step up its commitment to

alleviate the problem of human trafficking.14

Apart from government efforts to set up legal frameworks governing the state of

human trafficking, as well as official bodies to oversee the works of alleviating the

problem, there are scores of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that provide a

slew of services in the reintegration works of trafficked victims in Cambodia. For

example, World Vision Cambodia supports the victims including immediate

assistance to cover basic needs, counseling and medical assistance, sheltering for both

11 An Evaluation of the Anti Trafficking and Reintegration Programme of the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, Cambodia. Phnom Penh: UNICEF, 2009.12 "Cambodia Government Agency: Ministry of Social Affairs, Veteran and Youth Rehabilitation." HumanTrafficking.org. http://www.humantrafficking.org/organizations/42 (accessed July 24, 2014).13 Ibid.14 An Evaluation of the Anti Trafficking and Reintegration Programme of the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, UNICEF, 2009.

9

short and long term, vocational training, family tracing and assessment, capital for

income generating activity, legal support and follow up with the families of the

returnees.15

Figure 2: Service mapping of both governmental and non-governmental organizations who reported to

the National Practitioner Forum of Reintegration of Victims of Human Trafficking and shows us what

type of service is provided.16

15 World Vision Cambodia, and UNIAP, 2011.16 Ibid.

10

Figure 2 presents a snapshot of NGOs who attended the National Practitioner Forum

of Reintegration of Victims of Human Trafficking in 2011, organized by World

Vision Cambodia (WVC) and UNIAP. Representatives from 159 NGOs, providing

reintegration services in immediate support and emergency, medical and

psychological support, shelter and interim care, vocational education, legal aid, and

community acceptance and integration attended the forum. Through a study of

findings presented in the Forum, it has helped us to better understand the type of

services that NGOs provide in Cambodia, as well as the areas that these services are

located in, mainly Phnom Penh and the border towns. It also points to the fact that the

reintegration industry in Cambodia consists of partnerships and dialogues among

government bodies, as well as international and local NGOs. According to the

International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law, there were 2,465 local NGOs, as well as

close to 300 international NGOs registered with the Ministry of Interior in 2011.17

Even though informal NGO networks at the local level have contributed significantly

to the operations of rehabilitation, reconstruction, reintegration, and development of

localities, most of this cooperation remain at the dialogue level. There has been

negligible literature on the evaluation of effective and sustainable reintegration that

goes beyond the procedural problems faced by NGOs and government bodies.

In order to comply with Cambodian laws, most NGOs involved in reintegration works

follow the Reintegration and Follow up Programme guidelines set out by

MOSALVY. The 14-step process of reintegration is as follows:

17 Bunthoeurn, Ke. "Legal Framework of NGOs in Cambodia." The International Journal of Not-for-Profit Law 13, no. 1-2 (2011). http://www.icnl.org/research/journal/vol13iss1/art_1.htm (accessed July 24, 2014).

11

1.     Pre-registration: 3 step case management process of Family Tracing, Family

Assessment, Social Support

2.     Reintegration: 4 step process that requires the cooperation between the NGO and

the provincial social worker to go to the home of the client (child)

3.     Follow Up Phase One: 3 step process for house visits with the NGOs and social

workers

4.     Follow Up Phase Two: 4 step process after NGO is out of the picture, social

worker takes over the home visits and keeps the NGOs updated about the situation

of the client (child).

This 14 step process has been highlighted by NGOs working in the reintegration

sector, such as the Cambodian Organization for Children and Development (COCD),

as a ‘cumbersome process’ that requires patience, willingness of volunteers, as well as

funds to complete it. Even though the Programme tries to encompass levels of

engagement by the NGOs and local officials in the effective reintegration of trafficked

children back to their communities, both NGOs and officials often lack funds to

ensure that the process is being monitored and executed in the best possible way.

The Programme presents NGOs and organizations with procedural problems that slow

down the process of reintegration. Firstly, family tracing is not always successful due

to incorrect addresses as well as the remoteness18 of locations. Furthermore, it is

difficult to locate victims as they often move from place to place.19 Victim

identification is still a challenge, as most Cambodian children living in rural remote

areas do not have birth certificates.20

18 Ibid.19 ibid.20 ibid.

12

In addition, the Programme failed to provide provisions for rehabilitation of trafficked

children. Rehabilitation is a big hurdle for effective reintegration of trauma victims

due to treatment being given only at Takmao Hospital, Kandal Province, and the

Russia hospital, and the lack of psychosocial specialists, as well as the long wait to

receive treatment.21

Even though the Programme presents a procedural problem of reintegration, we

concur in this paper that in order for effective and sustainable reintegration of

trafficked children to take place, there needs to be an analysis of the social and

political dimensions of the trafficking problem as well.

5. Limitations to Analysis

21 ibid.

13

Our understanding of what makes reintegration of a child effective and sustainable

appears limited in light of local circumstances. For example, we have been informed

by a framework based on western ideals of childhood as a time of dependency and

innocence during which children are socialized by adults and become competent

social actors. Children who are not raised this way are considered victims who have

had their childhood stolen from them. This framework views universal concern for

children as transcending political and social divides, assumes a universally applicable

model of childhood development, and presupposes a consensus on what policies

should be in place to realize the best interest of the child.22

However, this framework expounded by international NGOs working in Cambodia

have failed to capture the local nuances that are unique to Cambodia, such as the key

role poverty plays in prompting families and children to migrate in search for work.

Thus, there is need for a framework that takes into account both universality of child

rights protection and a localized perspective of the problem and its corresponding

solutions. The key findings in this paper point towards the localized problems faced

by NGOs working to effectively and sustainably reintegrate trafficked Cambodian

children.

22 Goździak, Elżbieta M.. "On Challenges, Dilemmas, And Opportunities In Studying Trafficked Children." Anthropological Quarterly 81, no. 4 (2008): 905.

14

6. Literature Review

Past research in the field of child trafficking has focused on describing the

characteristics and stories of victims and their families. There are far fewer studies

investigating the effectiveness of reintegration of children back into the community.

Instead, most of the studies focus on the victims and describe only minimal areas for

the improvement of organisations themselves. Detailed information on reintegration,

especially with regards to the challenges that NGOs face, is restricted to standard

protocols and good practice manuals based on the experience of organisations such as

Friends International and Hagar International who have a large clientele and resource

pool.

One issue that surfaced when we were researching about NGO efforts is the

politicisation of information. For example, the Trafficking In Persons report that we

consulted for this report is often seen more as a diplomatic tool than an objective

assessment of countries’ reintegration efforts and NGO reports often focus on the

successful aspects of their projects in order to attract or maintain funding. As such,

gaps remain in the literature in terms of the objectively assessing effectiveness.

Scholars writing about reintegration and child protection efforts often write with an

eye to encourage policy initiative from the state rather than to examine the role of

NGOs on a critical level.

15

7. Key Findings

7.1 Lack of substantial state support and collaboration

Given that effective and sustainable reintegration of trafficked children entails children

not returning to a vulnerable position and/or becoming victims of trafficking again,

the lack of government support and collaboration is a hindrance to the reintegration

process. As we will discuss later, this lack of strong government support and

collaboration is found most prominently in rehabilitation services that are

fundamental to effective reintegration of trafficked children.

Borrowing Bales and Choi-Fitzpatrick’s words, governments “carry(ing) the biggest

stick” in the fight against human trafficking but often lack the political will to do so23.

This is reflective of the situation in Cambodia. Despite being party to the Palermo

Protocol and the CRC which accord states responsibility in “implementing measures

to provide for the physical, psychological and social recovery of victims of trafficking

in person”24 and taking “all appropriate measures to promote the physical and

psychological recovery and social integration of children”25, the authors of this paper

have found that there is lack of substantial state support and collaboration in

provisions for rehabilitation of trafficked children. For instance, although it is

commendable that the MOSAVY has established the Reintegration and Follow up

Programme guideline, the fact that only three hospitals (Takmao Hospital, Russian

Hospital and the hospital in Kandal Province) provide treatment for trauma victims,

23 Bales, Kevin, and Austin Choi-Fitzpatrick. "The Anti-Slavery Movement: Making Rights Reality." In From human trafficking to human rights: reframing contemporary slavery. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. 200.24 Article 6 of Palermo Protocol25 Article 39 of UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

16

demonstrates that there is still a lack of substantial state support. As a result, trauma

victims often have to endure long waiting periods before receiving treatment26. This

poses as a challenge for reintegration as rehabilitation is integral to the reintegration

process.

Furthermore, a recurring theme that emerges over the course of interviews we

conducted with local NGOs such as Damnok Toek, Komar Rikraey, Cambodian

Organization for Children and Development (COCD) and Cambodian Children

Against Starvation and Violence (CCASVA) was that the lack of government support

and collaboration in education is a significant challenge to NGOs’ efforts in the

reintegration process.27 Granted, the non-profit nature of NGOs imposes considerable

stress on the skills and resource capacity of NGOs, compounded with the very fact that

the bulk rehabilitation and reintegration services in Cambodia is provided by NGOs28

makes it no wonder that NGOs perceive the lack of government support and

collaboration to be a significant challenge in the reintegration process. A recollection

by Mr Prum Vannak from CCASVA of being brushed aside on various accounts

when he called for meetings to collaborate with various ministry departments further

demonstrates the difficulty NGOs face in simply attempting to collaborate with the

Cambodian government.29

However, it must be noted that local NGOs like Damnok Toek, Komar Rikraey,

COCD and CCASVA have noted relatively strong working relationships with the

26 World Vision Cambodia, and UNIAP. National Practitioner Forum on Reintegration of Victims of Human Trafficking. Phnom Penh: 2011.27 Interview with Damnok Toek, Komar Rikreay, COCD and CCASVA in July 2014.28 "US Trafficking in Persons Report 2014." Country Narratives. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/226845.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).29 Interview with Mr Prum Vannak of CCASVA on 12 July 2014

17

MOSAVY with regards to the referral of deported victims to their organization and

tracing of victims’ families.30.Additionally, another caveat to note is that international

NGOs like International Organization for Migration (IOM) have successfully

collaborated with the MOSAVY to help victims reintegrate back to their families and

communities.31 Nevertheless, the fact of the matter is blatant lack of government

collaboration with local NGOs on rehabilitation services, as will be elaborated further

in the following sections, undermines the reintegration process as local NGOs often

struggle to make ends meet for trafficked children.

7.2 Lack of strong Child Protection Mechanisms

Keeping in mind Reimar et al.’s (Figure 1) phased model of reintegration, whereby

reintegration is a process that continues beyond the child’s reintegration back into

his/her family or alternative residence, securing the child’s internal well-being and

ensuring the environment the child is reintegrated back into is safe from any future re-

trafficking/abuses is part of the reintegration process32 As such, strong child

protection mechanisms are indispensable in ensuring a child’s effective and

sustainable reintegration.

However, as related by Mr Ung Pola from Cambodian Organization for Children and

Development (COCD), the lack of strong child protection mechanisms in Cambodia is

an obstacle in his organization’s efforts to effectively reintegrate victims of child

30 Interview with Damnok Toek, Komar Rikreay, COCD and CCASVA in July 2014.31 "Reintegration Assistance of Trafficked Women & Children in Cambodia—A Review." The Asia Foundation. http://www.worldwideopen.org/uploads/resources/files/810/REIN008_Reintegration_Assistance_for_Trafficked_Women_and_CHildren_in_Cambodia.pdf (accessed July 23, 2014).32 Reimer, J.K., E. Langeler, Seng Sophea, and Sok Montha. The Road Home: Towards a model ‘reintegration’ and considerations for alternative care for children trafficked for sexual exploitation in Cambodia. C: World Vision Cambodia, 2007. and Cody Claire, 2012.

18

trafficking33. In this group’s research, the lack of child protection mechanisms

hindering NGO’s reintegration efforts can be broadly categorized into two main

types: weak protection in legal proceedings and weak child protection networks.

7.2.1 Weak Protection in Legal Proceedings

Given that a child’s security is often associated with the indictment of perpetrators,

there is a need to cater to the special needs of child victims of trafficking in legal

proceedings to ensure perpetrators are arrested and prosecuted.34 Prosecution of

perpetrators is important as it helps to reduce the possibility of children being re-

trafficked and sends a clear message to other traffickers. As such, prosecution of

perpetrators will go a long way in reducing the vulnerability of the child and making

NGO’s reintegration of trafficked children more successful.

Although the Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation was

passed in 200735, reports of the lack in investigation and prosecution of human

traffickers in Cambodia are aplenty36. Terrified of speaking in front of the perpetrator

in the courtroom, unwillingness to identify their perpetrators for fear of causing

trouble to their family and the involvement of powerful and/or influential people who

“intimidate, force, threaten and use their status or position to stop the witnesses”; fear

33 Interview with the Executive Director, Mr Ung Pola of COCD on 10 July 201434 Reimer et al., 2007 35 "The Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation." Unofficial Translation by UNICEF. http://www.no-trafficking.org/content/Laws_Agreement/cambodia%20new%20law%20on%20trafficking%20&%20sexual%20exploitation%20-%20english.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).36 "CAMBODIA: National Laws." Child Rights International Network (CRIN). https://www.crin.org/en/library/publications/cambodia-national-laws (accessed July 24, 2014).and "US Trafficking in Persons Report 2014." Country Narratives. http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/226845.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).

19

is a common narrative37. This is further corroborated by Shahrzad Kojouri from the

International Justice Mission who spoke of the need to “create a human barrier around

the victim after rescue”. Her concern, and rightly so, is that the lack of adequate

victim protection mechanisms has led to victims’ unwillingness to cooperate in cases

and their access to legal redress38. By not prosecuting perpetrators, victims are

precluded of a safe environment upon return to their families. Hence, the lack of

witness protection programs for the child and their family in a hindrance to NGOs’

efforts of effective reintegration.

7.2.2 Weak Child Protection Networks

Even if child victims of trafficking are deemed fit for reintegration back into their

families/alternative forms of care, the absence of strong child protection networks is a

hindrance to effective and sustainable reintegration. Given that one of the top four

factors hindering reintegration of child victims of trafficking is family violence39,

there is even more cause for strengthening child protection networks in Cambodia.

Although NGOs such as Friends International and Komar Rikraey have initiated child

protection mechanism such as the ChildSafe Network and the Child Safe Programme

to fill in the gaps left by the government40, findings by the United Nations Children’s

Fund (UNICEF) suggest that child protection mechanisms in Cambodia “remain

weak”, with their reach being limited.41 For instance, one of the problems Komar

37 "Stories from the Field: A Glimpse on Trafficked Children’s Access to Justice in Thailand, Cambodia, and Philippines." Asia Against Child Trafficking. http://destination-unknown.org/wp-content/uploads/STORIES-FROM-THE-FIELD-final-AsiaACTs-TDH-NL-2013.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).38 Interview with Shahrzad Kojouri from International Justice Mission on 10 July 201439 Reimer et al., 200740 Interview with Friends International on 9 July 2014 and Komar Rikraey on 8 July 2014.41 "Child Protection." UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/12961.html (accessed July 24, 2014).

20

Rikraey faced in the course of implementing their Child Safe Programme is the

difficulty of ensuring children/their families receive emergency payment and/or

support promptly. Given that some of the children reside far from the organizations,

by the time help arrives, there is a possibility of it being too late.42 Furthermore, when

previously trafficked children or vulnerable children who have not been trafficked are

found to be at risk or face violence, the common recourse is to raise the issue with the

local village chief. However, as these local village chiefs often have “limited

understanding and capacity in child protection”43, children often have no one else to

turn to when put in vulnerable positions. The corollary is that many children find

themselves victims of trafficking again44. On the other hand, given the growing scope

of child protection networks established by Friends International, there is hope that

with time, there will be stronger child protection mechanisms put in place.

Nonetheless, in the current state of affairs, even as NGOs have successfully

rehabilitated trafficked children, the lack of strong child protection networks still

poses as a problem in NGOs’ efforts of effectively reintegrating child victims of

trafficking.

7.3 Education

42 Interview with Komar Rikraey on 8 July 2014.43 "National Child Protections System in the East Asia and Pacific Region: A review of Mappings and Assessments." ECPAT International. http://www.ecpat.net/sites/default/files/Child%20protection%20System_full_2014June11_FINAL.pd (accessed July 21, 2014). 44 Interview with Mr Ung Pola from COCD ON 10 July 2014

21

7.3.1 Poor Quality of National Education System

According to Cambodia’s Constitution, children are provided with nine years of free

education45 Foremost among the challenges facing reintegrated children in the

community is the general poor quality of public school education, exacerbated by low

government funding, low teacher salaries and a general lack of incentives for schools

to provide better quality education.46 Consequently, families find themselves facing

unnecessary costs such as additional tutoring to meet the standards of the regular

curriculum. Children who have been trafficked often come from vulnerable or

marginalized families and rising costs of education may be a burden that these

families have to share with NGOs. Dropout rates at the primary school level are high

and enrolment rates for secondary school are low. Late enrolment is also another

significant barrier to learning47. Taken together, NGOs have to deal with a myriad of

issues when reintegrating trafficked children back into the national school system

after a long period of abuse.

The lack of rights education is also a challenge NGOs face in the process of

effectively reintegrating trafficked children. Given that children in Cambodia are

often seen as having responsibilities rather than rights, there is a pressing need to

educate not only the child, but also the family on the importance of child rights48.

45Article 68 of the Constitution of the Royal Government of Cambodia46 Wilson, Kenneth. “Cambodia’s Educational System is a system utterly in need.” The Cambodia Daily. http://www.cambodiadaily.com/opinion/cambodias-educational-system-is-a-system-utterly-in-need-32937/ (Accessed July 24, 2014)47 "Education." UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/3.Education.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).48 "(Re) Building the Future Terre des Hommes Projects and Programmes Working in Asia." Supporting the Recovery & Reintegration of Trafficked Children A Handbook for Project Staff and Front-line Workers .

22

7.3.2 Lack of Access to Education and Rights

The geographical isolation of some rural villages causes some provinces to have low

primary school enrolment rates. The lack of schools and adequate transport

infrastructure in these rural areas mean that children will have to travel unnecessarily

long distances to school everyday. In fact, the representative from Damnok Toek

explained in an interview that the building of schools should be a top government

priority in rural border towns like Poipet because the nearest public schools are still

too far away for some of the children under their care. Compounded by the lack of

sanitation and hygiene facilities and subsequent health problems, a child may be

subjected to extended periods of absence from school.49 These are community and

infrastructural problems that NGOs cannot prevent but certainly impact NGOs’ efforts

of reintegrating children.

Although it was found that poor children with minimal education are most at risk of

being trafficked.50 , contrary evidence have revealed that children in ethnic minorities

are also especially prone to trafficking. This is due to the lack of a national

mechanism that makes education compulsory.51As these communities practise

subsistence farming and often move from place to place, NGOs find it hard to read

out to them. Compounded by the language barrier, the challenge NGOs face in

finding a place for ethnic minority children in the mainstream education system

increases twofold.

49 "Education." UNICEF. 50 "Fact Sheet: Child Trafficking." UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/ipuglobaltrafficking.pdf (accessed July 21, 2014).51 "Education." UNICEF.

23

Moreover, the illiteracy gap is another issue NGOs have to take into account when

working with impoverished families struggling to make ends meet. As the

representative from COCD, Mr Ung Pola explains, illiteracy is a major problem in

vulnerable communities like the slum areas of Phnom Penh, and extends into many

aspects of the trafficking narrative. This includes parents not understanding the

importance of formal education and thus not enrolling their children back into

schools; trafficked children not aware that they are put in a position of exploitation,

and families as a whole not knowing the opportunities for safe economic aid and

assistance that are available to them. Even the basic ability to read and write Khmer,

which is usually taught at the preschool level, is a major problem for the marginalized

communities. For instance, in the 2010/2011 school year, less than 26 percent of

children between the ages of three to five have access to early childhood development

opportunities.52 Consequently the majority of Cambodian children who enter the first

grade can neither read nor write. This problem is further amplified in families whose

parents are illiterate and do not have the money nor knowledge to teach their children

literacy skills. Therefore, more NGO services are needed in providing rehabilitative

services that will allow trafficked children to reintegrate into mainstream education

without stigma or learning disabilities caused by psychological or physical trauma.

This is only the first step towards overcoming the illiteracy gap in vulnerable

communities. They also need to understand the importance of formal education, and

find alternative means of ensuring the family’s economic survival rather than push

this responsibility to the child.

52 "Education." UNICEF.

24

Although the government has planned to make improvements to the education system

in three areas: access, quality and capacity,53 information on whether these plans are

actually being implemented are still lacking. However a political incentive to improve

the education system exists not through government enforcement, but rather through

the rapidly developing economy, where expectations of employers are rising and

labour demand is increasing.54 Education and economic restructuring has to happen

hand in hand in order for skills to correspond to the labour market. Policies should

aim at reducing the vulnerability of children at risk of trafficking, not just

reintegrating them. Thus, there needs to be more vigorous efforts in improving the

environments of families and communities.  

7.4 Lack of Skills and Funds

The non-profit nature of non-governmental organizations implies that complete self-

sustainability is virtually impossible to attain. While several organizations (Chab Dai,

Sala Bai) do engage in individual social enterprises to improve their self-

sustainability, NGOs’ primary source of funds, skills and other resources are still

external donors and funders. A recurring observation during our interactions with

several representatives in Cambodia was that efforts pursued by NGOs are being

impaired by a perpetual lack of funding. By extension, shortages of funds have

necessitated the scaling back of reintegration pursuits, which connotes afflictive

consequences to the reassimilation of child victims of human trafficking. A lack of

monetary resources further suggests a hindrance in hiring sufficiently skilled labour to

manage the activities of the organization. Damnok Toek’s representative claimed that

due to a lack of appropriately adept workers, his organization is unable to

53 "Education." UNICEF.54 Reimer et al., 2007

25

accommodate children with special needs, including children with severe

psychological trauma and criminal history, into their care. Children with special

requirements would be referred to governmental organizations, which are presumably

equipped with sufficient resources and labour. Moreover, insufficient funds could

impair the sustainability of reintegration procedures since crucial long-term follow-up

visits with the children and their families would have to be foregone. The curtailment

of proper post-rescue surveillance would leave the children vulnerable to re-

trafficking. This severe shortage of skills and knowledge could explicate the foreign

origins of most established non-governmental organizations. The International Justice

Mission and Friends International are just some of the myriad of NGOs in Cambodia

that are descendents of foreign organizations or founders. Typically, parent countries,

like the United States of America or Australia, are skill-abundant and can thus

effectually transfer relevant knowledge and resources to their progenies operating in

Cambodia. This skill transfer is utterly crucial because without careful rehabilitation,

child victims would be mentally and emotionally unprepared to return to their

societies healthily.

The lack of appropriate skills and knowledge also infiltrates local authorities whose

officials are unaware of the proper procedures to undertake whilst dealing with

victims of human trafficking. This poses more complications for NGOs embarking on

reintegration operations because they are further obliged to shoulder the

responsibilities of governmental institutions with scant expertise to promote the

reintegration of child trafficking victims amidst a politically unenthusiastic climate.

For example, through our interview with Mr. Ung Pola, the director of the Cambodian

Organization of Children and Development (COCD), an alarming proclamation that

26

arose was that at times, the COCD was compelled to fund training programs for

governmental staff to equip them with the necessary skills to administer rescue and

protection endeavours. It was distressing to discover that a young non-governmental

organization was, in reality, providing funding and other resources to the supposedly

supreme authority that is the government. Excessive dependency is a potential issue

that may subsequently arise from an overly indulgent partnership with the

government. As proclaimed by political economist, Sophal Ear, in his book Aid

Dependence in Cambodia: How Foreign Assistance Undermines Democracy, years of

being an aid-dependent country has not improved the domestic socio-economic

situation in Cambodia.

The country has a detrimental reliance on foreign aid, which currently takes the form

of thousands of non-governmental organizations supplying basic societal necessities

and administrative structures to safeguard the human rights of the Cambodian people.

This over-dependency has resulted in a weakened democracy that, in the author’s

opinion, is necessary for the advancement of human rights. A political system that is

increasingly de-emphasizing human rights could impinge on the sustainability of

reintegration efforts in Cambodia. In conclusion, non-governmental and governmental

organizations alike, without the proper resources and staff to facilitate effectual

rehabilitation for the child trafficking victims, will face subsequent direct or indirect

complications during the reintegration process.   

Post- integration and follow-up/monitoring efforts are often limited to 1 to 2 years

after reintegrating the child back into the community. However, there are mixed

analysis from the NGOs interviewed. On the on hand, NGOs such as Damnok Tok

27

have expressed approval for the time duration in successful reintegration. On the other

hand, NGOs such as COCD have expressed concern in the follow up period and

actions related to reintegration efforts. There needs to be a more critical analysis of

not just cost and operational feasibility of follow up and monitoring programs, but

also monitoring and fostering the growth of the social and economic environments

that the child has been reintegrated into.

7.5 Familial Ties

Several socio-cultural problems that persist in Cambodia could also potentially hinder

non-governmental organizations’ efforts to rehabilitate and reintegrate children who

are victims to human trafficking into their communities. Existing familial conditions

and relations, which are believed to be primary causes of child trafficking55, can also

serve as barriers to successful child reassimilation into their families. Damnok Toek

and Komar Rikreay are just several of the many NGOs that consider family

assessment to be an integral procedure during the reintegration process. However,

Damnok Toek’s representative affirmed that, in his experience, many families refuse

to participate in the process of reintegration. This could be attributed to their low

economic sustainability that would weaken their ability to properly care for the child

or because trafficked children are potentially susceptible to social stigma and

ostracization. Consequently, children are unable to fully re-assimilate into their

communities due to the prevailing unstable conditions prevailing within their families.

This complication could potentially lead to calamitous consequences for the

Cambodian society in the future, which might suffer from a shortage of healthy and

economically strong human resources. To resolve this predicament, NGOs like Komar

55 "End Trafficking in Persons (ETIP)." World Vision International. http://www.wvi.org/asiapacific/etip (accessed July 24, 2014).

28

Rikreay place rigorous emphasis on engaging the families during the rehabilitation

process as well. They provide additional counselling services and vocational training

to other members of the family to improve their standards of living and by extension,

abate their vulnerability.

In Cambodia and many other developing countries, numerous families typically

engage their children as labour. Moreover, over 90 percent of economically active

children in Cambodia work for their families as unpaid labour, which are usually time

and energy intensive56. As long as children are exposed to the conditions and

complications of work, which prevent them from attaining the education they require,

they will continue to be vulnerable to re-trafficking, problematizing reintegration

efforts. In fact, a child’s inability to sufficiently contribute economically to the family

may inadvertently result in schism in family relations.57 The cultural normalization of

employing children compromises the safekeeping of their rights, which is integral for

the reintegration process to be truly effectual.

8. Political Obstacles

Economic and political stability and sustainability is a factor that is usually considered

to be the most influential within the reintegration process. Firstly, a poor economic

situation has often contributed to trafficking in the first place, and reintegration

becomes more difficult when these economic risk factors are still in place. Relatedly,

the political situation affects the effectiveness of social institutions.58 One important

56 "Children’s Work in Cambodia: A Challenge for Growth and Poverty Reduction." World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPLABSOCPRO/Resources/UCW-Cambodia.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).57 Derks, Annuska. "Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia." CAS Cambodia. http://www.cascambodia.org/reintegration.htm (accessed July 24, 2014).58 Muco, Ervin. 2013.

29

factor that has hindered the development and effectiveness of social institutions is the

existence of rampant corruption in Cambodia. In 2007, Transparency International

published a report stating that 72% of Cambodians have resorted to bribes in order to

receive services.59 This ties in with the culture of political patronage that sets the tone

for political and social transactions, hampering the idea of ‘rule of law’ in Cambodia,

as well as a crippled judiciary in the face of such cultural linkages.

In the National Practitioners Forum, Prak Chanthoeurn highlighted that some NGOs

follow their own procedures and others are not always aware of the existence of the

national standards for the reintegration Programme that were published by MoSVY in

2009. 60 Furthermore, an IJM representative had also pointed out the fact that

Cambodia’s 70 years of French colonial rule created a legal system that does not

correspond to global legal norms, making it difficult to apply international laws and

regulations to the Cambodian context. This highlights the lack of effective

communication and legal channels among government bodies and NGOs.

Governmental capacity is often a weakness in the fight for child protection and rights.

This weakness appears not only in terms of budgetary resources but also in terms of

administrative support, governmental structures, as well as the availability of trained

and willing professionals.61 In addition, there remains the perception that child

exploitation and abuse are largely peripheral to national development.62 However,

World Report on Health and Violence shed light on the impact such abuses have on

sectors that traditionally provide an indicator of national development, such as public 59An Evaluation of the Anti Trafficking and Reintegration Programme of the Ministry of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, Cambodia. Phnom Penh: UNICEF, 2009.60 Cody, Claire. 2012.61 Landgren, Karin. 2005: 230.62 Ibid., 225.

30

health.63 The Government also needs to understand that resource allocation for basic

social services has the greatest impact on the realization of child rights,64 such as basic

sanitization services including water and shelter, as well as schools that prevent them

from voluntarily falling back into the trafficking web.

Beside ratification and dialogue, NGOs and IOs should move to persuade the

government to promote national budgets, policies and administrative practices and

structures for better protection65, such as establishing a government level monitoring

mechanism that runs alongside or independent of NGOs assistance.

9. Analysis and Opportunities

The existing obstacles and predicaments discussed in the previous sections not only

highlight the shortcomings of prevailing child protection policies and endeavors, but

also serve as nodes for potential intervention. We acknowledge that NGOs have

invested precious effort into resolving these pressing issues but we personally feel that

there is a lack of response directed to the fundamental causes of trafficking. We

believe this is because NGOs are simply unable to target the systemic factors that

have led to these problems in the first place and thus, they focus on putting out the

most urgent  socio-economic fires caused by the proliferation of human trafficking.

However, the best approach to these problems involves expelling the root causes that

are, more often than not, poverty and political apathy.

63 Ibid., 225.64 Ibid., 239.65 Ibid., 228.

31

The nature of non-governmental organizations necessarily means that they can only

pursue short-term operations, which contends with the essentially long-term

characteristic of effective and sustainable reintegration efforts. Their non-profit and

governmentally independent constitution connotes a limited capacity, which

insinuates an inability to act individually or effectually spur government initiative

towards resolving the systemic causes of human trafficking. This further suggests that

the eradication of child trafficking is not within their means despite it being the

quintessential goal for all like-minded NGOs. Therefore, an active political initiative

on the national government level is a crucial component for a holistic approach to

solving the problem of child trafficking, which transcends simply alleviating its

symptoms and after-effects.

Facilitating sustainable and effective reintegration operations mandates a concerted

effort among non-governmental organizations and government institutions to address

the fundamental issues discussed in this paper. Cooperation and collaboration should

center around promoting efficacious social and economic growth. For instance,

governmental bodies and NGOs can collaborate to foster a business environment that

could potentially attract investment into the manufacturing or service industries within

the country; with an emphasis on developing an employment market for jobs that take

families and communities out of the poverty and trafficking cycles. The lack of

economic diversification in Cambodia has been addressed by foreign investment in

automobile assembly, as well as other light manufacturing industries in special

economic zones.  However, FDI could increase rapidly if the government can address

the challenges of a shortage of skilled labor and low worker productivity.

32

The cooperative relationships cultivated by non-governmental organizations should

optimally expedite a concerted and like-minded effort. The NGO saturation in

Cambodia has resulted in numerous organizations engaging in disparate operations

angling towards a similar ideal. NGO networks, which should ideally entail

governmental participation or even perhaps leadership, should standardize an

approach to handling the problem of child trafficking and subsequent reintegration

efforts. For example, establishing an agreement of commitment to UNICEF’s

Protective Environment Framework for child protection will ensure NGOs embark on

operations and activities that are cohesive and beneficial to the broader war on child

trafficking and exploitation.  

10. Conclusion

In our research, we have identified and analyzed five main obstacles that NGOs face in

the mission to reintegrate trafficked children. Firstly, there have been government

officials sidelining a lack of concerted government collaboration with international and

local NGOs, with the former experiencing more responsiveness and the latter. Secondly,

the lack of a robust child protection mechanism, consisting of weak protection in legal

proceedings and unlegislated child protection mechanisms, makes it difficult for NGOs

and officials alike to reach out to children in need, especially in rural remote areas where

child trafficking and exploitation is rife. Thirdly, the poor quality of the national

education system and the inability of the Cambodian government to provide nine years of

education as mandated in the constitution has played a huge role in being unable to keep

children in school and away from the streets. This problem is further exacerbated by the

mindset that children are economic beings capable of earning income for poverty-stricken

families, where productive time is spent earning money, rather than getting a good

education to move up the social ladder and out of remote parts of the country.

33

With regards to the work of NGOs, the non-profit nature of non-governmental

organizations implies that complete self-sustainability is virtually impossible to attain. In

order for NGOs to carry out reintegration works more effectively and efficiently, the

interactions between non-governmental organizations should go beyond mere

communication and develop towards capacity building in order to complement the

government in the national fight against child trafficking. We also recognize that the

obstacles to reintegrate trafficked children are not just procedural, but consist of a social

and political aspect as well. As such, familial associations and social momentum is

important for change to be effective and accepted. For the right of the child to be

respected, traditional abusive practices must lose their traditional protection from the

community and society. Such momentous change requires a new social consensus that

is the single most important factor in recreating a safe environment for children.

These obstacles present NGOs and the Cambodian government not as hurdles that are

insurmountable, but can be flipped on its head to be points of intervention both in the

procedural, as well as socio-political process of reintegrating a trafficked victim.

Furthermore, we concur that the current focus on problems faced by NGOs in

reintegration efforts deals with the symptoms of child trafficking, and do not

effectively target problem areas that can result in effective and sustainable

reintegration, that is, systemic causes of trafficking. In order for reintegration to be

successful, the most important focus in the long run is fostering political will to create

a safe environment for the children that are reintegrated.

34

Bibliography

"(Re) Building the Future Terre des Hommes Projects and Programmes Working in

Asia." Supporting the Recovery & Reintegration of Trafficked Children A Handbook

for Project Staff and Front-line Workers .

http://www.oakfnd.org/sites/default/files/tdh_asia_reintegration_handbook_original_o

riginal.pdf (accessed July 21, 2014).

An Evaluation of the Anti-Trafficking and Reintegration Programme of the Ministry

of Social Affairs, Veterans and Youth Rehabilitation, Cambodia. Phnom Penh:

UNICEF, 2009.

Bales, Kevin, and Austin Choi-Fitzpatrick. "The Anti-Slavery Movement: Making

Rights Reality." In From human trafficking to human rights: reframing contemporary

slavery. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. 195-216.

Bunthoeurn, Ke. "Legal Framework of NGOs in Cambodia." The International

Journal of Not-for-Profit Law 13, no. 1-2 (2011).

http://www.icnl.org/research/journal/vol13iss1/art_1.htm (accessed July 24, 2014).

"CAMBODIA: National Laws." Child Rights International Network (CRIN).

https://www.crin.org/en/library/publications/cambodia-national-laws (accessed July

24, 2014).

"Cambodia Government Agency: Ministry of Social Affairs, Veteran and Youth

Rehabilitation." HumanTrafficking.org.

http://www.humantrafficking.org/organizations/42 (accessed July 24, 2014).

"Child Protection." UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/12961.html (accessed

July 24, 2014).

"Children’s Work in Cambodia: A Challenge for Growth and Poverty Reduction."

World Bank.

35

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPLABSOCPRO/Resources/UCW-

Cambodia.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).

Cody, Claire. Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking: 'Towards' Good Practice in

Cambodia. Cambodia: The National Committee to Lead Suppression of Human

Trafficking, Smuggling Labour and Sexual Exploitation, 2012.

Derks, Annuska. "Reintegration of Victims of Trafficking in Cambodia." CAS

Cambodia. http://www.cascambodia.org/reintegration.htm (accessed July 24, 2014).

"Education." UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/cambodia/3.Education.pdf (accessed

July 24, 2014).

"End Trafficking in Persons (ETIP)." World Vision International.

http://www.wvi.org/asiapacific/etip (accessed July 24, 2014).

"Fact Sheet: Child Trafficking." UNICEF.

http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/ipuglobaltrafficking.pdf (accessed July 21,

2014).

Goździak, Elżbieta M.. "On Challenges, Dilemmas, And Opportunities In Studying

Trafficked Children." Anthropological Quarterly 81, no. 4 (2008): 903-924.

Hong, Rathavuth, and Vinod Mishra. ", “Effect of Wealth Inequality on Chronic

Under-nutrition in Cambodian Children." Journal of Health Population and Nutrition

24, no. 1 (2006): 89-99.

Huang, Stephanie. "An assessment of Gaps in the Law and its implementation for the

International Organization for Migration." Children's Rights & Cambodian Law

(2010)

Landgren, Karin. "The Protective Environment: Development Support For Child

Protection." Human Rights Quarterly 27, no. 1 (2005): 214-248.

36

Miles, Glenn, and Siobhan Miles. The Butterfly Longitudinal Research Project A

Chab Dai Study on (Re-)integration: Researching the Lifecycle of Sexual Exploitation

& Trafficking in Cambodia. o: Chab Dai International, 2011.

Muco, Ervin. "Trafficking in Human Beings: Paradigms of a Successful Reintegration

into Society (Albanian case)." European Scientific Journal 4 (2013): 92-117.

"National Child Protections System in the East Asia and Pacific Region: A review of

Mappings and Assessments." ECPAT International.

http://www.ecpat.net/sites/default/files/Child%20protection

%20System_full_2014June11_FINAL.pd (accessed July 21, 2014).

Reimer, J.K., E. Langeler, Seng Sophea, and Sok Montha. The Road Home: Towards

a model ‘reintegration’ and considerations for alternative care for children trafficked

for sexual exploitation in Cambodia. World Vision Cambodia, 2007.

"Reintegration Assistance of Trafficked Women & Children in Cambodia—A

Review." The Asia Foundation.

http://www.worldwideopen.org/uploads/resources/files/810/REIN008_Reintegration_

Assistance_for_Trafficked_Women_and_CHildren_in_Cambodia.pdf (accessed July

23, 2014).

"Stories from the Field: A Glimpse on Trafficked Children’s Access to Justice in

Thailand, Cambodia, and Philippines." Asia Against Child Trafficking.

http://destination-unknown.org/wp-content/uploads/STORIES-FROM-THE-FIELD-

final-AsiaACTs-TDH-NL-2013.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).

"The Law on Suppression of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation." Unofficial

Translation by UNICEF.

http://www.no-trafficking.org/content/Laws_Agreement/cambodia%20new%20law

%20on%20trafficking%20&%20sexual%20exploitation%20-%20english.pdf

(accessed July 24, 2014).

37

UNICEF. "Trafficking." Child Protection Information Sheet.

http://www.unicef.org/protection/files/Trafficking.pdf (accessed July 23, 2014).

"US Trafficking in Persons Report 2014." Country Narratives.

http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/226845.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).

Varis, Olli. "Poverty, Economic Growth, Deprivation, and Water: The Cases of

Cambodia and Vietnam." AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment 37, no. 3

(2008): 225-231.

Wilson, Kenneth. "Cambodia's Educational System Is a System Utterly in Need." The

Cambodia Daily. http://www.cambodiadaily.com/opinion/cambodias-educational-

system-is-a-system-utterly-in-need-32937/ (accessed July 24, 2014).

World Vision Cambodia, and UNIAP. National Practitioner Forum on Reintegration

of Victims of Human Trafficking. Phnom Penh, 2011.

38