Challenges and Perspective of Disaster Management

1. Disaster

1.1 Disaster- An Introduction

Disasters - natural or human-made are common throughout the world. Disasters continue

to occur without warning and are perceived to be on an increase in their magnitude,

complexity, frequency and economic impact. Hazards pose threats to people and assume

serious proportions in the under developed countries with dense population. During the

second half of the 20th century, more than 200 worst natural disasters occurred in the different

parts of the world and claimed lives of around 1.4 million people. Losses due to natural

disasters are 20 times greater (as % of GDP) in the developing countries than in industrialized

one. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters.

Natural Disasters

The Indian sub continent is highly prone to natural disasters. Floods, droughts, cyclones

and earthquakes are recurrent phenomena in India. Susceptibility to disasters is

compounded by frequent occurrences of man-made disasters such as fire. The changing

topography (topo = land) due to environmental degradation also increasing vulnerability

to natural disasters. In 1988, 11.2%of total land area was flood prone, but in 1998 floods

inundated 37% geographical area. Four major disasters that India has experienced in the

recent past are the earthquake in Latur (Maharashtra in 1993), super cyclone in Orissa

(1999), the earthquake in Gujarat (2001) and Tsunami in Tamil nadu and Andhra Pradesh

in December 2004. Frequent disasters lead to enormous loss of life and property.

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Physical safety-especially that of the vulnerable groups is routinely threatened by

hazards. Natural disasters cannot be prevented but their damaging impact can be reduced

through better forecast, and preparedness to take up effective rescue measures.

Disaster risk management is essentially a development problem. Preparedness and

planning for disaster management have to be taken up along with environmental

concerns that the country is facing today.

Type of disasters

There are two types of disasters namely natural disasters and manmade disasters. For

example: fire, accidents (road, rail or air), industrial accidents or epidemics are some of

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Vulnerability Hazards

Disaster

• Underlying Causes –

Limited Access to resources, Illness and disabilities, Age/Sex, Poverty.

• Dynamic Pressure –

Lack of institutions- education, training and skills; Population expansion, Urbanization, Uncontrolled development, Environmental degradation.

• Unsafe Conditions -

Dangerous locations, Dangerous buildings, Low income level

Trigger Events –

EarthquakesTsunamisFloodsCyclonesVolcanic EruptionsDroughtLandslideWarTechnological AccidentsEnvironmental pollutions

the examples of man-made disasters, both natural and man-made disasters which have

devastating input resulting loss of human life, loss of livelihoods, property and environmental

degradation. Disasters disrupt normal functioning of society and leave long lasting impact.

Earth quake, cyclone, flood and drought are examples of natural disasters.

1.2 The cost and consequences of disasters

India is vulnerable to extreme weather events. Over the decade of the 1990s, both the number

and severity of such events have increased. Weather events can be classified as extreme on

the basis of various factors such as the impact, the socio-economic losses, environmental

degradation and long term damages etc. With more than 70 percent of India’s population

relying on agriculture directly or indirectly, the impact of extreme weather on human life and

other living beings is critical. In the state of

Orissa, 49 years have experienced floods, 30 have had droughts, and 11 faced cyclones.

These analyses have yielded a 30-year cyclicity of the Indian monsoons. Droughts were more

common in the 1960s. Of the 14 major drought years in the 85-year record, eight occurred in

the first 30 year period (1891-1920) whereas there was only one in the second 30 year period

(1921- 1950). In the 25-year period from 1951 –1981, five major drought years were

recorded. In 1972 and 1979 deficient rainfall (about 25% below normal) was recorded in one

half to two thirds of India’s plains. In 1994, monsoon rainfall was deficient (between 20%

and 43%) in 10 of the 31 meteorological subdivisions of India.

Floods and droughts occurring in India are closely associated with the nature and extent of

the summer monsoon. The inter-annual fluctuations in the summer monsoon rainfall over

India are sufficiently large to cause devastating floods or serious droughts. Floods and

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droughts affect vast areas of the country, transcending state boundaries. One-sixth area of the

country is drought-prone. Out of 40 million hectares of the flood prone area in the country, on

an average, floods affect an area of around 7.5 million hectares per year.

The cost of natural disasters in India, in terms of human life, loss of property and assets and

loss of shelter and livelihoods, is immense. Between 1980 and 1999 the total number of

people killed in disasters was 110,131. Between 1988-1997 disasters affected 24.79 million

every year in India. In 1998, 9,846 people died and 34.11 million people were affected by

disasters. Between 1985-95, disasters caused an annual economic loss of around US$

1,883.93 million. A World Bank Study in 2003 reported that India lost US$13.8 billion

between 19962001 in natural disaters. Experience and studies show that the actual figures

greatly exceed the documented ones. The average damage to crops, houses and public utilities

from floods during the period 1953-95 was estimated at Rs 972 crore every year, while the

maximum damage was Rs 4,630 crore in 1988. In 1998, floods inundated 37% of the country.

In 1987, one of the worst droughts of the century affected 285 million people and 5860% of

cropped area. In India, with its large tribal and rural population and people still engaged in

traditional occupations such as agriculture, this is a major calamity.

In 2000, floods took a toll of 1,262 lives in West Bengal, 400 lives in Uttar Pradesh and 258

lives in Bihar. And drought affected 94 lakh people in Chhattisgarh, 291 lakh in Gujarat, 127

lakh in Madhya Pradesh and 119 lakh in Orissa, where almost 30 starvation deaths were

reported in the month of August 2001 alone. In recent years, Bihar has been repeatedly hit by

floods in 2002, then again in 2004. In August 2007, 11 million people were believed to be

affected in what was termed “unprecedented flooding”. Despite several measures being

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documented for avoiding this in future, in 2008, 2000 lives were lost and 2.3 million people

were displaced as the Kosi river broke its embankments.

Most injuries such as lacerations that occur during cyclones or fractures during earthquakes

occur during or immediately after the catastrophe. In developing countries, the number of

injured are estimated only by the number admitted to hospital, but there are hundreds more

who never get to a hospital, and many thousands more suffering psychosocial and post

traumatic stress disorders who go completely unrecorded and untreated.

Further, the death or disability of a family's earning member during a disaster could mean a

lifetime of loss of income and possible destitution for the entire family. Suicides by indebted

farmers in the country since 1997 now total 182,936.

The death of livestock, or the loss of capital or the tools of one’s trade can likewise lead to a

complete devastation of earning capacity. During floods, saltwater contamination of land can

lead to the loss of not one, but several, harvests. For an already malnourished people, this

could mean a rise in mortality as a secondary result of disasters.

Epidemics resulting from disasters are also a major worry in South Asia, where poor

sanitation and the prevalence of many communicable diseases keep disease rates inordinately

high. Typhoid, malaria and gastrointestinal diseases are constant threats in disaster hit zones

where even clean drinking water can become unavailable for days or even weeks, as was the

case after the Orissa super cyclone. The sardine can population density in urban areas and

certain coastal regions multiplies the number of disaster victims.

The poor are worst affected

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The worst affected and vulnerable are the poor and marginalized sections and communities of

India. They suffer the most in terms of human and property loss. Unfortunately, poverty is

most widespread in areas that are more vulnerable to natural disasters the flood prone regions

of north Bihar, east Uttar Pradesh and north Bengal, and the drought-prone regions of

Rajasthan, Marathwada in Maharashtra and north Karnataka.

Not only are the poor the worst hit, but their capacity to recover from a disaster is also limited

by their social, economic and political situation. In India, the vulnerabilities are inextricably

linked to certain processes of marginalization that protect the interests of particular groups

and areas at the cost of others. The nature and direction of economic development followed

over the past 50 years has been unsuccessful in expanding or even distributing, social

opportunity across the country.

1.3 Development and natural disasters

'Natural' disasters are often described as the wrath of God. In fact, they are the wrath of

nature. Thus, 'natural' disasters are human made to a startling degree. Recurring floods and

droughts are precipitated by the unrestricted felling of forests, serious damage to mountain

ecology, overuse of groundwater and changing patterns of cultivation. When forests are

destroyed, rainwater runs off, causing floods and diminishing the recharging of groundwater.

The spate of landslides in the Himalayas in recent years can be directly traced to the rampant

deforestation and network of roads that have been indiscriminately laid in the name of

development. It is by now a well established fact that human made structures, including

canals, dams and embankments have worsened the flood situation in the country as the

repeated flooding of the Kosi river in Bihar shows. Big dams also pose a seismic threat.

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Despite this, numerous dams, vulnerable to seismic activity, are being built in the Himalayan

foothills. The Tehri dam, a major hydroelectric project faced stiff opposition from

environmental organizations and local people because it is located in the Central Himalayan

Seismic Gap, a geologic fault zone. A major earthquake in the region could cause severe

havoc in Hardwar, Rishikesh and other mountain towns. This apart, the dam poses a serious

threat to the fragile ecosystem of the Himalayas. In spite of all this, the Tehri dam continues

to operate; in June 2006, it generated its first unit of electricity.

India has learnt no lessons from the world's most devastating reservoir induced earthquake on

December 10, 1967, measuring 6.3 on the Richter scale, which struck Koynagar in

Maharashtra, killing 200 people and injuring 1,500. The epicenter and aftershocks all

occurred near the 103mhigh dam or under its reservoir. Land degradation, which today

affects 175 million of India's 329 million hectares, is also increasing because of human

intervention. Natural grasslands are disappearing because of overgrazing. Water logging, over

fertilization and mining are degrading huge tracts of land. The effect of this on people's lives

can be seen in western Orissa where deforestation, mining and the decline of traditional

irrigation and agricultural systems has caused land degradation on a large scale, leading to

one of the worst drought conditions in the country. This in turn leads to large scale seasonal

and permanent migration to urban slums. Some 33 million people have been displaced by

'development projects' in India, according to the State of the World’s Refugees 2006 report, a

figure that is a third higher than the number of conflict induced. Internally Displaced People

worldwide. The fell hand of man can be seen in what is now regarded as a fact – global

warming – which has changed weather patterns and will as acerbate natural disasters and the

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scale and frequency with which they occur. Findings from the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change (IPCC), which has been established by the World Meteorological

Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), show that the

global average surface temperature increased by 0.6ºC over the course of the 20th century.

Scientists have recorded the 1990s as the hottest decade in the world since the industrial

revolution began. As a result of global warming, snow extent has decreased by about 10%

since the 1960s, while mountain glaciers have retreated rapidly. The global average sea level

rose by 10 to 20cm during the 20th century, and the amount of heat stored in the ocean has

measurably increased since observations began in the 1950s.

1.4 Disaster Risk Reduction

Disaster Risk Reduction can take place in the following ways:

1. Preparedness

This protective process embraces measures which enable governments, communities and

individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively.

Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of

warning systems, the maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel. It may also

embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas that may be at risk

from a recurring disaster. Preparedness therefore encompasses those measures taken before a

disaster event which are aimed at minimizing loss of life, disruption of critical services, and

damage when the disaster occurs.

2. Mitigation

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Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the

vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore

mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements exposed to the threat.

Examples of mitigation measures which are hazard specific include water management in

drought prone areas, relocating people away from the hazard prone areas and by

strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs. In addition to these physical

measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing the economic and social vulnerabilities of

potential disasters.

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1.5 Disaster Management Cycle

Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures

which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster,

reduce its impact or recover from its losses. The three key stages of activities that are taken

up within disaster risk management are:

1. Before a disaster (pre-disaster).

Activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard. For

example, carrying out awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak structures,

preparation of the disaster management plans at household and community level, etc.

Such risk reduction measures taken under this stage are termed as mitigation and

preparedness activities.

2. During a disaster (disaster occurrence).

Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and suffering

is minimized. Activities taken under this stage are called emergency response activities.

3. After a disaster (post-disaster)

Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and

rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are

called as response and recovery activities.

In the subsequent chapters we would discuss in detail some of the major hazards prevalent in

our country its causes, impact, preparedness and mitigation measures that need to be taken

up.

Disaster management in India

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Many international organizations, voluntary agencies and national governments have been

working towards reducing the impact of disasters and minimize the loss of life and property

on account of manmade and natural disasters. These efforts have been directed at identifying

the vulnerability of areas and local communities and developing organisational systems and

institutional capacity for risk reduction and disaster response programmes.

In India, the Disaster Management Act, 2005 was enacted on December 26, 2005 to develop

plans for prevention and mitigation, and procedures to strengthen capacity building and

awareness among people. The Act also permits states to have their own legislation on disaster

management. Under the Act, a ten member National Disaster Management Authority

(NDMA) was constituted with the prime minister as the chairperson. The Authority, with the

assistance of the National Executive Committee (NEC) of Secretaries is responsible for:

Preparing national policies, plans and guidelines for disaster management. Approving disaster

management plans developed by the states. Coordinate enforcement and implementation of

the policy and plan, Arrange for funds and take effective measures for disaster prevention,

mitigation, preparedness and capacity management. Provide assistance to countries affected

by disasters. Each state has its own disaster management authority, which is chaired by the

chief minister. The state authority, assisted by a State Executive Committee, forms policies

and plans for disaster management in the state. A district disaster management authority has

also been established by every state in each district. The district authority is headed by the

district magistrate.

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The local authority trains its officers and employees and maintains the necessary tools and

equipments for relief and rescue operations. It also ensures that all construction projects

under it conform to the standards and specifications laid down by the state government.

Under the Act, several institutions and funds at the state and district levels were set up.

National Disaster Response Force, consisting of eight central paramilitary battalions

National Institute of Disaster Management: responsible for planning and promoting training

and research in the area of disaster management National Fund for Disaster Response for

which the funds are decided by the central government. This is made available to the NEC,

which meets the expenses towards emergency response, relief and rehabilitation National

Fund for Disaster Mitigation will be directly managed by the National Disaster Management

Authority, and will be used exclusively for the purpose of mitigation.

The Act requires every ministry or department of the Government of India to set aside funds

in its annual budget for the activities and programmes set out in its disaster management plan.

Schemes for financing expenditure on relief and rehabilitation in the wake of natural

calamities are governed by the recommendations of Finance Commissions appointed by the

Government of India every five years. Under the Tenth Finance Commission, in operation for

the period 1995-2000, each state had a corpus of funds called the Calamity Relief Fund

(CRF), administered by a state level committee, headed by the chief secretary of the state

government. The size of the corpus was determined on the basis of the vulnerability of the

state to different natural calamities and the magnitude of expenditure normally incurred by

the state on relief operations. The corpus was built by annual contributions from the union

government and the state governments concerned in the ratio 3:1. The Eleventh Finance

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Commission modified the financial arrangements under the Tenth Finance Commission and

recommended the setting up of a National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF). The Twelfth

Finance Commission, for the period 2005-10, has recommended that the Calamity Relief

Fund should continue in its present form with contributions from the Centre and states in the

ratio of 75:25.

2. Natural Disaster - Droughts

Drought in India has resulted in tens of millions of deaths over the course of the 18th, 19th,

and 20th centuries. Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the climate of India: a

favorable southwest summer monsoon is critical in securing water for irrigating Indian crops.

In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons result in water shortages, resulting in

below-average crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought-prone regions such as

southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Gujarat, and

Rajasthan.

The primary cause of any drought is deficiency of rainfall and in particular, the timing,

distribution and intensity of this deficiency in relation to existing reserves. A prolonged

period of relatively dry weather leading to drought is a widely recognized climate anomaly.

Drought can be devastating as water supplies dry up, crops fail to grow, animals die, and

malnutrition and ill health become widespread The environmental effects of drought,

including Stalinization of soil and groundwater decline, increased pollution of freshwater

ecosystems and regional extinction of animal species.

In India around 68 percent of the country is prone to drought in varying degrees. Of the entire

area 35 percent receives rain falls between 750 mm and 1125 mm which is considers drought

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prone while 33 percent which receives rainfalls between less than 750 mm is considered to be

chronically drought prone.

Millions of people in western India are suffering their worst drought in more than four

decades, with critics blaming official ineptitude and corruption for exacerbating the natural

water shortage. The 1972 drought led to a massive shortage of food grains and prices of all

commodities rocketed, forcing India’s government to increase imports, while another

widespread drought in 2009 also inflated prices and hardship. While last year’s monsoon

picked up late in western parts of India, low rainfall in the crucial month of June led to water

deficiency throughout the season.

Agriculture is the immediate victim of drought disaster – impacting crop area, crop

production and farm employment. Droughts in the beginning of the season adversely affect

the sown area leaving large portions of agricultural lands as fallow. Mid season droughts

result in poor crop growth and reduction in crop yields. Reduction in income and purchasing

power of farmers turns the small and marginal farmers into agricultural laborers leading to

increase in unemployment. Consequently, farmers and farm workers tend to migrate to urban

areas in search of employment opportunities.

Shortage of drinking water and starvation for food are the other consequences that emerge.

Fodder problem drives away the animals to distress sales. Thus climate is the initial causative

factor for drought; the implications are manifested by human interactions with the situation.

2.1 Drought: causes and effects

Drought is defined in many ways, like, ‘a period of dry weather’; ‘a condition of abnormal

dry weather resulting in a serious hydrological imbalance, with consequences such as losses

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of standing crop and shortage of water needed by people and livestock’8; ‘a temporary

reduction in water or moisture availability significantly below the normal or expected level

for a specified period’, and ‘a creeping situation of scarcity without recharging of resources’.

The variables10 to be used are, for example, rainfall, run-off aquifer level; duration

considered – annual, seasonal, instantaneous minimum; truncation level – percentage,

quartile, standardized anomaly, and area of region – single site, river basin, country zone,

etc.. Drought has been categorized under different classification systems based on the

characteristics of occurrence. Drought is responsible for many direct and indirect economic,

social and environmental consequences throughout the world. Certain impacts are

unavoidable but can be reduced significantly through planned interventions, whereas few

other impacts can be mitigated by way of drought resistance.

2.2 Impact of drought: Indian scenario

The disaster risks associated with drought is a recurrent feature in India. There are evidences

of continuous famine for 12 years during 310–298 BC during the region of Chandra Gupta

Maurya. During a severe drought in 1917–1918, the River Jhelum dried up completely in

Kashmir.. The country has experienced 22 large-scale droughts; five of them were severe.

The drought-prone areas are confined mainly to the peninsular and western parts of the

country, and there are only few pockets in the central, eastern, northern and southern parts.

These regions suffer drought mostly due to the cumulative effects of changing precipitation

pattern, excessive water utilization and ecologically unsuitable agriculture practices. It has

been reported that 26 mha (795 mha of geographical area) is subjected to different degrees of

water stress and drought conditions, which includes 38.7 mha of arid areas and of 7 mha of

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cold deserts. About 107 mha of the country spread over administrative districts in several

states is affected by drought. However, most drought response strategies in India accounted

on net sown area or crop yield. Emphasis on ecosystems, particularly forests and wetlands,

and urban drought is lacking. Over the past 200 years India has faced a number of Droughts.

Some of these were very severe, posed a threat to the food security and caused human

mortality all over the country. Drought occurrence, people affected and impacts in India

during 1900–2002.

2.3 Drought disaster challenges and mitigation in India

Drought is the most widespread hydro-meteorological syndrome of ‘prolonged period of

water scarcity affecting natural resources, environment and, thereby, the people’.

Environmental changes, viz. climate change, land-use changes and natural resource

degradation have aggravated drought occurrences and vulnerability, thus disrupting the

normal socio-economic settings. All the regions of India suffer with drought incidences of

varying periodicity, with 13 states repeatedly declared as drought-prone. Complexities of

drought symptoms and impacts have sought for an understanding of an ecosystem approach

for drought management, rather than as a hardcore meteorological discipline. Regions of

Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Karnataka and Orissa are typical examples of drought-related

deprivation and resultant conflicts, whereas drought in states like Chhattisgarh, Punjab,

Haryana, etc. are the result of improper agriculture practices and poor water management. In

this article, the strategies of drought monitoring, data management, impacts and mitigation

approach are critically assessed in the Indian perspective.

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A drought is an extended period where water availability falls below the statistical

requirements for a region. Drought is not a purely physical phenomenon, but instead is

interplay between natural water availability and human demands for water supply. There is no

universally accepted definition of drought. It is generally considered to be occurring when the

principal monsoons, i.e. southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon, fail or are deficient or

scanty. Monsoon failure causing crop failure, drying up ecosystems and shortage of drinking

water results in undue hardship to the rural and urban communities.

Although droughts are still largely unpredictable; they are a recurring feature of the climate.

Drought varies with regard to the time of occurrence, duration, intensity and extent of the

area affected from year to year.

Land abuse during periods of good rains and its continuation during periods of deficient

rainfall is the combination that contributes to desertification.

Dry regions in India include about 94 mha and about 300 million people (one-third of India’s

population) live in these areas; more than 50% of the region is affected by drought once every

four years.

Different countries and states have developed codes, manuals, procedures, processes and

policies for monitoring and management of drought with varying understanding. Over the

years, India has developed a fairly elaborate governance system of institutionalized drought

monitoring, declaration and mitigation at different levels.

India’s response to the need for enhanced drought management has contributed to overall

development. For example, the drought of 1965–1967 encouraged the ‘green revolution’,

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after the 1972 drought employment generation programmes were developed for the rural

poor; the 1987–1988 drought relief effort focused on preserving the quality of life.

2.4 Drought assessment: tools and techniques

Drought risk is due to a region’s exposure to this natural hazard in the context of its

vulnerability to extended periods of water shortage. To reduce the serious consequences of

drought, a drought-prone nation or region must understand the temporal and spatial variation

of the hazard and establish comprehensive and integrated drought early warning systems

(EWS) that incorporate climate, soil and water supply factors such as precipitation,

temperature, soil moisture, snow pack, reservoir and lake levels, groundwater levels and

stream flow. Analysis of drought assessment after instrumental measurements is required, in

addition to indices that are used as threshold in drought declaration. Drought assessment

parameters Rainfall, temperature, evaporation, vegetation health, soil moisture, stream flow,

etc. are some of the critical parameters that are used in drought risk analysis. Continuous

measurement and analysis of these parameters are done by different agencies, and used in the

assessment of climatic change and spatial distribution of drought conditions on a global,

regional, drainage basin and local level event preparedness. A nodal agency coordinates the

information and analyses it prior to declaration of drought warnings.

Drought indices

Drought may be recognized most unmistakably through its economic consequences.

However, it requires a scientific approach on the quantitative index of water shortage. A

drought index value is a single number used for decision making. There are several indices

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that measure on how much precipitation for a given period of time has deviated from

historically established norms.

Meteorological indices

This type of drought considers the degree of dryness, duration of the dry period, and specific

atmospheric conditions that result in deficiencies for its description. Following are some of

the suitable indices done by different agencies, and used in the assessment of climatic change

and spatial distribution of drought conditions on a global, regional, drainage basin and local

level event preparedness. A nodal agency coordinates the information and analyses it prior to

declaration of drought warnings.

Data analysis

Drought monitoring and assessment is done through analyses of variables such as rainfall,

stream flow and soil moisture data on a variety of timescales. There are several methods that

are applicable in this process. Frequency or probability-based methods analyze the low flows

or low flow volume during a specific period. Regression-based methods bring out the

relationship between the drought parameters such as geomorphic and/or climatic factors,

crop-yield factors, etc. with severe drought events. In the theory of runs-based methods; the

probabilistic structure of duration (run length) and severity (run sum) of a drought are

analyzed using the notion runs. Drought parameters such as longest duration and largest

severity are analyzed, based on the time series of random or Markovian variables. Discrete

autoregressive and moving average processes model the variability of wet and dry years.

Group theory-based methods show the duration and lengths, as groups and cluster of groups.

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Datasets are analyzed to develop drought prediction and forecasting techniques utilizing the

concept of pattern recognition and neural networks..

Remote sensing and geo informatics application

The process of resource exploitation and land-use patterns, migration and environmental

degradation are responsible for the changing patterns of drought. Accurate, efficient and

reliable information on drought hazard with spatial and temporal coordinates and attributes is

necessary to communicate the potential risk to the specific vulnerable parts of the society.

Early warning and alert messages based on scientific monitoring techniques and methods

would minimize the severity of the tragedy. The advancements made in the orbital satellite

technology could aid in mapping the disaster area, prediction/forecasting of impending

disaster, and disaster relief management1. A number of satellites are available for weather

forecasting, earth surface observations, monitoring and assessment.

The information from the NOAA, METEOSAT, INSAT and GMS, NOAA/AVHRR and

IRS/WiFS, SPOT 4, DMSP/SSMI and IRS–P4/MSMR, TRMM, RESOURCESAT, MODIS

and MERIS and LANDSAT, IRS and SPOT satellites are being used for prediction,

vegetation-cover monitoring/early warning, drought information monitoring and drought

management purposes. GIS provides wider application of merging cartography, statistical

analysis and database technology, for collation and interpretation, mapping and overlaying

the attributes available as rater or vector data or non-spatial data on various aspects of

drought risk and vulnerability. The benefit of using GIS over other conventional methods is

mainly in handling large amounts of data in various scales and in bringing these on a map.

GIS is significantly useful in combining spatial data from different sources together to

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identify and describe spatial associations present in the data and use the models for analysis

and prediction. A number of methods are used to achieve this, viz. database query, overlay,

proximity analysis, network analyses, digital terrain model, and statistical and tabular

analyses.

2.5 Drought management and challenges

Unsustainable land and water management practices are the main culprits of drought

intensification in both developing and developed nations. In many situations, drought

assistance or relief measures provided by governments and donor agencies exacerbate the

societal vulnerability to drought and also move societies away from their traditional wisdom

and pro-active risk management approach, making people more dependent on externalities.

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The goal of risk management is to promote adoption of preventive or risk-reducing

mechanisms and strategies that will mitigate the impacts of future drought events, and

thereby reducing societal vulnerability. This paradigm shift in disaster management

emphasizes preparedness, mitigation and improved EWS over emergency response and relief

assistance. Thus, the role of science and technology in sustainable drought management

needs to be propagated and popularized. A drought management strategy consists of the

following components.

Drought assessment

This can be done either by monitoring the drought causing conditions or by predicting and

forecasting the weather conditions.

Monitoring: Technical/scientific means of monitoring are necessary to provide early warning

of droughts and to also provide an objective and transparent definition of droughts to be used

in the allocation of resources. But, at present the use of information available is partial and

unsystematic. It requires strengthening of the institutional relationship between early warning

and decision making.

Predictability: As drought is very much linked with the performance of the monsoon, it can

be predicted by monitoring rainfall over the target region and taking into account previous

rainfall history of the monsoon seasons.

Vulnerability analysis: Vulnerability expresses the degree of susceptibility to a hazard. Its

analysis bridges the gap between impact assessment and policy formulation by directing

attention to the underlying causes rather than post-disaster impacts. Vulnerability to drought

is dynamic and is influenced by a multitude of factors, including population growth and

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regional shifts in population, urbanization, technology, government policies, land use and

other natural resource management practices, desertification processes that reduce the

productivity and the natural resource base, water use trends, and level of environmental

awareness. Individually, these factors are important because they may increase or decrease

vulnerability.

Early warning system

The objective of designing an EWS is to keep track of leading indicators (agro-climatic,

market socio-economic indicators and late anthropometric indicators) to get ample lead-time

to intervene at the drought onset phase itself. However, most interventions based on late

indicators force the governments to adopt a crisis management approach to deal with

drought-induced food insecurity stresses. There are many deficiencies in this approach, as it

does not reduce vulnerability to drought in the long run.

The effective warning systems should have meteorological/ agricultural information,

production estimates, price trends of food and feed, availability of drinking water and

household vulnerability, so that a variety of indices related to production, exchange and

consumption could be addressed.

Mitigation

Drought can be mitigated by two kinds of measures, either by adopting preventive measures

or by developing a preparedness plan. Preparedness refers to pre-disaster activities to increase

the level of readiness, or improve operational and institutional capabilities for responding to a

drought. In order to delineate an implementable drought mitigation strategy, risk areas are

identified on the basis of historical records to establish priority zones for comprehensive and

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integrated development programmes aimed at drought proofing and mitigation. Mitigation

can be scientifically equated with ‘resistance’ as a combination of avoidance, tolerance and

resilience.

Relief measures

State Governments in India have their relief manuals/ codes with a prescribed role for each

Department/officer in the State for managing natural disasters. These are reviewed and

updated periodically based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the

regions. The policy and the funding mechanism for provision of relief assistance to those

affected by natural calamities are clearly laid down. These are reviewed by the Finance

Commission appointed by the Government of India every five years. The Finance

Commission makes a recommendation regarding the division of tax and nontax revenues

between the Central and the State Governments and also regarding the policy for provision of

relief assistance and their share of expenditure thereon. A Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) has

been set up in each State according to the recommendations of the Eleventh Finance

Commission. The size of the CRF has been fixed by the Finance Commission after taking

into account the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation over the past 10 years.

The Government of India contributes 75% of the corpus of the CRF in each State. Twenty-

five per cent is contributed to by the State. Relief assistance to those affected by natural

calamities is granted from the CRF. Overall norms for relief assistance are laid down by a

national committee with representatives of States as members.

Different States can have state-specific norms to be recommended by a state-level committee

under the Chief Secretary. Where the calamity is of such proportion that the funds available

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in the CRF will not be sufficient for provision of relief, the State seeks assistance from the

National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) – created at the Central Government level.

When such requests are received, the requirements are assessed by a team from the Central

Government and thereafter the assessed requirements are cleared by a high-level committee

chaired by the Union Home Minister. In brief, the institutional arrangements for response and

relief are well established and have proved to be robust and effective.

2.6 Drought management framework in India

The Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) is operational since 1973, in 971 blocks of 183

districts in 16 states. The Desert Development Programme (DDP) has been implemented in

235 blocks of 40 districts in seven states. Seventy per cent of India's cultivated land is in rain

fed areas, which often suffer a decline in agricultural production in years of low rainfall, and

face drought conditions. A programme titled National Watershed Development Project for

Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) which was launched in 1990-91 is under implementation in

drought prone areas of all the states. This programme adopts development measures for all

the spatial components of watersheds, that is, arable land, no arable land and drainage lines as

one organic geo-hydrological entity. The objective is to achieve conservation of rain water,

control of soil erosion, regeneration of green cover and promotion of dry land farming

systems including horticulture, agro forestry, pasture development and livestock management

as well as household production systems. In the first four years of the Tenth Plan, an area of

1.59 million hectares was developed at an expenditure of Rs 793.82 crore.

There are large areas of degraded land of over 100 million hectares in the country which

could be reclaimed. Most of the land needs only basic water and soil conservation measures

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and some amount of plantation and protection work. By protecting, regenerating and

restoring the degraded land the pressure on remaining land, forests and pastures can be

reduced. A National Wasteland Development Board has been constituted to promote

integrated wasteland development.

Natural disasters, particularly droughts, result in huge unemployment and underemployment

problems in the rural areas. Providing wage employment to the rural poor has been an

integral part of rural development efforts.

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana and the

Employment Assurance Schemes are all aimed at providing employment and ensuring food

security.

Assistance/support by Central and State Governments:

Support by the government is through various departments or ministries in the relevant fields:

1. Adequate availability of food grains at below poverty level rates, adequate advance stocks

in feeder godowns and additional food grains of 40 kg/family/month under the PDS

(Department of Food and Public Distribution).

2. Wages and employment programme with food for work (payment at work site) component

in order to check migration.

3. Special health programmes for upkeep of health and nutritional levels of women, children,

old and infirm people (Ministry of Health and Family Welfare).

4. Fodder and livestock management (Ministry of Animal Husbandry and Dairying).

5. Water and livestock movement by the Ministry of Railways for free of cost.

6. Prohibition of use of fossil water.

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7. Roof water harvesting programmes (Rainfed Farming System, National Watershed

Development Programme for Rainfed Areas).

8. Alteration in water rate structure to discourage use of groundwater for irrigation

(Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme).

9. Planning Commission approves plan allocation (assistance) for calamity prevention and

preparedness, and

10. Tax exemption on donation/payment to relief activities (Department of Revenue).

Community participation: Community is the first responder, and thus community

participation approach can play a key role in effectiveness of government efforts. In

India, many committees and organizations have a participatory approach like:

• Gram Sabha/Panchayat recommends relief works.

• Districts and Block-level committees are involved in sanctioning and monitoring of relief

works.

• NGOs play a significant role in training and motivation.

Operation of EWS

There are two components of the National EWS: drought forecasting and drought monitoring.

The drought forecasting function is carried out by the Inter-Ministerial National Crop

Weather Watch Group (CWWG) which meets during the monsoon period from June to

September. It monitors the impact of the monsoon on agricultural operations and also

suggests corrective measures to minimize any possible adverse impact of aberrant monsoon

conditions on crop production according to the standing contingency crop plan. In case the

CWWG anticipates widespread adverse seasonal conditions, it sends out a report. This

triggers the operationalization of an emergency contingency action plan for drought

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management, which envisages institutional arrangements and operating procedures for the

drought monitoring system.

Present Situation - Rainwater harvesting

Key issues in policies, programmes and perspectives aimed at reducing drought or its adverse

consequences for the poor need to emphasize on environmental conservation and

management as a central strategy. Drought proofing aims at permanent insurance against

drought impacts through creation of water-harvesting structures like tanks or installation of

tube wells; whereas drought escaping implies plantation of crops in such a manner that

critical crop stages are able to escape the most probable period of drought. If any standing

crop has been affected by drought, then management of the crop by thinning, mulching or

any other practice will ensure survival of some crop. The coping strategies could include

abandoning a particular crop so as to concentrate resources on the next crop; shifting focus

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from crop to livestock, migration, borrowing, asset disposal, or other alternative livelihoods,

etc.

Water harvesting and conservation at basin, area, field or micro level can bring sustainability

to the water sector and, consequently, increase water availability in drought years. In

Rajasthan, and particularly in the low-rainfall western zone, there are several kinds of

rainwater harvesting systems such as bawari, jhalara, talab, nadi, tanka, khadin, kund and

harvesting of roof water. Among these, bawari and jhalara depend on groundwater, whereas

talab, nadi, tanka, kund and khadin are based on harnessing surface run-off. With the

implementation of government schemes for domestic water supply in many areas, some of

these systems were neglected. However, with increasing human population, shortfall in

groundwater and recurring droughts, these rainwater harvesting systems are attracting

growing attention. Modern technologies of rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge

such as anicut, percolation tank, subsurface barrier and pond with infiltration wells have

recently been developed to rejuvenate the depleted freshwater aquifers. Harvesting of roof

water is an age-old practice to obtain safe drinking water, which is being revived and

emphasized now. In ancient times, houses in western Rajasthan were constructed with stone

and lime, and roof water was diverted to tankas. Harvesting of roof water is being neglected

because of pipe-borne water supplies even in rural areas, which is essentially based on

groundwater withdrawal locally or in the vicinity. Roof water harvesting is now becoming the

order of the day in towns and in rural areas, due to the alarming rate of groundwater

depletion. The estimated water yield from a 1500 m roof top with an effective rainfall of 250

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mm and a 0.8 run-off coefficient is 300 m, which is enough for a drinking water consumption

of 30,000 person days at 10 l per capita per day.

2.7 Conclusion

Most drought management strategies, manuals and guidelines still fail to recognize the

scientific or strategic relevance of these aspects in causing or aggravating droughts.

Suitable models of anticipatory environmental impact assessment can be developed further

for long-term drought risk management. While drought management integration with

programmes of forestry, watershed, public health, pollution control, wetland conservation,

and biovillage concept are recognized now, linkages with the management of epidemics,

forest fire and pest, environmental health, power generation, and socio-political conflict,

including risk of terrorism and war-related disasters still need to be institutionalized. It is also

important to recognize the issues of ‘urban drought’ and ‘water drinking industries’ while

developing the drought management framework.

3. Reference/ Bibliography

• CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 100, NO. 12, 25 JUNE 2011

• http://www.nidm.net/

• http://www.nidm.net/

• InfoChange News & Features, February 2009

• Government of India Ministry of Home Affairs

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• YOJANA March 2012

• Search Engine – www.google.com

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