Агентство образования администрации Красноярского краяКГОУ СПО «Канский педагогический колледж»

Методические рекомендации для студентов по дисциплине ДПП.06.

«Теория и методика обучения иностранному языку»

Канск2007

Печатается по решению научно-методического совета Канского педагогического колледжа

Автор-составитель: Т.Э. Петкова

Методические рекомендации для студентов по дисциплине ДПП.06, «Теория и методика обучения иностранному языку»: Методическое пособие для студентов, Канск: Канский педагогический колледж, 2005. – 174 стр.

Данные методические рекомендации предназначены для студентов, обучающихся по специальности 050303 Иностранный язык. Пособие содержит материалы для информационной поддержки как теоретического, так и практического курса дисциплины предметной подготовки «Теория и методика обучения иностранному языку». Так как преподавание этой дисциплины основано на билингвальном принципе, в рекомендациях представлены разделы, как на русском, так и на английском языке. Пособие охватывает 6 основных разделов дисциплины, соответствующих дидактическим единицам Государственного образовательного стандарта СПО, а именно:

-цели обучения иностранному языку;-современные тенденции в развитии языкового образования;-методы и подходы в обучении иностранному языку; -иноязычная коммуникативная компетенция;-особенности формирования иноязычных навыков и коммуникативных умений;-современные технологии обучения иностранному языку;-типология учебных материалов и критерии их отбора;-контроль и оценка уровня владения иностранным языком;-планирование и проведение урока.Рекомендации содержат практические задания, вопросы для самоконтроля и тесты и

может быть использованы как для проведения практических занятий, так и для самостоятельной работы студентов.

© Автор – составитель: Т.Э. ПетковаИ.Л. Кирт

© КГОУ СПО «Канский педагогический колледж»

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CONTENT

Module 1.Foreign language teaching approaches. Introduction into ELT. Planning.

Classroom management. 4

Module 2.Teaching language aspects 45

2.1 Teaching grammar 45

2.2 Teaching vocabulary 63

2.3 Teaching pronunciation 72

Module 3.Teaching skills 82

3.1 Teaching listening 82

3.2 Teaching reading 100

3.3 Teaching speaking 116

3.4 Teaching writing 136

Module 4. Assessment 156

Module 5. Materials evaluation 159

Module 6. Syllabus design. Syllabus analysis. 163

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Module 1. Foreign language teaching approaches. Introduction into ELT. Planning. Classroom management

1 Модуль: Introduction into ELT and classroom management.LECTURE Session 1

Introduction to ELT Methodology. Aim: by the end of the session the students will have an idea of the following points. 1. What makes a good teacher? 2. Foreign language teaching approaches in the 20th century. 3. Post-communicative approach to ELT in the 21st century. Its basic principles. 4. Communicative competence. 5. Role of the teacher. Bibliography: 1. Frederick Klippel. Keep talking CUP. (Act.№ 56 p.70)

2. Jeremy Harmer “How to teach English”. In an attempt to find out what we all think about teaching and teachers I’d like to

ask you this question: “What makes a good teacher?” and to offer you a sort of an activity to do. Of course, it’s a question of a very personal concern, but as it is rather inconvenient to listen to everybody’s opinion on the subject, let’s do it in pairs. Read the statements describing qualities of a good teacher and try to agree in what order you would put them beginning with the most important one.

“Keep talking” p.70A good teacher Keeps in contact with the parents of his/her pupils and lets them participate in the life of the school. Is able to maintain discipline and order. Lets the students share his/her own life with all its ups and downs. Works hard to remain up-to-date in his/her subject. Openly admits when he or she made mistake or does not know something. Is interested in his or her students, asks them about their homes and tries to help where possible. Makes the students work hard and sets high standards. Is friendly and helpful to his or her colleagues. Uses a lot of different materials, equipment and teaching methods and attempts to make his or her lessons interesting. Helps the students become independent and organize their own learning.

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A good teacher

In a book of research called “Making sense of teaching” the authors Sally Brown and Donald McIntyre wanted to find out how “good teachers” did their job. They selected a group of good teachers and asked them about their teaching. This is what they found out: The most obvious common feature of the different teacher’s accounts was that in response to our question about their teaching they almost always talked about what their pupils were doing.

A simple answer to the question “What makes a good teacher?” is that good teachers care more about their students’ learning than they do about their own teaching.

1) The way that teachers talk to students - the manner in which they interact with them is one of the crucial teacher skills. It requires teachers to empathize with the students they are talking to. This empathy allows good teachers to feel whether the level of language they are using is appropriate to the audience they are addressing. Good teachers don’t forget to keep the so called eye contact and they do it unconsciously. Apart from adapting their language, good teachers use physical moment: gestures, expressions, mime.

Quality 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101.Contact with parents

2. Discipline

3. Shares his/her life with ss4. Up-to-date in the subject5. Admits mistakes 6. Is interested in the ss7. Makes ss work hard8. Is friendly to colleagues9. Uses dif-t materials and techniques10. Helps ss become independent

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2) The q-n of how to talk to students becomes even more important when teachers are giving instructions. The best activity in the world is the waste of time if the students don’t understand what it is they are supposed to do. There are 2 general rules for giving instructions:1) they must be kept as simple as possible;2) they must be logical.

Before giving instructions teachers must ask themselves the following questions: What is the most important info I’m trying to convey? What must the students know if they are to complete the activity successfully? Which info do they need first? Which should come next? When teachers give instructions, it is important for them to check that the students have understood what they are being asked to do. This can be achieved either by asking the student to explain the activity after the teacher or by getting someone to show the other students in the class how the exercise works, sometimes asked to translate the instructions.

3) There is a constant debate about the amount of time teachers should spend talking in class. Trainees’ classes are often criticized because there is too much TTT (Teachers Talking Time) and not enough STT (Student Talking Time). A good teacher maximizes STT and minimizes TTT. The best lessons are ones where STT is maximized, but where at appropriate moments the teacher is not afraid to summarize what is happening, tell a story, enter into discussion. Good teachers use their common sense and experience to get their balance right.

4) One of the greatest enemies of successful teaching is student boredom. This is often caused by the predictability of classroom time. Students frequently know what is going to happen in class and they know this because it will be the same what happened in the last class. Students need surprise and variety. But variety is the same as anarchy. Students generally appreciate a safe structure which they can rely on. Good teachers find a balance between predictable safety and unexpected variety.

5) One more q-n crucial for a good teacher is how important it is to follow a prearranged plan. This q-n is of no concern for students having their school practice, of course. Suppose that the teacher has planned to allow 20 minutes for dialogue preparation and acting out. But then it becomes obvious they need more time. What should a teacher do? Abandon the original plan or is it better to press ahead?

What is your opinion? What should a good teacher do? Good teachers are flexible enough to cope with such situations. Because they are focusing on the students and what they need, they are able to react quickly to the unplanned event. Good teachers recognize that their plans are only prototypes and they may have to abandon some or all of them if things are going too fast or too slow. Though, such situations rarely happen to good teachers because they are able to distribute the timing correctly. 2. The second question we are going to touch upon deals with foreign language teaching approaches which were widely spread in the 20th century. Much current teaching practice is the direct results of these methods/ you can see a certain number of them in the chart in our handouts. Only the last line has got 3 gaps for you to fill them in.

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Approaches to ELT

Foreign Language Teaching approaches in the 20th centuryDate Title Country of origin Major source of

influence1900 Grammar - translation Germany Teaching of classics

1903 Direct Germany Learning theory

1950s Situational UK Linguistic

1950s Structural USA Linguistic

1950s Audio - lingual USA Learning theory

1960s Audio - visual France Technology

1970s Notional / functional UK Linguistic

1970s Humanistic :Silent wayTotal physical responseCommunity language

USA Linguistic

1980s Communicative UK Learning

1980s Natural USA Learning theory

1990s Lexical UK Birmingham

Linguistics

2000 Post - communicative

(J. Mc Govern, Lancaster University, UK)To understand this chart better you should bear in mind the difference between

the terms “approach”, “method” and “methodology”. Approach- a theory of teaching (how to teach) Method – procedures and techniques characteristics of teaching(a way of teaching) Methodology – a system of methods

Analyzing the chart we can come to a conclusion that there have been a lot of approaches within the recent years. The most popular among them, nevertheless, were grammar-translation, audio-lingual, Communicative Language Teaching. And I’d like to draw your attention to the description of these 3 approaches.

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1) Grammar-translation as the most commonly used way of learning languages for hundreds of years. Analyzing the grammar and finding equivalents between the students’ language and the language to be studied, the students studied how the foreign language is constructed. A concentration on grammar-translation stopped the students from getting the kind of natural language input and it often fails to give them opportunities to activate their language knowledge. The problem with grammar-translation is that it teaches people about the language and doesn’t really help them learn the language itself.

2) Audio-lingual. This is a language teaching methodology based on behaviourist theories of learning. These theories suggested that much learning is the result of habit formation (Pavlov’s method). As a result, audio-lingual classes concentrated on long repetition – drill stages, in which the teacher hoped that the students would acquire good language habits. Methodologists later on understood that in this approach students were not exposed to real or realistic language. However, drilling is still popular, especially for low – level students.

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Communicative Approach: basic principles

Aims: by the end of the session the students will be able to point out basic principles of Communicative Approach, the nature of communication.

Communicative Language TeachingWhat is the goal of this teaching method in your opinion? Compare your idea with the definition from the glossary.

CLT has two main strands (points):1) Language is not just bits of grammar; it also involves language functions (inviting,

agreeing, suggesting, giving advice, etc.)2) The focus of communicative language teaching is activation and then study for

students should use the language appropriately for the given social context. And the three basic building blocks for successful language teaching and learning are: Engage Study Activate

And the order in which they can be presented at a lesson can be different.

Communicative Approach1) Communicative Competence:

Linguistic forms, meanings, functions used appropriately to a given social and cultural context 1) Teaching / learning process

activities: information gap, choice of linguistic forms, feedback

authentic materials student-centred

2) Emphasized areas: function over forms cohesion and coherence work on four skills

3) Role of a teacher: initiator advisor co-communicator manager

4) Students’ feelings cooperative interactions emotional security express their individuality more motivated

5) Evaluation: accuracy and fluency communicative tests errors of form are tolerated

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Activity: Define the competence. Choose from the given below:

Strategic, social, linguistic, socio-cultural, socio-linguistic, discourse competence.

Communicative competence is a measure of a learner’s ability to achieve successful communication in the language he is learning.

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Communicative Competence

Knowledge of habits, customs and traditions

Knowledge of vocabulary and

grammar

Ability to use language forms according to the situation:

speech patterns and functions

Ability to choose verbal and non-verbal

strategies according to the situation.

Ability to achieve cohesion and

coherence

Desire to interact, to handle the situation

The most difficult element of communicative competence is discourse competence.

According to Webster Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary “Discourse is communication of thought by words”. The Cobuild Essential Dictionary gives the following definition: “Written or spoken communication between people”. In other words discourse is language used in real situation for real purposes, i.e. language as social behaviour. Such a use of language involves interaction (e. g. between participants in a conversation; between reader and writer in a newspaper article; between lectures and listeners) and the combining and relating of utterances. Utterance is any complete unit of language used for communicative purpose. An utterance can be either written or spoken. Interaction is communication between people involving the use of language (e. g. between two people having a conversation; between writer and readers; between speaker and listeners).

Coherence is a state or a situation in which all the parts or ideas fit together well so that they form a united whole.

Cohesion markers are textual means, signs which make a text a united whole, with the help of which all parts of a text fit together well. For example: parallel grammar structures, ellipses.

Let’s discuss the second basic principle: teaching / learning process. The first thing includes information gap or opinion gap activities. Let’s try to answer he question: what makes a communicative activity?

Opinion gap

Info gap А Б

Info gap is created by the activities when the learners are forced to exchange info in order to find a solution.

Examples: guessing games Jigsaw tasks

Problem-solving activitiesOpinion gap A is created by the activity, which requires the learners to describe

and perhaps express and defend their views on controversial texts or ideas. Examples: Ranking exercises

Values clarification Thinking strategiesOpinion gap B is created by the activity which lets the learners share their

feelings about an experience they have in common. Example: Discussion games Activity: identify Info gap, opinion gap A and opinion gap B.Feedback is evaluation and suggestions for improving.

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GAP

Authentic materialsMaterials such as newspaper articles, brochures, train tickets, letters,

advertisements, recordings of the news, airport announcements, which were originally used in real situations and were not designed for use in language teaching. Such materials are used in the classroom to expose the learners to language in real use.

The third basic principle is about emphasized areas; i.e. functions are taught more than forms. Function is a language category; it is some kind of communicative act: it is the use of language to achieve a purpose usually involving interaction between at least two people. Ex: suggestions, promising, apologizing, greeting. Very often functions are binary. The performance of one implies a certain response which is already a different function. Ex: invitations are followed by acceptance or rejection. “Unitary” functions may occur on their own: informing, for example.

The other language category is a notion. It is a concept or idea; it may be quite specific – in this case it is close to the concept “topic». It may be general, and then it is close to the concept VOCABULARY.

Activity: Have a look at the items. Can you sort them into separate lists of notions and functions?

Notions and functions

location apology the future requestobligation probability crime food

advise offer the body instructionthreat promise expression of opinion remind

As for the 4th basic principle, role of a teacher, let’s do the following activity.Activity: Match the role of a teacher with the stages of the lesson:

1. initiator a. Engage2. advisor b. Study3. co-communicator c. Activity4. manager

There may be more than one possibility.Activity: Match the roles of a teacher with their explanations:

1. initiator a. The teacher takes part in the discussion if necessary, expresses his/her opinion on the subject

2. advisor b. The teacher engages students with a topic, arouses students’ interest

3. co-communicator c. The teacher helps students with their language problems, organizes their work on language difficulties

4. manager d. The teacher organizes an activation stage thus staying an observer and a helper if something starts going wrong

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Students’ feelings are also very important for Communicate Approach in Language teaching. Cooperative interaction means a spirit of group solidarity, in which everyone contributes to the process of learning, regardless of linguistic ability. Learners work with one another, not in competition with one another. Collaborative work gives students emotional security. They have to pay attention to what other students say and so they can teach and correct each other. Students have their own ideas, opinions, experiences. All of this is important to them. Students can express themselves and their individuality. Communicative Language teaching focuses on encouraging learners to express their ideas freely. All activities, even grammar practice, are based on the “here and now” of the learners. Apart from their individual interests learners bring their native language and culture to the classroom. Students who feel most warmly about a language and who want to integrate into the culture of its speakers are more highly motivated than those who are only learning language because they don’t have anything else to do. But whatever kind of motivation students have, it is clear that highly motivated students do better than ones without any motivation at all.

As for the 6th basic principle: Evaluation. It includes accuracy and fluency.Let’s look at the Box “Interaction Pattern”. Activities can be controlled, semi-

controlled and free. Look the terms “accuracy” and “fluency” in the glossary and say whether the types of activities refer to controlled, semi-controlled or free.

( ) ( )

Activity: fill in the gaps with the following words: organizer, monitor, conductor, stimulator, consultant, manager.A accuracy activities controlled by the teacher Most traditional language games belong here. They are easy to do with the whole class as they are usually intended to provide practice of the language. The teacher controls the activity because he/she wants to check what’s going on. teacher’s role is of a …

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A C

B D

eacerAc cur a c y

Learner

F l uenc y

B accuracy activities directed by the learners and done in pairs or groups Mini-dialogues practice belongs here. The students work in pairs using a model provided by the teacher. The dialogue is intended to provide practice in grammar and vocabulary teacher is an …C fluency activities controlled by the teacher and done with the whole class what is important is how the teacher interacts with the class or gets the students to interact with the another teacher is a …D fluency activities directed by the learners and done in groups or pairs any activity which encourages the students to use language freely Teacher is … and ….

Activity: work in groups and think of two ways of progression of skills from accuracy to fluency.

Patterns of classroom interaction

The most common type of classroom interaction is known as ‘IRF’ Initiation – Response-Feedback.

1) the teacher initiates an exchange, usually in the form of a question2) one of the students answers 3) the teacher gives feedback (assessment correction)4) initiates the next question

There are alternative patterns: the initiative doesn’t always have to be in the hands of the teacher; and interaction may be between students.

ActivityLook at the various patterns of interaction and note for

each one how active the teacher and the students are in their participation.

Individual work

TT – teacher very active, students only receptiveT – Teacher active, students mainly receptive

TS – Teacher and students fairly equally activeS – Students active, teacher mainly receptive

SS – students very active, teacher only receptive

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Classroom management Aims: The students will be able to differentiate between patterns of interaction, to define suitable patterns of seating arrangement according to the pattern.

The teacher’s physical presence plays a large part in the management of the classroom environment. And it's not just appearance either. However “good” or “bad” the students are, the teacher needs to manage the classroom, both in terms of his / her own presence and in the way the classroom is physically organised.

The question how teachers should use their physical presence in class is under our consideration before we go on to talk about patterns of interaction and seating arrangement.

There are a number of issues which influence the students’ perception of us, teachers.

Proximity. Teachers should consider how close they want to be to the students they are working with. Some student’s can’t stand it if the distance between them and the teacher is too small. For others distance is a sign of coldness. Teachers should be conscious of their proximity and assess their students’ reactions to what is happening in the classroom and take it into account.

Appropriacy. Deciding how closely you should work with students is a matter of appropriacy. So in general teachers sit or stand. Many teachers create an extremely friendly atmosphere when they work with students in pairs. However, some students find this informality worrying. Some teachers abroad even sit on the floor. And sometimes it may lead to a situation where students are put off from concentrating. All the positions teacher take-sitting on the edge of tables, standing behind a lectern – make strong statements about the kind of person the teacher is. It is important to consider what kind of effect such physical behaviour has so that we can behave in a way which is appropriate to the students we have and the relationship we wish to create with them.

Movement. Some teachers spend most of their class time in one place – at the front of the class or to the side, or in the middle. Others spend a great deal of time walking from side to side. Although this is a matter of personal preference, it is worth remembering that motionless teachers can bore students, while teachers who constantly more can turn their students into tennis-match spectators, their heads moving from side to side until they become exhausted. Most successful teachers move around the classroom to some extent and it depends not only on her / his personal style, but on the type of the activity as well.

Contact. How can teachers make contact with students? In order to manage a class successfully, the teacher has to be aware of what students are doing and, where possible, how they are feeling. This means watching and listening just as carefully as teaching. It means being able to move around the class, getting the level of proximity right, making eye contact with students, listening what they have said and responding appropriately.

The teacher’s physical approach and personality in the class is one aspect of class management. Another is one of the teacher’s chief tools: the voice.

There are 3 issues to bear in mind:1. Audibility. Teachers need to be audible. They must be sure that the students at the back of the class can hear them just as well as those at front. But a shout is always

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unpleasant. In fact, in most classrooms there’s a danger of the teacher’s voice being too loud. Good teachers try to get this balance between audibility and volume.2. Variety. It is important for teachers to vary the quality of their voices and the volume they speak at depending on the type of the lesson and the type of the activity. In one particular situation, teachers often use very loud voices, and that is when they want students to be quiet and stop doing something. But it is worth pointing out that speaking quietly is often just as effective a way of getting the students’ attention since, when they realise that you are talking, they will want to stop and listen in case you are saying something important or interesting. However, for teachers who almost never raise their voices, the occasional shout may have an extremely dramatic effect.3. Conversation. Just like opera singers, teachers have to take great care of their voices. It is important that they breathe correctly so that they don’t strain their larynxes. Teachers should avoid shouting wherever possible, so that they can conserve their vocal energy.

What’s the best seating arrangement for a class?In order to manage a class successfully, the teacher has to choose the seating

arrangement appropriate to a certain activity.Orderly rows. When the students sit in rows, there are obvious advantages. The

teacher has a clear view of all the students and the students can all see the teacher. It makes lecturing easy. It makes discipline easier since it is more difficult to be disruptive when you are sitting in a row. If there are aisles in the classroom, the teacher can easily walk up and down making more personal contact with students Many teachers use it to keep their students guessing. Especially where teachers need to ask individual students questions, it is important that they should not do so in order, students after student, line by line. The students know when they are going to be asked. It is much better to ask students from all parts of the room in random order. It keeps everyone on their toes!

Circles and horseshoes. In smaller classes, many teachers prefer circles or horseshoes. In a horseshoe the teacher will probably be at the open end. In a circle, the teacher’s position – where the board is situated – is less dominating. With all the people in the room sitting in a circle, there is a feeling of equality. This may not be quite so true of the horseshoe shape where the teacher is often located in a central position. There is one more advantage: all the students can see each other.

Separate tables. A more informal pattern of seating arrangement is when students are seated in small groups at individual table. In such classrooms you might see the teacher walking around checking the students’ work and helping, prompting or explaining something. The atmosphere in such a class is much less hierarchical than in other arrangements. It feels less like teacher and students and more like responsible adults getting in with the business of learning. However, this arrangement is not without its own problems. First, students have their preferences and they don’t always like sitting with the same group mates. Secondly, it makes ‘whole-class’ teaching more difficult.

Whatever the seating arrangements in a classroom, students can be organised in different ways: they can work as a whole class, in groups, in pairs, or individually.

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Whole class. As you know there are many occasions when a teacher working with the class as a whole is the best type of classroom organization. This doesn’t mean that the class should sit in orderly rows; whatever the seating arrangement, the teacher can have the students focus on him or her and the task.

Group work and pair work. Group work is a cooperative activity. In groups students tend to participate more equally, and they are also more able to use the language than they are in a whole – class arrangement.

Pair work has many of the same advantages. The moment students get into pairs and start working or talking about something, many more of them will be doing the activity than if the teacher was working with the whole class. Both pair work and group work give the students chances for greater independence because they are working together without the teacher controlling every move. Decisions are made in cooperation, responsibilities are shared.

The other great advantage of group work and pair work is that they give the teacher the opportunity to work with individual students. While groups A and C are doing one task, the teacher can spend some time with group B who need special attention.

Neither group work nor pair work are without problems. Students may not like the people they are grouped or paired with. In any one group or pair, one student may dominate while the others stay silent. In difficult classes, group work may encourage students to be more disruptive, especially in a class where students are at Starter or Elementary level, they can use their first language.

Solo work. This can have many advantages: it allows students to work at their own speed, allows them thinking time. Students can relax and consider their own individual needs and progress.

Good teachers are able to use different class groupings for different activities and successfully use the advantages of group work – cooperation, involvement, autonomy as well as the advantages of the whole – class grouping – clarity, dramatic potential and teacher control.

Activity Match the following types of activities to the most suitable seating arrangement. There can be more than one possibility.

1. orderly rows2. circle3. horseshoe4. separate tables

a. group work (e.g. discussion)b. individual workc. role-playd. debatee. brainstormingf. watching a videog. explaining grammarh. predictingi. problem-solvingj. phonetic drillk. listening to a textl. making a projectm. dramatizing a dialoguen. doing a testo. answering teacher’s questionsp. writing a dictation

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ActivityWhat’s the best grouping for these activities? Put W = whole class, P = pair work, G = group work, S = solo work

Students design a poster for a school event.

Students listen to a tape recording of a conversation.

Students practice saying sentences with the Present Perfect.

Students prepare a talk on a subject of their choosing.

Students repeat words and phrases to make sure they can say them correctly.

Students work out the answers to a reading comprehension.

Students write a dialogue between a traveller and an immigration official.

Students write a paragraph about themselves.

The teacher explains the rule for the pronunciation of‘s’ plurals.

Students choose one of three alternatives when faced with an imaginary moral

dilemma.

ActivityWhat do you think is the best seating arrangement for the following situations? Explain your reasons.

a. You want to have a game in teams with a class of forty students.b. In your class of 15 students you want them to discuss a topic with you.c. In your class of thirty students you want them to work in pairs.d. You have some reading tasks in a class of ten students.e. Students are designing an advertisement in groups.f. The students are going to listen to a tape.g. You want to explain a grammar point.

Activity Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Give your reasons.

a) Classes where students sit in straight rows are easier to control.b) Classes where students sit in straight rows are old fashioned and stop people learning.c) Having students in straight row is the best way to teach a large class.d) It is important for students for students to face the teacher.e) Students participate more fully in a class where students sit in straight rows.f) Students understand things better when they sit in straight rows.

Stages of the lesson Aims: By the end of the lesson the students will be able to distinguish between 3 sequences of a good lesson: ESA (“Straight Arrow Sequence”), EAS (A) (“Boomerang Sequence”) and “Patchwork”, to define the three stages of a lesson and to produce their own activities for an ESA lesson.

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Activity. Read the information about the three elements of successful language learning, highlight or underline the aims of each stage and types of activities.

What elements are necessary for successful language learning in classrooms?Classroom students don’t usually get the same kind of exposure or encouragement

as those who – at whatever age – are ‘picking up’ the language. But that does not mean they cannot learn a language if the right conditions apply. Like language learners outside schools, they will need to be motivated, be exposed to language, and given chances to use it. We can therefore way what elements need to be present in a language classroom to help students learn effectively. We will call these elements ‘ESA’, three elements which will be present in all – or almost all – classes. They are:

Engage: this is the point in a teaching sequence where teachers try to arouse the students’ interest, thus involving their emotions.

Most people can remember lessons at school which were uninvolving and where they ‘switch off’ from what was being taught them. Frequently, this was because they were bored, because they were not emotionally engaged with what was going on. Such lessons can be contrasted with lessons where they were amused, moved, stimulated or challenged. It seems quite clear that those lessons involved not only more ‘fun’, but also better learning.

Activities and materials which frequently Engage students include: games (depending on age and type), music, discussions (when handled challengingly), stimulating pictures, dramatic stories, amusing anecdotes etc. But even where such activities and materials are not used, teachers will want to ensure that their students Engage with the topic, exercise or language they are going to be dealing with. They will ask students what they think of a topic before asking them to read about it, for example. They will look at the picture of a person and be asked to guess what their occupation is before they listen to that person on tape, they will have been stimulated by the fact that the teacher (who normally dresses very formally and always stays in the same place in class) suddenly arrives in class dressed casually and moves around the room with unaccustomed ease, and so on.

When students are Engaged, they learn better than when they are partly or wholly disengaged!Study: Study activities are those where the students are asked to focus in on language (or information) and how it is constructed. They range from the study and practice of a single sound to an investigation of how a writer achieves a particular effect The two procedures we’ve shown so far demonstrate two different approaches to language teaching. In straight arrows sequences the teacher knows what the students need and takes them logically to the point where they can Activate the knowledge which he or she has helped them to acquire. For the boomerang sequence, however, the teacher selects the task the students need to perform, but then waits for the boomerang to come back before deciding what they need to Study.

Many lessons aren't quite as clear-cut as this, however. Instead, they are a mixture of procedures and mini-procedures, a variety of short episodes building up to a whole.

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Activity. Read about the three sequences which are very effective with students of different levels at any language lesson. Fill in the chart:

Type of sequence Recommended level of the students

Advantages of the sequence

Disadvantages of the sequence

Activity. Look at the example of “Patchwork” lesson. Define each stage: Engage, Study or Activate.

1. Students look at a picture of sunbathers and respond to it by commenting on the people and the activity they are taking part in. Maybe they look at each other's holiday photos etc.2. Students act out a dialogue between a doctor and a sunburn victim after a day at the beach.3. Students look at a text describing different people and the effects the sun has on their skin. They say how they feel about it. (The text is on page 75 in this book.)4. the teacher does vocabulary work on words such as pale, fair-skinned, freckles, tan' etc., ensuring that students understand the meaning, the hyphened compound nature of some of them, and that they are able to say them with the correct pronunciation in appropriate contexts.5. Students describe themselves or people they know in the same kind of ways as the reading text.6. The teacher focuses the students' attention on the relative clause construction used in the text (e.g. ‘I’m the type of person who always burns', ‘I’m the type of person who burns easily'). The use of the 'who' clause is discussed and students practice sentences saying things like ‘They're the kind of people who enjoy movies’ etc.7. The teacher discusses advertisements with the students. What are they for? What different ways do they try to achieve their effect? What are the most effective ads the students can think of? Perhaps the teacher plays some radio commercials or puts some striking visual ads on an overhead projector.8. The students write a radio commercial for a sunscreen. The teacher lets them record it using sound effects and music.

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Activity. Read the description of the first lesson; define the end of each stage.

'Well, first we talked a bit about deserts, and what it's like to travel across a desert. Then we read a text about an explorer who's crossed every desert in the world and the students answered questions on if in the text, there were several examples of the present perfect tense; I wrote some of these on the board, and I gave a few more examples orally. Then we did a grammar exercise in the textbook. After that, I asked students to make up their own questions using Have you ever...? to ask each other.

1. Engage

2. Activate

3. Study

4. Study

5.Study

Activity. Read the description of the second lesson; define the stages of the lesson and where each stage ends.

'First we reviewed words for clothes, which the students had learnt last week and then I taught them adjectives to describe materials (wool, cotton, leather, etc.), and wrote them on the board. Then we looked at some pictures of people in the textbook, and they made sentences about them ("She's wearing a green cotton dress"). Then I asked them to write a few sentences about themselves, beginning "Last weekend I was wearing...'. After that we read a text in the book about clothes people wear in different countries.'

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Activity: (see the supplement).

a) look through the Engage activities and give each of the activities a ‘like it’ score from 0 (= I don’t like it at all) to 5 (=I love it);

b) tick the boxes which are similar to Study activities you have experienced as a learner;

c) tick the boxes for the activities you would enjoy doing if you were learning a language.

Activity: How would you describe the following lesson sequences in terms of ESA?

(see the supplement)

Activity: Use any materials you have at your disposal, design a set of activities for an ESA model of a lesson.

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Activity:

Question Page

1. Complete the scheme:SKILLS

PERCEPTIVE PRODUCTIVE________________ _________________

__________________ __________________

2. What are the stages of work at each of the skills?

READING

LISTENING

SPEAKING

WRITING

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3. Circle the stage(s) where you think integration of skills is possible / necessary.

Activity. Match the lesson types with their outcomes of effective and lazy use:

Lesson TypeNature of Link

between Activities

Some outcomes of effective use

Some outcomes of inept or lazy

useLogical Line

Straight lineProgrammed growth

A. Person-centred Responsive to immediate needsPowerful personal insights

a. limited response to individual needsAtomistic; hard to see the overview

Topic Umbrella

TopicB. VarietyFramework for learning

b. ConfusedAimlessAn escape from planning and preparationEasily becomes odd mixture of things

Jungle Path

Evolutionary(gradual development)

C. Clearly visible progressFocuses towards an aim

c. Weak links to boring topicsEasily becomes odd mixture of things

Rag-bag

NoneD. VarietySurpriseEntertainment

d. Going nowhereStudents wait for teacher’s next surprise

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A B C

D

AE B

B

C

A

C

E

B

D

Module: Effective Lesson

Giving instructions and evaluating lesson effectiveness.

Aims: The students will be able to give clearly stated instructions and evaluate lesson effectiveness using criteria. .

Activity Read the passage from J. Harmer’s book “How to teach English” and work out what two general rules for giving instructions he recognizes.

Activity. Put a tick in the boxes if you think the instructions are good.

Activity. Guidelines on giving effective explanations and instructions. Read the guidelines and work out the headlines for each passage.

Activity. Giving instructions

Simplify the instructions using less confusing language or gesture.

a. Now actually I would really like you if you could now stand up Yes everyone please.

b. It’s the unit on er travel somewhere it’s near the middle page 35 and 36, can you find that? Have you got it, no, not that one, the next unit, and take a look at the introduction, read it through quickly and jot down your answers to the questions at the top of the page over there above the illustration.

c. If I were to ask you for your opinion on smoking what do you think you might say to me in your reply?

d. Would you like to tell everyone the answer you were thinking of again because I don’t think they heard it? When you spoke so quietly and I’m sure we’d all be interested in hearing if you could please.Well, that wasn’t really what I was hoping you’d say when I asked that question I was actually looking for the name of the verb tense not an example sentence but what you gave me was fine only does everyone I wonder have the answer I’m looking for?

Activity. Planning includes evaluation and implementation. How can you define evaluation and implementation.

Evaluation is gathering into about a class or an individual in order to form a judgment.

Implementation is carrying out a plan of a lesson.

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ActivityLook at the list of criteria and match them with the descriptions:

Criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness

1. The learners were active a. All learners were able to cope with the evaluation task according to their level

2. The learners were attentive b. Learners communicated successfully3. The learners enjoyed the lesson, were motivated

c. Learners’ responses showed they were attentive

4. The class seemed to be learning the material well

d. Learners used English in the actual process of learning and fully responded to all the time

5. The lesson went according to the plan e. Learners did everything with pleasure6. The language was used communicatively

f. Learners were plunged into the learning process

7. The learners were engaged with the foreign language

g. Learning tasks were successfully fulfilled in learning process by all learners

8. The learners’ aim was achieved h. Learners were willing to tackle the tasks and challenges with interest

Activity. Put the criteria in the order of priority.

Activity. Using the guide evaluate the lesson the description of which you can read in Box 15.5.

Activity. Look through the plan of the given lesson and answer the questions. Present your findings

Activity. Suggest your order of priority for the following criteria of evaluating the effectiveness of a lesson:

Progression of skills

Materials

Instructions

Reflection

Seating arrangement

Timing and Pace

Tasks and Activities

Aims

Patterns of interaction

Dealing with errors

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GUIDE TO USE OF CRITERIA

№ Criteria Distinction Satisfactory Attention Needed

1 The learners seemed to be learning material well

Learning tasks were successfully fulfilled in learning process by all learners

Most of the tasks were fulfilled in learning process by most of the students

Most of the tasks were not fulfilled in the learning process by most of the students

2 The learners’ aim was achieved

All learners were able to cope with the evaluation task according to their level

Most of the learners coped with the evaluation task according to their level

Most of the learners were not able to cope with the evaluation task according to their level

3 The learners were motivated

Students were willing to tackle tasks and challenges with great interest

Learners tackled tasks and challenges with interest

Learners did the tasks without any interest and willingness

4 The learners enjoyed the lesson

Learners do everything with great pleasure

Learners were pleased with their work, looked interested

Learners seemed to be bored

5 The learners were active

Learners are plunged into the learning process

Learners were active. Evidence of learning

Students were passive. No evidence of learning

6 The learners were engaged with the English language

Learners used English in the actual process of learning and fully respond to all the time

Learners used the target language in the actual process of learning and respond to

Learners had language or psychological problems

7 The language was used communicatively

Learners communicated successfully

Learners communicated most of the time

Learners made attempts to communicate

8 The learners were attentive

Learners responses showed they were attentive

Learners responses showed that they were mostly attentive

Lack of learners attention

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Practice SessionAims:

By the end of the lesson the students will be able to define different ways of correction mistakes of the written language and of the oral speech, to identify different patterns of interaction according to the type of activity.Materials: P.Ur. “A course in language teaching”. R.Tanner & C.Green Tasks for teacher education.

Task 1Complete the sentences and be as practical and specific as you can.

1. Teachers should interrupt learners when they make a mistake or error when………………………………………………………………….2. Teachers can give delayed feedback in the following situation………………………………………………………………..3. Some errors or mistakes should remain uncorrected by the teacher, for example ……………………………………………………………….4. Teachers can correct learners in different ways according to …………………………………………………………………………For example see Box 17.3. Penny Ur. Module 17. Oral correction techniques.5. Teachers can vary their error correction strategies according to the……………………………………………………………………………. by underlining, asking a student to correct.6. Teachers can help learners to self-correct or to correct each other’s spoken errors by……………………………………………………………….................7. Some advantages of self-correction and peer correction are………………………………………………………………………….1) learners become more………………. 2) learners don’t feel …………………8. Some disadvantages of self-correction and peer-correction are: …(for partners of the same level it’s ………………to hear mistakes or errors)9. Five practical ways of giving feedback on spoken errors are:

1) tone (on the spot correction)2) peer correction3) making notes (delayed correction)4) eliciting of the correct answer5) body language correction.

Task 2. Group work Engage. T:10’Here are some useful hints for indicating and correcting errors of the written

language.S – spelling P – punctuation (including capital letters)T – tenseA – articleWW – wrong wordWO – word orderC – connection of ideas

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S/P – singular/pluralApp – appropriacy (inappropriate style)?M – meaning isn’t clear ^ - something missing here

- start a new paragraph

Stage 1 Elementary. Underline the mistake and write the symbol in the margin.

Stage 2 Underline the whole word or phrase and write the symbol in the margin (…level)

Stage 3 Do not underline the word or the mistake; only write the symbol on the margin (level…)

Stage 4 Put a dot (or a cross, or a tick in the margin for each mistakes)Any fresh ideas?

Task 3 Activate. Pair work. T: 5’ -------Read the following examples of learners’ errors and think of efficient ways of

indicating what is wrong or correcting. a) I go to party the last Saturday.b) He like his school.c) Give me one butterbreadd) Where you did go yesterday?e) Just a minute!

Task 4 Activate (Home assignment). Task 610 situations. What would you do?

p.39 (trainer’s book)Task5. Engage Tasks for teacher education U.12 We all make mistakes

Work in groups and discuss your sentences. A group secretary presents the ideas of the group.

Group workTiming 7`

Task 6. EngageRead the passage ‘Reading: Learning Steps’ and decide how

far you agree with the point of view of the author.Pair workTiming 7`

Task7. EngageRead a passage about the difference between an error and a

mistake. What is it?Pair workTiming 7`

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Task8. EngageWrite down some mistakes that you often make when you

speak English. Why do you think you make them? What spoken errors have you made recently? Write them down. What caused them?

Individual work

Timing 7`

Task9. Activate1) Work in pairs, make a table: Pair work

ERROR POSSIBLE CAUSE

2) Make a group of 4-5. Share your errors and possible causes and add more to your table. Pair work

3) Compare your table with the one I’ll give to you. Pair work

Some possible causes of errors:Typical English errors vary according to first language.

Learners are tired or careless and just forget the correct language (=a mistake) The influence of the first language on learning a second language (eg. lack of

articles). Learner knows a rule, but the use of it hasn’t become automatic yet. Learners know a rule, but over-generalize: e.g. they know the regular past tense is

made by adding –ed, so might create a sentence such as she comed to my party. Learners know they are not correct, but are trying to communicate something quite

complicated by using the language they already know.

Correction means helping people to express themselves more accurately.

Try to make correction a part of the teaching and learning process, not something for learning to fight against.

Task 10 Engage. T Class, T:5’ (p.142 J.Harmer) How should teachers use their physical presence in class?

1) Complete the chart with situations/activities.Which might be appropriate for the behaviour described.Teacher behaviour. Situations1. The teacher shouts.2. The teacher is at the back of the class.3. The teacher is at the front of the class4. The teacher is “sitting” on a table round which 4 students are working.5. The teacher is sitting on the floor.

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Task 11 Activate. Pair work: T: 10Work in pairs. Do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Give your reasons.g) Classes where students sit in straight rows are easier to control.h) Classes where students sit in straight rows are old fashioned and stop people learning.i) Having students in straight row is the best way to teach a large class.j) It is important for students for students to face the teacher.k) Students participate more fully in a class where students sit in straight rows.l) Students understand thing better when they sit in straight rows.2. What do you think is the best seating arrangement for the following situations. Explain your reasons.a) You want to have a game in the teams with a class of 40 students.b) In your class of 15 students you want them to discuss a topic with you.c) In you class of thirty students you want them to work in pairs.d) You have some reading tasks in a class of ten students.e) Students are designing an advertisement in groups.f) The students are going to listen to a tape.g) You want to explain a grammar point.

Practice Session

Aims: by the end of the session the students will able to distinguish between an error and a mistake, to make up a list of possible causes of making mistakes.Materials: ‘A course in language teaching’ P. Ur ‘Task for teacher education’ R. Tanner, G. GreenSteps:Step 1. Test 1

Work in pairs, read the definition and name the competence: Pair workTiming 7`

1) The desire and self-confidence to interact with others as well as ‘empathy and the ability to handle social situations’.2) Knowledge of vocabulary items and mastery of certain structural rules through which they are processed into meaningful utterances.3) A certain degree of familiarity with the socio-cultural context in which the language is used.4) The ability to use and interpret language forms with situational appropriacy.5) The ability to use verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for gaps in the user’s knowledge of the code.6) The ability to perceive and achieve coherence of separate utterances in meaningful communication patterns.

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Step 2. Test 2

Match a term to its notion: Pair workTiming 10`

1. Communicative teaching

A. Information that is given to learners about their spoken or written performance, or to trainees or teachers about their teaching. Verbal and non-verbal commentary showing the level of the success of the done task (for example, the mark) or the level of understanding.

2. MethodB. Mechanically training exercise for practising

separated vocabulary or grammar structures; it is an accuracy technique.

3. Activity

C. the goal of this teaching method is communication, both in the classroom and in real life. It generally encourages more learner talk for real communicative purposes and a facilitative role for the teacher.

4. Feedback

D. An activity, in which a learner knows something that another learner does not know, so has to communicate. It is used a lot in communicative language teaching (eg. two learners have two different pictures and have to find the differences between them without showing their pictures to each other).

5. Drill E. Method of doing something, it can be presentation, practice, accuracy, fluency, testing, …

6. Information gapF. a short task, which is part of a lesson, perhaps

lasting 15 –20 minutes. Synonymous here with ‘task’.

7. Technique G. the procedures and techniques characteristic of teaching.

Step 3. Engage ‘A course in Language Teaching’ P.Ur1) Evaluation is the sixth basic principle of the

Communicative language teaching. Feedback is closely connected with Evaluation. In general, feedback is information that is given to the learner about his or her performance of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving this performance. Feedback has two main components: assessment and correction. In principle correction should include information on what the learner did right, as well as wrong and (why?) teachers and learners understand the term as correction of mistakes. It is, of course, possible to give assessment without correcting. But if a correction is supplied, the learner is aware that this means the teacher thinks something was wrong. A more important thing her is that when the teacher gives

S1 S2 S3

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feedback, the purpose is to help and promote learning and that ‘getting it wrong ‘ is not ‘bad’, but rather a way into ‘getting it right’. The opinions on assessment in Box 17.1 are based on different theories of language learning or methodologies. As you read, think about and discuss how far you agree with the various statements.

Step 4. Study Statements about feedback Box 17.51. In my opinion a power hierarchy in the classroom is inevitable: the right of the teacher to correct and assess is one expression of it. But the teacher’s role as server and supporter of the learners can’t be neglected. So the two roles are equally essential. (very much agree)2. If you have ever undergone assessment yourself, you can recollect the experience of real humiliation. It’s important to recognize that such a possibility exists. (very much agree)3. It’s true that positive feedback tends to encourage. But negative feedback, if given supportively and warmly, can be recognized as constructive (totally disagree)4. If there are good relationships, praise often becomes unnecessary; frank, friendly criticism is probably more appropriate. (agree to some extent)5. Students tend to expect approval as a matter of course and are hurt if they don’t get it. In fact, overused, uncritical praise can begin to irritate. (very much agree)6. If peer-correction causes conflict or tension between individuals, this probably means that relationships were not particularly warm. In other words, I do not think that peer-correction in itself can hurt if students feel good with one another (agree to some extent).

GIVING AND RECEIVING FEEDBACK

The purpose is to understand the role of feedback in observation process.You will get a clear idea of giving and receiving feedback on students’ performance at the lessons during school practice.

Activity. What would you like to know about feedback? Write down your questions.

Feedback

WhatHowWhoWhen

Activity. What is Feedback? Try to explain this word in one sentence.Feedback is ... ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Activity. Read the definition of the term ‘Feedback’ and distinguish two main components of it.

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In the context of teaching in general, feedback is information that is given to the learner about his or her performance of a learning task, usually with the objective of improving this performance.

Feedback has two main distinguishable components: assessment and correction. In assessment, the learner is simply informed how well or badly he or she has performed. A percentage grade on an exam would be one example; or the response 'No' to an attempted answer to a question in class; or a comment such as 'Fair' at the end of a written assignment. In correction, some specific information is provided on aspects of the learner's performance: through explanation, or provision of better or other alternatives, or through elicitation of these from the learner. Note that in principle correction can and should include information on what the learner did right, as well as wrong, and why! - but teachers and learners generally understand the term as referring to the correction of mistakes, so that is (usually) how it is used here.

+ =

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Suggestions for

improvingevaluation FEEDBACK

HOW DO YOU FEEL WHEN YOU GIVE OR RECEIVE FEEDBACK?Activity. Answer the question of the Feedback Attitude Survey.

Statements about FeedbackActivity. There is a list of statements with an ‘Agree-Disagree’ continuum below each. You may like to add more statements in the spaces provided. Put a cross on the continuum for each statement to indicate how far you agree with it.

1.The fact that the teacher gives feedback on student performance implies a power hierarchy: the teacher above, the student below.Very much Totally

agree disagree

2. Assessment is potentially humiliating to the assessed person.

Very much Totally

agree disagree

3. Teachers should give their students only positive feedback, in order to encourage, raise confidence and promote feelings of success; negative feedback demoralizes.Very much Totally

agree disagree

4. Giving plenty of praise and encouragement is important for the fostering of goodteacher - student relationships.Very much Totally

agree disagree

5. Very frequent approval and praise lose their encouraging effect; and lack of praise may then be interpreted as negative feedback.Very much Totally

agree disagree

6. Teachers should not let students correct each other's work, as this is harmful to their relationships.Very much Totally

agree disagree

7. ……………………………………………………………………………………..

Very much Totally

agree disagree

8. ……………………………………………………………………………………

Very much Totally

agree disagree34

HOW TO GIVE AND RECEIVE FEEDBACK?

Activity. The following guidelines may help you improve your feedback skills. Read them and define the qualities that a giver of feedback should possess. Write them down in the right-hand part of the chart.

Guidelines QualitiesGiving feedback

2. Feedback is better when solicited rather than when imposed. In works best when the receiver has asked for it to be given.

3. Consider the timing. In general, feedback is most useful at the earliest opportunity after the given behaviour (depending, of course, on the person's readiness to hear it, on support available from others, etc).

4. Be descriptive rather than evaluative. Describing what we actually hear and see reduces the need for the other person to react in a defensive way.

5. Reveal your own position or feelings vis-à-vis the other persons. For example: 'I find it very frustrating when you turn up late tomeetings.'

6. Be specific rather than general. To be told that one is disorganizedwill probably not be as useful as to be told: 'When you were asked to produce the report on assessment you left it to the last minute and it wasn't very convenient.'

7. Take into account the receiver's needs as well as your own. Feedback can be destructive when it serves only our needs and fails to consider the needs of the person on the receiving end.

8. Direct it towards behaviour that the receiver can control.9. Check to ensure dear communication. One way of doing this is to

have the receiver try to rephrase the feedback s/he has received to sec if it corresponds to your understanding of what you have just said.

10. When feedback is given in a group, allow giver and receiver theopportunity to check the accuracy of the feedback with others in thegroup.Those are the main skills of feedback and for giving positive feedback they, arc quite straightforward. Simply describe the actions and results in a straightforward way and add your comments on the achievement. When giving negative feedback you might find the following sequence effective:

1. Describe the actions you observed and their results.2. Ask the individual if those were his/her intended results.3. With a typical 'No' response ask what their intended results were.4. Then ask what they could have done differently to achieve their

desired results.5. Identify any possible barriers to 'doing things differently', i.e. lack of

skills or resources.6. Discuss any alternative course of action.7. Agree a way to handle future, similar situations.

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8. Conclude by summarizing the main points discussed and the actions agreed.

Activity. Read the guidelines again. Use them to fill in the left column of the chart below (Giver).

FEEDBACK PROCEDURE

Giver Receiver- ask for feedback - ask for feedback- agree upon the criteria - - record data carefully - make some notes during the event - give feedback within 24 hours of the observation (at the earliest opportunity)- listen to the teacher’s interpretation - interpret factual data with reference to

the criteria- initiate a discussion - participate in the discussion- start with positive feedback. How? - - balance positive with negative - give negative feedback. How?

- describe the actions you observed and their results

-

- - - with a typical ‘No’ response ask what her intended results were

-

- - - identify any possible barriers to ‘doing things’ differently

-

- -- agree a way to handle future, similar situations

- make notes on suggestions

- -- end on a positive note - - thank the receiver -

- tell him / her what specific information you have found useful

LANGUAGE OF FEEDBACK

Activity.What phrases make a feedback discussion positive, human and useful? Choose between A, B or C.

A. I decided to do ..., You did ..., I had to choose ..., It was one option ..., I chose to ..., The (dis)advantage of it was ..., What do you feel was the disadvantage of taking that option? Another time I could ..., Another option available then was ..., And if I did, the good things would be ..., The advantage there might be ..., But a disadvantage would be ..., Another time you could choose another option ..., I'll have to weigh it up…

36

B. You/I should have ..., You/I shouldn't have ..., Why didn't you...?, You/I could have ..., Where you/I went wrong was ..., I wouldn't have/would have ..., It was terrible ...,Everything was OK until you ..., It wasn't terrible but you ...

C. Just a minute, let me see if I've got this right..., OK, what I hear you're saying is this ..., Can I just check something with you properly ..., Right, so it looks like this ...

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GUIDELINES FOR GIVING FEEDBACK

1. Keep the time short between the student writing and the feedback2. Where possible give instantaneous feedback3. He in the grade with the comment (i.e. not ‘An excellent piece of work: D’)4. Summarize the comments and flag the fact that it's a summary5. Balance positive with negative6. Flag what is positive and what is negative7. Negative points should be constructive8. Indicate how the student can improve9. Follow up with oral feedback10. Aim for a dialogue11. Encourage students to evaluate themselves12. Encourage students to ask for feedback elsewhere (e.g. from other students or other members of staff)13. Ask students what kind of feedback they want14. Make the criteria clear when setting the work and relate the feedback to the criteria15. Distinguish between different skills (e.g. the student may have lots of good ideas but be poor at spelling)16. Offer help (e.g. "Would you like a refresher course on the use of the apostrophe?")17. Give affective feedback (e.g. “It's really frustrating reading your essay because it could have been good but...” or “I enjoyed reading this...”)18. Make further suggestions (e.g. for further reading or developing ideas)19. Distinguish between formative and summative assessments20. Give periodic oral feedback on rough drafts

Assignment on Classroom management

1. Seating arrangementIn your favourite group you want

your students to brainstorm the uses of a paper clip on a desert island. What seating arrangement would you offer? What language would you use?

2. Blackboard useHow would you use your blackboard

in your classroom for explanation of degrees of comparison? If you draw pictures feel free.

3. Classroom climateHow do you praise a child during

lesson routine? Note ten ways of praising.

4. Errors and correctiona. She be a good pupil.b. How you feeling, Jim?

38

c. Happy burthday!d. Can you make me a favour?

5. Choosing the appropriate technique for classroom interaction. Decide how you would get your students involved in the topic ‘Making money’.

6. Giving instructionsSimplify the instructions using less

confusing language or gesture.e. Now actually I would really like

you if you could now stand up Yes everyone please.

f. It’s the unit on er travel somewhere it’s near the middle page 35 and 36, can you find that? Have you got it, no, not that one, the next unit, and take a look at the introduction, read it through quickly and jot down your answers to the questions at the top of the page over there above the illustration.

g. If I were to ask you for your opinion on smoking what do you think you might say to me in your reply?

h. Would you like to tell everyone the answer you were thinking of again because I don’t think they heard it. When you spoke so quietly and I’m sure we’d all be interested in hearing if you could please.

i. Well, that wasn’t really what I was hoping you’d say when I asked that question I was actually looking for the name of the verb tense not an example sentence but what you gave me was fine only does everyone I wonder have the answer I’m looking for?

Test on Communicative ApproachTask 1

Read the definition and name the competence:

1) The desire and self-confidence to interact with others as well as ‘empathy and the ability to handle social situations’.2) Knowledge of vocabulary items and mastery of certain structural rules through which they are processed into meaningful utterances.

39

3) A certain degree of familiarity with the socio-cultural context in which the language is used.4) The ability to use and interpret language forms with situational appropriacy.5) The ability to use verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for gaps in the user’s knowledge of the code.6) The ability to perceive and achieve coherence of separate utterances in meaningful communication patterns.Task 2

Match a term to its notion:

1. Communicative teaching

A. Information that is given to learners about their spoken or written performance, or to trainees or teachers about their teaching. Verbal and non-verbal commentary showing the level of the success of the done task (for example, the mark) or the level of understanding.

2. MethodB. Mechanically training exercise for practising

separated vocabulary or grammar structures; it is an accuracy technique.

3. Activity

C. the goal of this teaching method is communication, both in the classroom and in real life. It generally encourages more learner talk for real communicative purposes and a facilitative role for the teacher.

4. Feedback

D. An activity, in which a learner knows something that another learner does not know, so has to communicate. It is used a lot in communicative language teaching (e.g. two learners have two different pictures and have to find the differences between them without showing their pictures to each other).

5. Drill E. Method of doing something, it can be presentation, practice, accuracy, fluency, testing, …

6. Information gap F. a short task, which is part of a lesson, perhaps lasting 15 –20 minutes. Synonymous here with ‘task’.

7. Technique G. the procedures and techniques characteristic of teaching.

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Classroom EnglishGood afternoon, everybody!Sit down, please.Take your places.Get ready for the lesson.Don’t be so noisy!Come to order.Where do you usually sit?Which is your desk?Sit in your own place.Will you change places with N.?Let’s call the register!We’ll spend today’s lesson preparing for a test.Let’s revise the material we’ve done so far.Will you come (out) to the front?Can you say it like that?What do you think?Why don’t you answer?Don’t tell him the answer.That isn’t quite right! or: You’ve got it wrong.You’ve said it without thinking.I’ll give you a lower mark.I’ll give you a five.Let’s go on to the reading of the text.Will you take out your books?Read page 19.Read the text up to page 20.Follow in your books while he is reading.Look at your books.Turn over the page.Listen carefully.Pay attention, will you?Could you read a little faster?You must read aloud every day.Put your books away.Will you come to the blackboard? (If a teacher stands at the blackboard)Will you go and get some chalk?Will you step to one side, please?Do you see your mistake?Who knows the answer?Put up your hands!Don’t all answer at once!One at a time Open your exercise-books, please!Have you left your exercise-book at home?Who has a spare exercise-book?

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Number your sentences.Don’t forget the word order.No copying! No cheating!Will you collect the exercise-books, please?Can you give out the exercise-books, please?Let’s go over your mistakes!That was a bad (serious) mistake.Can you give this story a little? Keep as close to the original as you can.Let’s act (out) the dialogue.Will you take / act / play / read the part … of …?And now change roles!Who wants to recite a poem (by heart)?Read the title first.Put some expression into it!Louder, please. I can’t hear.And now all together.What makes you think so?Pleas put the chair back in its place.Let’s play our game.Form a row (a line).Split into pairs.Divide into pairs.Hold hands.I want you to write down your homework.Read the passage on page 3 right to the end.Ask 10 questions on / about the text.Write answers to the questions.Do exercise 3 in writing.Do exercise 8 on page 87.Write out the new words.Collect your things.See you tomorrow / next week / on Thursday!Good – morning!Good – afternoon.

* * *

I’m your new English teacher.I’d better introduce myself. My name is …From today I’m taking your group for English.I’m a teacher trainee.We’ll be using “Happy English”.I’ve got 5 lessons with you.Now I’d like you to give me your names.Let’s make a start.It’s time to start now.

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What did you have to do for today?What was your homework?Did you find it difficult?Who hasn’t done the homework?That’s a poor excuse.You were to read the passage on page 36, is that right.You were supposed to practice the dialogues on p.21 for homework.And you also had to do Exercise 6, Numbers 1-6 in writing.Let’s go through this exercise together.Let’s go on to number 2.And the next question, please.What about the last one?Read the sentence again.Please give your exercise-books in at the end of the lesson.I’ll mark them and give them back next lesson.I didn’t manage to do my homework.All right, hand it in to me with next week’s homework.In our last lesson we began reading chapter 9.I think we read as far as Paragraph 2.So let’s continue from there.Open your books on page 64.Let’s read the text aloud.Listen carefully while I read the first paragraph.I’ll read sentence by sentence.I want you to repeat each sentence after me.Listen and repeat.All together!Whose turn is it?You are next, N.Who’s left?Be careful with your intonation.That wasn’t pronounced correctly.Speak up.Please read more softly.Ask each other questions. I want you to ask questions in turn.Another question, N.Let’s ask some questions on the topic.I’ve got a question.Give us the full answer.Try to answer the next question, will you?What is the answer to this?Be prepared to answer questions onCan you add a few details?What exactly do you mean?I’m not really with you.

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I didn’t catch the last part.What’s your opinion of …?How do you see it, then?Who agrees (disagrees) with …?Does anybody share N’s opinion?Give your reasons.Well done!That sounds a goods idea!Sorry to interrupt, but …Let’s read through the vocabulary first!Don’t rub the date off.Careful!Work in threes.Work in groups of four.Join another group.Work in pairs.Divide into pairs.We are going to practice role play.The main characters are …I’ll give each group a set of cards.a cue cardNow we shall act out this dialogue.Are you listening to me, N?That’s enough of that!Make up 2 dialogues of your own.Make up a similar dialogue.We have 5 minutes to spare (over).Would you sit next to Ann?You do it first / next.Has the bell gone?We’ll finish for today.It’s time to stop.Have a break.That’s all for today.

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Module 2.Teaching language aspects

Teaching GrammarAims: The students will be able to have a clear idea of the organization of

teaching grammar, inductive and deductive approach, and presentation and practice techniques. ??? What is your idea of what grammar is? Grammar is sometimes defined as “the way the words are put together to make

correct sentences”Another possible definition might be:

“Grammar is a set of rules that define how words (or pats of words) are combined or changed to form acceptable units of meaning within a language”.

??? What is a grammar structure? “A specific instance of grammar is usually called a grammar structure” ??? Can you give examples of grammar structures? # Noun plurals, the Past Simple, comparison of adjectives etc. Grammar meaning

Grammar does not only affect how units of the language are combined in order to “look right”; it also affects their meaning. The meaning of a grammatical structure may be difficult to teach. It is fairly simple to explain that the addition of a plural –s to the noun in English indicates that you are talking about more than one item. But how would you explain when to use the present perfect and when the past simple? In this case a very important question turns up: a question of grammatical terms.

Grammatical termsActivity

Match the terms with their definitions. Put the terms in order beginning with the largest, finishing with the smallest one.

1. the phrase2. the discourse

(the text)3. the clause4. the word5. the morpheme6. the sentence

a. the largest unit of languageb. a bit of word which can be perceived as a distinct

component: within the word “passed” are the 2 morphemes: “pass” and “-ed”.

c. A shorter unit within the clause, of one or more words, but fulfilling the same sort of functions as a single word.

d. A kind of mini-sentence: a set of words which make a sense unit, but may no be concluded by a fool stop.

e. A set of words standing on their own as a sense unit, its conclusion marked by a full stop or equivalent(question mar, exclamation mark)

f. The minimum normally separable form: in writing, it appears as a stretch of letters with a space either side.

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Let us analyze the sentence in terms of the relationship between its components. ??? What are they called?Parts of the sentence.??? What are the most common parts of the sentence?Subject, predicate, object, complement, adverbialDifferent parts o the sentence may be realized by various kinds of words; these are called parts of speech.??? What are the parts of speech in the English language?Noun, verb, adjective adverb, pronoun, auxiliary verb, modal verb determiner, preposition, conjunctionNow, let us look at grammar from the point of view of teaching it. ??? Is grammar the main learning objective or the means of acquiring through mastery of the language? One learns one’s mother tongue without studying grammar. The important question is not whether teaching and learning grammar is necessary for language learning, but whether it helps or not.

ActivityRead the following statements about learning and teaching grammar and decide to what extent you agree or disagree with each one. Opinoin1. Pupils should be taught grammar rules before they even begin the unit. The teacher explains the rules that are going to come up then do some exercises with the class. That really helps them be clear about what unit is about and they can do the activities in the unit better. They learn better that way. Opinion 2. You don’t really need to teach grammar explicitly, saying things like, “This is the past perfect tense and you form it like this”. That’s unnecessary. Learners will pick it up for themselves. If hey want grammar, the teacher can give them exercises to do outside class, but don’t waste precious class time teaching i. Its better to each learner to communicate, to practice, as much English as possible in class with real language. Grammar will look after itself.

The organization of teaching grammar??? What do these abbreviations stand for?ESA PPP P (I AND E) PTPresentationIsolationExplanationPracticeTest

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ActivityRead P.Ur`s definitions of stages P (I&E) PT and define the aim of each stage.

a. presentationb. isolation and explanationc. practiced. test

a). Presentation We usually begin by presenting the class with a text in which the grammatical structure appears. The aim of the presentation is to get the learners to perceive the structure- its form and meaning0 in both speech and writing and to take it into short-term memory. Often a story or short dialogue is used which appears in written form in the textbook and is also read aloud by the teacher and/or state. As a follow-up, students may be asked to read aloud, repeat, and reproduce from memory, r copy out instances of the use of the structure within the text. Where the structure is a very simple, easily perceived one, the presentation “text” may be no more than a sample sentence or two, which serves as a model for immediate practice.

b). Isolation and Explanation At this stage we move away from the context, and focus, temporarily, on the grammatical items themselves: what they sound and look like, what they mean, how they function-in short, what rules govern them. The objective is that the learners should understand these various aspects of the structure. In some classes we may need to make extensive use of the students` native language to explain, translate, and make generalizations and so on. In more academic classes, or where the structure is particularly difficult for the students to grasp, this stage may take some time. However, where the structure is very simple, or very close to a parallel in the native language, or when the students tend to learn the language intuitively rather than intellectually, it may take only a minute or so or be entirely omitted.c). Practice The practice stage consists of a series of exercise done both in the classroom and for home assignments, whose aim is to cause the learners to absorb the structure thoroughly; or, to put it another way, to transfer what they know from short-term to long-term memory. Obviously, not every grammar practice procedure can “cover” all aspects of the structure as listed in the able on page 6; therefore we shall need to use a series of varied exercises which will complement each other and together provide through coverage. d). TestLearners do tests in order to demonstrate –to themselves and to the teacher- how well they have mastered the material they have been learning. The main objective of tests within a taught course is to provide feedback, without which neither teacher nor learner would be able to progress very far. We have to know where we are in order to know where to go next.

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Formal examinations, usually preceded by revision on the part of the learners, and followed by written evaluation on the part of the teacher, are only one kind of testing, arguably the least useful for immediate teaching purposes. (I do not give here a list of techniques that can or should be used for formal grammar testing, since the subject is outside my terms of reference). Most testing, however, is done automatically and almost unconsciously by teacher and learners as the course proceeds, the most valuable-though necessarily impressionistic-feedback on learning being supplied by the learners` current performance in class and in home assignments. Often “practice” exercises are used to supply such informal feedback, in which case they may function virtually as tests: but if this aspect is stressed, their effectiveness as practice techniques is usually lessened (see the end of Chapter 2).(from Penny Ur “Grammar Practice Activities”, CUP)ActivityDefine the stages of these lessonsSample 1. Construction “It is a…” (beginners) In our first example, the teacher is working with complete beginners. She starts by walking into the class, greeting the students in a lively and cheerful way. It is the first time she has seen them, so she tells them her name and, with a combination of mime and expression, gets them to tell her their names.Then, she pantomimes finding an extraordinary object in her bag and holds up a pen as if it was the most interesting thing in the world. She has students repeat the word and then shows other objects which they learn the names of too. Then she demonstrates the sentences “It is a pen/ It is a table and the students practice saving them. If she thinks they can take it, she introduces the question “What is it?” and gets students practising asking and answering questions. As soon as she thinks they are ready, she gets them to the role-play a scene in which two people wake up to find themselves in a darkened room. They have to find out what things in the room are by touch and asking “What is it?” “It is a desk… wait…and a pen…”etc.Sample 2. Comparatives(lower intermediate)

The teacher asks the students to look back at the article they read and answer the questions.

1. What is the comparative form of these adjectives?Safe-saferSafe comfortable convenient cheap slow important god bad

2. What rule can you make about the comparative form of:a. most short adjectivesb. Long adjectives?

Are there any irregular adjectives which do not fit these rules? Then the teacher says “Trains are cheaper than planes: showing through voice and gesture how the rhythm and stress of the sentence work. After that she gets choral and individual repetition of the words “safer”, “more convenient” etc. And then asks students to say the sentence “Trains are slower than planes”. She can then ensure quick practice by saying “faster” to get students to say” Planes are faster than trains, “cheap “ for “Trains are cheaper than

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planes” etc. To check the students have understood the meaning and the construction of comparative adjectives, she can ask them sentences comparing other things such as bicycles and cars using the adjectives from the lesson.

Activity Fill in the gaps with the verbs:To reduce, to encourage, to present, to link, to help, to elicit, to give, to check, to provide, to give, to develop

Stage Purpose Teacher’s rolePresentation _________ new language in context so that

the meaning is clear_________the new form in a natural spoken

speech or written text so that students can see its use in discourse

_________the new form to what students already know,

_________ comprehension_________ the form from students where

possible and exploit their existing knowledge

instructorcorrector

Practice _________ students memorize the form_________ students to produce the word

order_________ intensive practice through

repetition_________ opportunities for feedback and

error correction_________ practice in pronouncing new

form_________ confidence

managercorrectorevaluator

Production _________ control and encourage students to find out what

_________ students to use the forms in expressing their own content

_________ students see the usefulness of what they have learned

_________ what has been learned and diagnose problems

monitorresourcediagnose

(From Roger Gower, Diana Phillips, Steve Walters Teaching Practice Handbook)

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Presentation StageThere are two main approaches to grammar presentation:

1) Deductive (rule-driven) which starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied2) Inductive (rule-discovery) which starts with some examples from which a rule is inferred.

ActivityStudy these pages from the textbooks and say what approach is used for grammar presentation:

Making comparisons1. Work in pairs. Are the following statements True or False? Change the

false statements to make them true. Example: Men live longer than women. False ‘Men live a shorter time than women’Remember that are and than are pronounced weakly when they are part of a sentence. Remember also to emphasise the adjective or adverb which is contrasted, e.g. shorter

a) China is bigger than Russia.b) The moon is nearer to the earth than the sunc) The North Sea is warmer than the Mediterranean Sea.d) Prince Charles is older than Princess Diana.e) The USA have a better football team than Brazil.f) In Britain it becomes dark earlier in summer than in winter.2. Complete the following sentences and then check with Section 3 in the

Language reference.In adjectives or adverbs of one syllable the comparative is formed by

adding _____ to the end of the adjective or adverb. This is followed by the word than.

Some comparatives are irregular: for example good becomes __________.Some adjectives and adverbs of two syllables also form the comparative

with –er. For example, early becomes _________.3. Discuss the following statements with a partner and then agree or

disagree, following the example below. Example: Reading is more relaxing than watching television ‘No, I don’t agree. Watching television is more relaxing’.

a) Parachuting is less dangerous than water-skiing.b) Austria is more beautiful than Greece.c) Washing-up is less boring than cooking.d) Women are more intelligent than men.e) English grammar is more difficult than English pronunciation.

Nouns, adjectives and adverbs1. Subject and object pronouns

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me you him her it us you them

Subject pronouns

Object pronouns

The subject is the person or thing doing the action: I left early. She went home We said goodbye.

The object is the person or thing receiving the action: She telephoned me. I hit him. We saw her.Write the correct pronounce for these sentences:

1. …. Telephoned yesterday. (she) She telephoned yesterday.

2. We watched ….. for hours. (he) We watched him for hours.

3. Hasn’t ….. arrived yet? (she)4. …… don’t understand. (I)5. Are you talking to …. ? (I)6. Don’t ask …. ….. doesn’t know. (she/she)7. This is Julia: …. have known …. for years. (we/she)8. Nobody told …. the bus was leaving. (they)9. Why didn’t …. ask …. to come? (she/they)10. Don’t ask … Ask … . (I/he)11. ….. think ….. doesn’t like …… . (I/he/I)12. ….. asked ….. to invite …… . (they/he/we)

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I You he she it we you they

Advantages Disadvantages Deductive approach

It gets strait to the point and can therefore be time-saving.

It respects the intelligence and maturity of many – especially adult- students, and acknowledges the role of cognitive process in language acquisition.

It confirms many students’ expectations about classroom learning particularly for those learners who have an analytical learning style.

It requires less effort on the part of both the teachers and the students

The students are less likely to be exposed to critical remarks on the part of either the teacher or other students and therefore some students may feel secure with this approach

Inductive approachRules learners discover for themselves are more

likely to fit their existing mental structures than rules they have been presented with. This in turn will make the rules more meaningful, memorable, and serviceable.

The mental effort involved ensures a greater degree of cognitive depth which again, ensures greater memorability.

Students are more actively involved in the learning process, rather than being simply passive recipients: they are therefore likely to be more attentive and more motivated.

If the problem solving is one collaboratively and in the target language the learners get the opportunity for extra language practice.

Working things out for themselves prepares students for greater self reliance and therefore conductive to learner autonomy.

(from Walker and Elsworth Grammar Practice for Intermediate Students, Longman, 1986)

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ActivityBoth deductive and inductive approaches have their advantages and disadvantages. Study the lists of advantages of both approaches, read the statements about the disadvantages and divide them into 2 lists: deductive and inductive accordingly. Complete the chart above.

1. It is a boring approach and therefore less likely to attract students’ attention and so be less effective.2. The time and energy spent in working out rules may mislead students into believing that rules are the objectives of language learning, rather than a means.3. The time taken to work out may be at the expense of time spent putting the rule to some sort of productive practice.4. Starting the lesson with grammar presentation may be off-putting for some students, especially younger ones. They may not have efficient metalanguage.5. Teacher explanation is often at the expense of student involvement and interaction.6. Students may hypothesise the wrong rule, or their version of the rule may be either too broad or too narrow in its application.7. It can place heavy demands on teachers in planning a lesson. They need to select and organize the data carefully so as to guide learners to an accurate formulation of the rule.8. Many language areas such as aspect and modality resist easy formulation.9. Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation such as demonstration/(From ‘How to Teach Grammar’, Scott Thornbury)

Grammar presentation techniquesActivity. Analyse different presentation techniques and fill in the chart with advantages and possible problems of grammar presentation techniques.

1. If you were introducing the present perfect tense for the first time, which of the twelve presentation techniques would you use? (You may choose to combine several of them.)2. In which order would you use your chosen presentation techniques?Share your answers with your class and the reasons for your choices(s).

Grammar presentationTechnique Advantages Possible problems

1. Using a song text

2. Using a time line

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3. Reading

4. Using a picture

5. Using realia

6. Personalising

7. Explaining directly

8. Practising and presenting

uses Ls’ real lives;clear explanation givenLs begin with the use, then

learn the formsome amusing questions

Ls might not understand the questions

needs good elicitation techniques from T

Ls have to be used to working in pairs

not much context provided

9.Discovering

10. Using a chart

11. Eliciting

12. Comparing L1 and L2

Activity. Answer the questions.

Questions on grammar presentations1. The structure itself. Was the structure presented in both speech and writing, both form

and meaning?2. Examples. Were enough examples provided of the structure in a meaningful context?

Are you sure the students understood their meanings?3. Terminology. Did you call the structure by its (grammar-book) name? If so, was this

helpful? If not, would it have helped if you had? What other grammatical terminology was (would have been) useful?

4. Language. Was the structure explained in the students’ mother tongue, or in the target language, or in a combination of the two? Was this effective?

5. Explanation. Was the information given about the structure at the right level: reasonably accurate but not too detailed? Did you use comparison with the students’ mother

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tongue (if known)? Was this/would this have been useful?6. Delivery. Were you speaking (and writing) clearly and at an appropriate speed?7. Rules. Was an explicit rule given? Why/why not? If so, did you explain it yourself or

did you elicit it from the students? Was this the best way to do it?(from Penny Ur ‘A course in Language Teaching’ CUP)

Guidelines on presenting and explaining a new grammatical structure:1. In general, a good presentation should include both oral and written forms, and both form and meaning.2. It is important to have plenty of examples of the structure in the context and to understand them. Visual materials can also contribute to understanding.3. Older or more analytically-minded learners will benefit more from the terminology.4. Depends on your own situation.5. Your explanation should cover the great majority of instances, but too much detail may only confuse. A simple generalization is more helpful to learners than a detailed grammar book explanation.6. These are basic and important points! Ask the observer.7. You have to ask yourself which is more effective in your situation. If the learners can perceive and define the rule themselves, then let then do it. But don’t waste a lot of valuable class time, sometimes it is better to provide the information yourself

Teaching grammar at a good grammar lesson includes:1) clear presentation2) communicatively organised practice through speaking activities3) production ended with a free discourse

Form and useActivity This task focuses on presenting both the form and the use of a new grammar point.

1. Read the passage opposite, Form and Use, and then do the task in pairs.

2. In the twelve presentations in Task3: Let me count the ways …, the form and the use were both presented. But which use of the present perfect tense was presented in each one?Complete the table below with the use of the present perfect which was presented in each case. Two examples are done for you.

Form and UseWhen we present a new grammar point to

learners, it is useful to present two different aspects: its form and its use.

Form means the grammatical form of an item and the rules for it. For examples, does a word have an s at the end? When do we add an –ed to the end of a verb and when not? What is the word order of a question? When do you use do and when do you use did in a question?Use deals with context. When or where is an item used? To discover the use of an item, ask yourself, in which situation is an item used in natural communication? For example, one use of the present simple tense is for

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describing actions that people do every day (I get up at 7.30), so in your presentation for the present simple tense you might include a natural situation where a person is telling someone else what they do every day, such as a learner writing to a new penfriend, telling her about a typical day at his school.

Technique Which use of the present perfect is presented?1. Using a song text2. Using a time line Unspecified time in the past3. Reading4. Using a picture5. Using realia6. Personalising7. Explaining directly8. Practising and presenting Questions and tag questions;

General questions in the past with ever9. Discovering 10. Using a chart11. Eliciting12. Comparing L1 and L2 Activity. Mind the difference between accuracy and fluencyAccuracy – a practice activity which is a good for improving accuracy will have these characteristics:

Attention to form: the practice activity should motivate learners to want to be accurate, and they should not be so focused on what they are saying that they have no left – over attention to allocate to how they are saying it.

Familiarity: learners need to be familiar with the language that they are trying to get right.

Thinking time: monitoring for accuracy is easier and therefore more successful if there is sufficient time available to think and reflect.

Feedback: learners need unambiguous as to how accurate they are – this traditionally takes the form of correction.Fluency – where the meaning is the goal, practice activities should have these characteristics:

Attention to meaning: the practice activity should encourage learners to pay attention less to the form of what they are saying (which may slow them down) and more to the meaning.

Authenticity: the activity should attempt to simulate the psychological conditions of real-life language use. That is, the learner should be producing and interpreting language under real-time constraints, and with a measure of

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unpredictability.Communicative purpose: to help meet these last two conditions, the

activity should have a communicative purpose. That is, there should be a built-in need to interact.

Chunking: at least some of the language the learners are practising should be in the form of short memorisable chunks which can be atomized.

Repetition: for atomization to occur, the practice activity should have an element of built-in repetition, so that learners produce a high volume of the targeted forms.

Activity. Read the types of grammar practice and underline the key words

Box 6.3: Types of grammar practice: from accuracy to fluencyType 1: AwarenessAfter the learners have been introduced to the structure, they are given opportunities to encounter it within some kind of discourse, and do a task that focuses their attention on its form and/or meaning.Example: Learners are given extracts from newspaper articles and asked to underline all the examples of the past tense that they can find.Type 2: Controlled drillsLearners produce examples of the structure: these examples are, however, predetermined by the teacher or textbook, and have to conform to very clear, closed-ended cues.Example: Write or say statements about John, modelled on the following example: John drinks tea but he doesn’t drink coffee. a) like: ice cream/cake b) speak: English/Italian c) enjoy: playing football/playing chess

Type 3: Meaningful drills

Again the responses are very controlled, but learners can make a limited choice.Example: In order to practise forms of the present simple tense:Choose someone you know very well, and write down their name. Now compose true statements about them according to the following model: He/She likes ice cream; or He/She doesn’t like ice cream. a) enjoy: playing tennis b) drink: wine c) speak: PolishType 4: Guided, meaningful practice

Learners form sentences of their own according to a set pattern, But exactly what vocabulary they use is up to them.

Example: Practising conditions clauses, learners are given the cue If I had a million dollars, and suggest, in speech or writing, what they would do.Type 5: (Structure-based) free sentence composition

Learners are provided with a visual or situational cue, and invited to compose their own responses; they are directed to use the structure.

Example: A picture showing a number of people doing different things is shown to the class; they describe it using the appropriate tense.Type 6: (Structure-based) discourse composition

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Learners hold a discussion or write a passage according to a given task; they are directed to use at least some examples of the structure within the discourse.

Example: The class is given a dilemma situation (‘You have seen a good friend cheating in an important test’) and asked to recommend a solution. They are directed to include modals (might, should, must, can, could, etc.) in their speech/writing.Type 7: Free discourse

As in Type 6, but the learners are given no specific direction to use the structure; however, the task situation is such that instances of it are likely to appear.

Example: As in Type 6, but without the final direction.

Activity . Point out the examples of Controlled drills____________________________ Meaningful drills_______

Practising how much/how many? Using a sequence of oral drills (Elementary)

Grammar practice is often associated with drilling. In this example, the teacher of an elementary class has presented how much? and how many? with uncountable and countable nouns respectively, and is now providing practice through a sequence of different types of drills.Step 1. The teacher says the following sentence two or three times:

How much milk have we got?At a given signal, the class repeats this in chorus. Then the teacher indicates to

individual students to repeat it. He corrects pronunciation where necessary.Step 2.

The teacher repeats the sentence and the class choruses it again. Then the teacher supplies the prompt:

Riceand indicates to a student to supply the response: How much rice have we got?The teacher supplies further prompts, such as meat, juice, sugar, spaghetti etc, and individual students provide the correct response. Note that all the examples (meat, juice etc) are uncountable – i.e. they do not normally have a plural form.Step 3The teacher repeats Step 2, but this time uses pictures (of meat, juice etc.) rather than word prompts.Step 4The teacher repeats Step 1, but this time with the sentence: How many bananas have we got?The teacher then supplies prompts that are countable nouns, such as potatoes, eggs, onions, tomatoes, etc. Initially the prompts are words, and then pictures.Step 5The teacher then supplies prompts that are a mixture of countable and uncountable nouns, first words and then pictures. For example: Teacher: eggs Student1: How many eggs have we got? Teacher: meat

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Student2: How much meat have we got? Teacher: coffee Student3: How much coffee have we got? Teacher: apples Student4: How many apples have we got?

Step 6

The teacher describes pictures to the students, who in pairs test each other.

How to test grammar1. Questions and answers. Simple questions, very often following reading, or as part of

an interview; may require short or long answers: What is the (family) relationship between David Copperfield and Mr. Murdstone?

2. True/false. A statement is given which is to be marked true or false. This may also be given as a question, in which case the answer is yes or no. Addis Ababa is the capital of Egypt. IS Addis Ababa the capital of Egypt?

3. Multiple-choice. The question consists of a stem and a number of options (usually four), From which the testee has to select the right one. A person who writes books is called a) a booker b) an editor c) an author d) a publisher

4. Gap-filling and competition. The testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something. A gap may or may not be signalled by a blank or dash;the word to be inserted may not be given or hinted at.They (go) to Australia in 1980.or They ___________to Australia in 1980. (go)or A_____________ is someone who writes books. or I’ve seen that film. (never)

5. Matching. The testee is faced with two groups of words, phases or sentences; each item in the first group has to be lined to a different item in he second.

Large small

Unhappy many A lot big Little sad

6. Dictation. The tester dictates a passage or set of words; the testee writes them down.

7. Cloze. Words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals(for example, every seventh word). Usually the first two or three lines are given with no gaps. The family are all fine, though Leo had bout of flu last week. He spent most of it lying on the sofa watching _______when he wasn’t sleeping. His

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exams___________ in two weeks; so he is ___________about missing school, but has managed to ___________quite a lot in spite ______feeling ill.

8. Transformation. A sentence is given; the testee has to change it according to some given instucion. Put into the past tense: I go to school by bus. 9. Rewriting. A sentence is given; the testee rewrites it, incorporating a given change of expression, but preserving the basic meaning.

He came to the meeting in spite of his illness

Although …..10. Translation. The testee is asked to translate the expressions, sentences or entire

passages to or from the target language. 11. Essay. The testee is given a topic such as “Childhood memories”, and asked to

write an essay of a specific length. 12. Monologue. The testee is given a topic or question and asked to speak about it for

a minute or two. From Penny Ur “A Course in Language Teaching”, CUP)

There are six factors that need to be taken into account when assessing the value of a test:1. Its practicality – how easy is it to set up, administer and mark?2. Its reliability- does it give consistent results, e.g. do the results tally with those of similar students, and when marked by different people?3. Its validity- does it test what we want to test, and not something else?4. Its face validity- do the students recognize it as a fair test, and will they therefore perform to their ability?5. Backwash- does it positively influence the teaching that will be done in preparation for it?6. Spin-off- can the test be used subsequently for review and remedial teaching?

Where discrete-item tests lose points with regard to their overall validity, they are more reliable, practical and, from the student’s point of view, they look like tests. They can also be used afterwards for reviewing purposes. Their backwash effect is less powerful than of performance tests, however. Activity.Sample test. Test 1. Testing grammar using discrete-item tests The teacher of an intermediate class has been working or, the differences between yet, already, and still- adverbs that present problems not only in terms of meaning, but also in terms of syntax that is their position in the sentence and the kinds of verb structures they combine with. The teacher now wishes to test her students` command of these adverbs. She can’t decide between the following five short tests.

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1. In each sentence chose the best place (/) to put the words in brackets:

1. The 7.25 train/hasn’t/arrived/. (still)2. /Haven’t you/ done your homework/? (yet)3. I/have/sent/all my Christmas cards. (already)4. /Ben/is/doing his homework. (still)5. How many cookies/have/you eaten/? (already)6. /The film/hasn’t started/. (yet)

2. Complete this text with yet, still, or already Preparations are underway for the Pan-World Games in Lomoka next year. Many new hotels have___________been built and tourists are __________making reservations. But the main stadium hasn’t been started _____. They are _______deciding where to put it. The Athletes` Village is_____being built, and the swimming complex isn’t completed __________.

3. Look at the information in the chart and decide if the sentences are true or false.WORD CUP UPDATEMorocco-Tunisia___ USA-Germany: in progressS.Korea-Morocco_____ Japan-Austria: in progressCroatia- England 0-0 Austria-USA 3-0Tunisia-Croatia 3-1 Germany-Japan 0-0Morocco- England 2-1 Austria-Germany 1-1

1. English have already played Morocco.2. Tunisia hasn’t played a match.3. The United States have already lost one.4. South Korea hasn’t played yet.5. Germany still hasn’t scored a goal.

4.Complete these sentences to make true statements:

1. Scientists still haven’t __________________________________________2. People have already __________________________________________3. Explores have already_________________________________________4. My teacher has already_________________________________________5. My best friend ____________________________________________yet6. I am still___________________________________________________

5. Write a letter to a friend of between 75 and 100 words. Ask him/her about their news, and tell them some news of your own. Include two examples of yet, still, and already. From Scott Thornbury “How to Teach Grammar”, Longman

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2.2 Teaching VocabularyAims: By the end of the session the students will have a clear idea of what vocabulary is, what is to be taught and what the stages of teaching vocabulary are.

To the Anglo-Saxons a vocabulary was a “Wordhoard”, to be owned and treasured, to the Chinese, a sea of words to be fished. How do you see your own vocabulary? Which of these words best captures that image? Explain your choice.

Activity 1. Individual work. stock nursery store poll raft armoury

palette file mine reservoir web treasury

forest tunnel spectrum orchestra well

mountain reserve theatre field tool-kit

wardrobe telescope

Activity 2. Group work

What words come to your mind when you see the word ‘vocabulary’. Write down your ideas.

Activity 3. Individual work

How is your vocabulary? Individually write down all the words you can think of that begin with a letter you see on the board (no slang, abbreviations or proper names) Stop when you hear ‘time’. How many words do you have?

Activity 4. Group work

Vocabulary as one of the language aspects is connected with grammar and phonetics. How? Draw a scheme.

Activity 5. Group or Pair work

Are all the English words necessary to be learnt? Choose the answer which you think is right.

Are all the English words necessary to be learnt? Choose the answer, which you think, is right:1. How many words are there in English? a) 10000 b) 100000 c) 250000 d) 5000002. Winston Churchill was famous for his particularly large vocabulary. How many words did he use in his writing? a) 10000 b) 60000 c) 100000 d) 120000

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3. How many words does the average native speaker use in his / her everyday speech? a) 2500 b) 5000 c) 7500 d) 100004. How many words make up 45% of everything written in English? a) 50 b) 250 c) 1000 d) 2500

There are many words your students don’t need at all. And there are words they need simply to understand when they read or hear them. Finally there are words, which the students need to be able to use in speech or in writing!

Activity 6

What’s needed to be taught? Is it enough just to teach the meaning of a new word? Look at the list of the necessary aspects to be taught and write the characteristics of the words below next to each aspect:

The characteristics to choose from:1) rich – poor;2) keen /ki:n/;3) toss a coin;4) ‘a dog’ has positive associations in

Britain but negative in Arabia;5) untranslatable;6) enjoy + -ing;7) ‘weep’ is used in writing more than in

speech;

8) intelligent – bright, clever, smart;9) a dark green cabbage;10) fruit for orange, apple, kiwi;11) brown – red, blue, green;12) spring, autumn, summer for

season;13) учиться

Aspects to be taught:a) Form: pronunciation and spellingb) Grammarc) Collocationd) Aspects of meaning (1):

- denotation,- connotation,- appropriateness

e) Aspects of meaning (2): meaning relationships- synonyms- antonyms- hyponyms- co-hyponyms (co-ordinates)- super ordinates- translation

f) Word formation

1. Form: pronunciation and spellingThe learner has to know what a word sounds like (its pronunciation) and what it

looks like (its spelling).

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1. GrammarWe need to teach grammar because a lexical (or a vocabulary item) may have a

change of form in certain grammatical contexts; it is important to provide learners with this information at the same time as we teach the base form. When teaching a verb, what should we give?

(Forms (2, 3), transitive or intransitive, followed by the to –inf. (bare inf. or -ing form), prepositions)

2. CollocationA collocation is a combination of two words which should go with one another and

can’t be used with the other word. Collocation always implies combinability. There are a lot of dictionaries of collocations, mostly verbal. Ex.: we introduce the word conclusion we should note that we can come to the conclusion. As for the word ‘decision’ we can take a decision, make a decision but not ‘come to a decision’.

Ex.: mistake Give collocations with the word

3. Aspects of meaning: denotation connotation appropriateness

The meaning of a word is what it refers to in the real world, its denotation. Dog – denotes a kind of animal

A less obvious component of the meaning of an item is its connotation, the associations, positive or negative feelings, and its special flavour.

The word Dog understood by the British has positive connotations of friendship and loyalty. In Arab countries it has a negative connotation of dirt and inferiority.

A more subtle aspect of meaning that needs to be taught is whether a vocabulary item is appropriate to use in a certain context or not. It is useful for a leaner to know that a certain word is common or rare, or ‘taboo’ in polite conversation. It can be formal or informal.

Weep – formal (in writing)Cry – informal (in speech)

How would you present the meanings of the words? Childish, kid, bastard

Connotations? Appropriate contexts?‘Childish’ means like a child usually about an adult with negative connotations

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‘Kid’ means the same as ‘child’ – in informal, spoken speech‘Bastard’ a child of parents who are not married, usually used as an insult in informal

4. Aspects of meaning synonyms – items that mean the same or nearly the same antonyms – items that mean the opposite hyponyms – items that serve as specific examples of a general concept

Autumn is a hyponym of the seasons co-hyponyms or co-ordinates: other items that are ‘the same kind of thing

Autumn, winter, spring, summer are co-hyponyms super ordinates: general concepts that ‘cover’ specific items

season is the super ordinate of spring, summer, winter, autumn translation

Words and expressions are to be translated into the learners’ mother tongue.

5. Word formationVocabulary units, whether one-word or multi\word can often be broken into their component ‘bits’.

And this information should be taught to more advanced learners. Common prefixes or suffixes can be taught.

What prefixes and suffixes do you know? How can they help understand the meaning of a word?

UngratefulUntranslatableAnother way vocabulary items are built is by combining two words to make one

item: a single compound word, or two separate, sometimes hyphened words (bookcase, follow-up, swimming pool).

Activity 7. Individual or group workNow let’s play again!

During two minutes write as many words beginning with the letters of this word as possible. How many words do you have?

VOCABULARYActivity 8. Group work This “Step – by – step” word puzzle is very popular with the native – speakers. Try it as well.

Look at the example:Change a boy into a man replacing one letter on each line!

BOYBAYMAYMAN

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Now change sea into sky, and then land into seas. The sentences on the left will help you find the right word.a) Morning is the time for the sun to rise. Evening is the time for it to …. The policeman got into the car and … next to the driver. What did you ….? I can’t hear you well.

SEA

SKYb) I’ve forgotten to bring any money. Can you ….me some? Some people … their friends a card at the New Year. Good corn grows from good … When someone looks into water he often … his face.

LAND

SEAS

Activity 9How do you usually remember words? Share your favourite techniques. Tips: People tend to remember words that have personal or emotive significance People link items together in sense units or find some associations or look for personal significance Words at the beginning of a list tend to be remembered better, so teach more important new words first, or at the beginning of a lesson.

Activity 10Teaching vocabulary starts with presenting. Now relate your vocabulary learning experiences to presenting new words or phrases in the classroom. Together make a list of elements which make an effective presentation of new vocabulary.

Effective presentation techniques

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Possible answers:1) concise definition (as in a dictionary, often a super ordinate, ex.: a cat is an animal …)2) detailed description3) examples (hyponyms)4) illustration (picture, object)5) demonstration (acting, mime)6) context (story or sentence in which the item occurs)7) synonyms8) opposites (antonyms)9) associated ideas, collocations10) translation

Activity 10 -17. Group work

What other techniques are there for presenting new vocabulary? Give them a title. Look through Activities 10-17, define them.

10. Show real objects or pictures of real objects to your learners.Example:The topic of a unit is cooking. The teacher brings the following kitchen tools into class and shows them to the learners: Bowl whisk fork spoon knife wooden spoon

She then ‘cooks’ something, using the items and repeating the new words often.

11. Use parts of words to help learners build words or guess their meaning.Example:

Vocabulary DevelopmentPrefixesWe can change the meaning of an adjective by putting a prefix in front of it. Add the prefix un-, in- or im- to these adjectives and put them in the correct column. Check in your dictionary to see if you out un- or in- . You put im- in front of most adjectives and put them in the correct column. Check in the dictionaries to see if you put un- or in-. You put im- in front of most adjectives beginning with m or p.

Tidy happy friendly realistic dependent precise expensive possible safe adequate interesting human exciting polite competent perfect mature patient

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12. Act out, mine or demonstrate words.Example:The class is going to listen to a song, where they have to act out these verbs:

clap shake snap stamp swing wiggle

As an introduction, the teacher acts out the words and asks the class to act, too.As the words occur in the song, the learners act out the words.

13. Use words learners already know to teach them similar words.Example:Learners read a text and have to find the words in the text which mean the following:

very thin identical short and fat tiny

very large crying

14. Use well-known English song titles, books or people.Example:When introducing new words, the teacher reminds learners of famous or familiar places where they might have come across the words before, for example in film titles or songs or pop groups.Examples:wiggle pop song with chorus ‘Wiggle, wiggle’jungle Jungle Bookrolling The Rolling Stones

15. Give examples of words you want to introduce.Example:The teacher wants to introduce the word fruit. She explains that you can eat fruit and there are various kinds: apples, bananas, peaches, oranges, etc. (The class knows the words for some individual fruits already). She asks the learners for more examples of fruit.

16. Draw the words to represent their meaning.Example:

LARGE small

17. Work out the meaning of the words ‘wound, injury, lungs, buried’ from the context and write their translation. Discuss your translations with each other and change as necessary. Now check your answers with your teacher or in a dictionary.

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Activity 18

Now that the new vocabulary is presented you should practice it at the lesson. Put the stages of the vocabulary practice in the correct order.

Practice exercises (gap-filling, matching, translation…)Communicative practiceDrill on Pronunciation and Spelling

Activity 19. Group work

What drills on pronunciation and spelling can you think of?Ex.: 1) go around the class and find out … 2) in the word ‘THREA’ the letters are scrambled. Can you guess the word? 3) let’s play a game: I packed my bag to Alaska and put … chain (snowball).

Activity 20. Match these practice techniques with their names:A. Multiple choiceB. MatchingC. Gap-fillingD. Word-buildingE. Choosing definitionsF. Defining wordsG. Synonyms / antonymsH. Translation(see the supplement)

Activity 21. Let’s play a game“Simple and compound”

Look at the list of prefixes, suffixes and simple words. You now have 5 minutes to write as many simple or compound words with these words or affixes as you can. How many words do you have?

Prefixes Suffixes WordsUn-

Dis-

-tion

-ment

self

Head

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Re- -ous heart

What kind of words do you know? Write examples.

Roots Derived words Compound words

Activity 22. There are a lot of different types of vocabulary testing techniques. Study the following techniques, define what aspects are being tested and match the techniques with their titles.

Titles of techniques:1. Translation2. Dictation3. Dictation-translation4. Sentence completion5. Matching6. Gap filling7. Odd one out8. Multiple choice9. Writing sentences(see the supplement)

2.3 Teaching PronunciationAims: By the end of the session the students will be able to make up a list of activities for improving learners` pronunciation, to identify major phonetics terminology.Materials: Ur P. “A Course in Language Teaching”

The concept of “pronunciation” may be said to include:-the sounds of the language or phonology-stress and rhythm-intonation

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Sounds: It’s necessary to be able to list and define the sounds or phonemes of the language by writing them down using phonetic representations. Different books vary as to exactly which, and how many symbols are used. Do not mix the two terms: phonetic and phonemic.

Phonetic- transcriptions of the sounds of all human languages which make distinctions between sounds that may not be distinguished in a given language system.

Phonemic- transcriptions of a particular sound system

Activity1Step1. You are given ten words; try to transcribe them into phonetic scriptconcept summaryfunction listeninglanguage implementpredict observebackground syllabus

Step2. Use a dictionary and Box 4.1 “The Phonemic Alphabet”, check your transcription

English Speech Rhythm- is characterized by tone-units: a word or group of words which carries one central stressed syllable; other syllables; if there are any, are lightened. Stress can be indicated in writing: probably the simplest way to do so is to write the stressed syllable 1) in capital letters: for ex. Peter, come HERE, please2) to put a short vertical line above and before the stressed syllable /'pi:tәkΛm'hiә/

Activity 2. I’m dictating you three short sentences. You write them down, making the stressed syllables capital.Be back home before nine. Could you turn it off?You can’t always have fun and do nothing. Intonation, the rises and falls in tone that make “the tune” of an utterance, is an important aspect of the pronunciation of English, often making a difference to meaning or implication. Stress is most commonly indicated not by increased volume, but by a slight rise in intonation. The different kinds of intonation are most simply shown by the symbols \ / in order to show falling and rising intonations; and the symbols ۷ ٨ to show fall-rise, and rise-fall. The rhythm of English is mainly a function of its stress patterns; these may also affect such aspects as speed of delivery, volume and pauses.

Activity 3. Listen to a brief recording. Write down a sentence from the recording, using spelling and indicate the rising and falling intonation.

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Flow of Speech It is important to know that different sounds, stresses and intonations may affect one another within the flow of speech.

- The way a sound is articulated is influenced by what other sounds are next to it: the –ed suffix of the Past Simple may be pronounced / d/, /t/, or /id/ depending on what came immediately before.

- Intonation affects how we hear stress. Stress is more often a matter of a raised or lowered tone level with a slight slowing-down.

- A change in the stress pattern of a word will change its sounds as well: the word subject has the stress on the first syllable when it is a noun, on the second one when it is a verb, and now, the difference in transcription/ 'sΛbdgikt/ /sәb'dgekt/

Activity 4. Think of examples when sounds affect one another in the stream of speech, or stress and intonation changing the way the sounds are articulated.

Teaching pronunciation involves three features:1). Segmental (divided into parts, separated into)2). Suprasegmental (over, beyond, above separated)3). Paralinguistic

Activity 5. Work in groups, distribute the following phonetic terms into three groups according to the feature. Miming intonation gesturesSentence stress body language word stressSounds syllables timbre

Activity 6. What is easier to teach? Can a non-native teacher serve as a model for target language pronunciation? What factors affect pronunciation? Make a list of them.Possible answers: level of education; social status; place of origin; male or female; individual peculiarities; motivation and concern for good pronunciation.

The Objective of Teaching of Pronunciation Activity 7. 1).The aim of teaching and improving pronunciation is to achieve a perfect imitation of a native accent.2).The aim of teaching and improving pronunciation is to get the learner to pronounce accurately enough to be easily and comfortably comprehensible to other complement speakers. ? Which of the two ideas seems more correct to you? Discuss it in groups and present your opinion. Explain WHY.Possible explanation: “Perfect” accents are difficult or not possible for most of us to achieve anyway and may not even be desirable.Do you want to achieve a “perfect” native accent? If yes, why?

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Activity 8. Learners often make pronunciation errors. Make a list of errors students often make. What are some possible reasons for these errors?

Error Reason 1. devoicing of voiced consonants 2. mixing short and long vowels3. ignoring diphthongs or pronouncing two sounds instead of one4. lack of aspiration5. mispronouncing( s instead of θ)6. replacing some English sounds with Russian similar ones7. palatalization8. ignoring of phonetic phenomena: loss of plosion, nasal plosion, and lateral plosion.

1. P.Ur:- a particular sound doesn’t exist in the mother tongue- a sound exists in the mother tongue, but not as a separate phoneme-the learners are using their mother tongue intonation2. my ideas:-lack of practice-no similar sounds in the mother tongue

Teaching Pronunciation PresentationActivity 9. a). Look at the table and decide which steps are more important than the others. Put them in order of priority. Say the sound alone Say the sound in a word Contrast it with other sounds Write words on the board Explain how to make the sound Get students to repeat the sound in chorus Get individual students to repeat the sound

b). Put the number of the steps into each speech bubble1. 'th-th'2. 'think' 'than you'3. Listen 't'- 'th'4. Look-tongue between your teeth let the air go through: 'th'5. Everyone- 'th'6. Sri- can you say it? Activity 10. Here are some ideas for improving learners` pronunciation. Read them thoroughly; discuss in groups and say which of these ideas you find most appealing for teaching pronunciation to schoolchildren.

Ideas for Improving Learners` Pronunciation- imitation of teacher or recorded model sounds-recording of learner speech, contrasted with native model-systematic explanation and instruction(including details of the structure and movement of parts of the mouth)-choral repetition of drills-varied repetition of drills(varied speed, volume, mood)

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- learning and performing dialogues(as with drills, using choral work and varied speed, volume, mood0-learning by heart of sentences, rhymes, jingles-jazz chants (see Grahah,1978)-tongue twisters-self-correction through listening to recordings of own speech

Young inexperienced teachers might think that English pronunciation being exceptionally difficult can be achieved and practiced through phonetics. But phonetics and drills can often lead learners to hate or fear the study of English and inhibit their speaking. There are some obstacles which prevent a learner from acquiring good pronunciation. The author of the RBT ‘Pronunciation’ Clement Laroy is sure that there are:1. Historical Obstacles2. Personal Obstacles3. Sociological Obstacles

Historical obstacles imply having positive and strong links with the mother tongue, and the older people get, the stronger the links become. A lot of countries and people had contacts with people speaking various brands and accents of English during wars or who were once part of the British Empire.

Personal obstacles:Adolescents may try not to be good in order to integrate better with their

classmates or they themselves may feel more attracted by members of their favourite pop group or by Americans, Australians, or Indians.

Sociological obstacles: Immigrants may want to achieve a good pronunciation to set them above the

country or they will speak English with an exaggerated accent taken from their own mother tongue.

The author believes that teaching and improving pronunciation should be indirect. He uses 3 approaches to teaching pronunciation:

1. Oblique2. Pragmatic3. Holistic

Oblique approach means that teachers need to know what they are teaching, but the learners need not always be aware of what they are learning. This can avoid immediate resistance. If you are going to give explicit explanation and correction, it should be when students can really benefit from it. If students ask for explanation, they are probably ready for some analysis.

A pragmatic approach means that the activities do not aim to fit any particular description of the English pronunciation. By asking learners to do one thing, we actually get them to achieve another – the activities must be seen as steps in a process.

A holistic approach Pronunciation cannot be separated from the people who speak the language. This means that many aspects of the learners’ personalities must be involved. Make sure your learners feel you expect them to succeed. Constant repetition and correction should be banned, for there is no reason to believe that what doesn’t work once will work better by being repeated. Creating a relaxed atmosphere where learners can approach pronunciation and the language in general in a friendly way is

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important. Games, group dynamics, relaxation and other activities will lower the learners’ tension.

Work in groups of 3 and say which of the 3 approaches suggested by the author can be used for teaching pronunciation to our schoolchildren?

The author divides the activities given in the book into 4 groups:1. Tuning in to the language2. The beat and tune of English (stress, rhythm and intonation)3. Approaching speech sounds4. Correcting

Which principle do you think the author used for the subtitles of his coursebook for teaching pronunciation?

E. Passov thinks that there are 4 important stages for pronunciation skills:1. Sound perception in words, phrases in isolation to create the sound image 2. Imitation3. Differentiation or perception of the peculiarity of the sound4. Reproduction, usage of the sound in a phrase

Ya. Kolker, E. Youstinova, T. Enalieva think that there are 3 stages for pronunciation skills:1. Awareness2. Drill3. Speech practice

Activity 1How can you use these techniques and activities for Pronunciation practice?What are the possible aims for these techniques and activities? Complete the table

Classifying/Organizing

1. identification2. selection3. comparison 4. matching5. sorting6. grouping7. ranking

1. tick the word you hear

5. sort the words according to the sound

Drama (discovery learning)

1. role play2. simulation3. scenario4. language games

1. practice of paralinguistic features

4. drill the sound

Information Gap1. jigsaw activities2. info gap activities3. opinion gap

activities4. info transfer

2. to practice theory

Questioning 1. referential75

(communicative questions )

2. inferential3. evaluative4. of personal

response

Reconstruction/Restoration

1. gap-filling2. completion3. unscrambling4. jigsaw activities5. split/jumbled

dialoguesWord Association1. brainstorming

2. mapping

The author of the RBT Susan Sheerin ‘Self-access’ thinks that pronunciation is a difficult skill for students to improve on their own. So it is possible to give students some guidance by organizing and classifying activities according to language group, and to state in each activity which language groups tend to have the particular pronunciation difficulty focused on. The ideal situation is that students have access to a teacher who can assess advice on their particular pronunciation needs and guide students to better pronunciation.

The chapter devoted to teaching pronunciation consists of activities dealing with individual sounds word stress compound word stress rhythm and stress

One of the items for practising pronunciation is a minimal pair.Activity 2

Listen to the sentences and write them down.1. Please sit in this seat.2. These shoes should fit your feet.3. Do you still steal?4. They ship sheep.

Complete the definition:A minimal pair is a pair of words which …………………………………….

Activity 3Work in groups; make a list of activities to do with minimal pairs.

Possible answers:filling in the chart with 2 columnstranscriptionlisten and complete the sentencedictations

One more resource book which I would recommend to you as future teachers of English pronunciation to children is “Young learners” by Sarah Phillips. Chapter 7 is called “Music and chants” and is devoted to music and rhythm as an essential part of

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language learners. Music and rhythm make it much easier to imitate and remember language.

Activity 4A chant. What is a chant? A chant is like a song without music or a poem with a very marked rhythm. Some songs and chants are good for singing, others for doing actions to the music. You can use songs and chants to teach children the sounds and rhythm of English.What are action songs? (the children do actions as they listen to and sing songs)There are some general guidelines for doing action songs.Work in groups and work out the guidelines for action songs.Compare them with the ones suggested by the author.

1. Play or sing the song once or twice the children just listening, so that they begin to absorb the tune and rhythm.

2. Now play or sing the song again and get them to clap the rhythm and/or hum the tune to the music.

3. Get them to join in the actions with you.4. Ask them if they can tell you what the song means from the actions. Explain

anything they don’t understand.5. Play the song again. The children join in with the actions, and sing along with

the words if they wish.You can give older children the words of the song? Perhaps with gaps to fill in, or to illustrate.It is a good idea to get the children to make an ongoing song book to which they add new songs as they learn them.

There are also poems, rhymes and chants to sat and some general guidelines how to practice them. You would probably not do them all in one lesson!1. Say the poem yourself, and demonstrate the actions.2. See if the children can guess what it means.3. Practice saying it with all the class, keeping up a good rhythm and listening out for pronunciation problems.4. Teach the children the actions and get them to do them as you say the poem. It is not important if they do not all say the words at this stage.5. (Optional) Write all or some of the poem on the board and explain any difficult words, or even translate it if you think necessary.6. (Optional) Ask the children to look at the words on the board again, and rub out one or two words (you could substitute pictures). Get them to recite the poem, ‘reading’ the invisible words.

Then rub out some more words and get them to recite it again. Go on like this until they are ‘’reading the invisible poem.

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Activity 5Work in groups of 3 and practice the chant, the action song and the rhyme.Five little elephants (adapted from Of Frogs and Snails)

Words ActionsFive little elephants Five children stand in a row, using Standing in a row their arms as ‘trunks’Five little trunksWaving hello The children wave hello with their trunks‘Oh’ said an elephant

‘Time to go’Four little elephants The first child looks at his or her watch,Standing in a row. makes a surprised gesture, and hurries Continue with: away

Four little elephants

Three little elephantsTwo little elephants

And so on until

One little elephantStanding in row

Activity 6At the end of the module read questions for discussion on the teaching pronunciation,

discuss them in groups of 4.

Questions for discussion on the teaching of pronunciation1. Does pronunciation need to be deliberately taught? Won’t it just be ‘picked

up’? if it does need to be deliberately taught, then should this be in the shape of specific pronunciation exercises, or casually, in the course of other oral activities?

2. What accent of the target language should serve as a model? (For English, for example, should you use British? American? Other? Local accent?) Is it permissible to present mixed accents (e.g. a teacher who has a ‘mid-Atlantic’ i.e. a mixed British and American accent)?

3. Can/ Should the non-native teacher serve as a model for target language pronunciation?

4. What difference does the learner’s age making learning? 5. How important is it to teach intonation, rhythm and stress?

* Cambridge University Press 1996

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Activity 7Read the text and fill in the gaps with the appropriate words from the list:

articulate, allophones, different, foreign, intonation, consonants, phonetics, prominence, phonology, pitch, received, syllables, spelling, stress, sound, vocal, vowels, voice, suprasegmentally. …Most of us have an image of such a normal or standard English in pronunciation, and very commonly in Great Britain this is 1. “______________ Pronunciation”, often associated with the public schools, Oxford, and the BBC. Indeed, a pronunciation within this range has great prestige throughout the world, and for English taught as a 2._______________ language it is more usually the ideal than any other pronunciation… …We make language manifest through pronunciation and 3._____________ that is t say, through spoken and written utterance. …We filter out all kinds of phonetic differences and so perceive not the sounds as such but the phonemes they present. The same principle of selective attention applies to written language as well. …The 4.________________ shapes that the sounds and letters take are perceived as tokens of the same type of form. With regard to speech, these variant tokens are called 5.______________________ of the same phoneme. … The study of allophonic manifestations, how the sounds of speech are actually made, s the business of 6. __________________ . The study of phonemes and their relations in sound system is the business of 7._____________________.

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Module 3.Teaching skills

3.1 TEACHING LISTENINGAims: By the end of the module the students will be able to identify what listening is, how listening in real life and in the classroom are different, what types of listening activities are presented by different methodologists (P.Ur, J.Harmer, Green and Tanner, how to deal with problems in Listening).

We are starting a new module which is devoted to one of the four skills in teaching English.

What are these four skills?How many groups are they divided into? What are their names? Receptive

(perceptive) are those skills requiring the ability to receive communication but not to produce it.

Listening and reading refer to receptive skills.Let’s compare listening in the real world and listening in the classroom.

Activity 1 Course book p.43, Green and TannerWork in groups, complete the listening mind map, it compares listening to language 1 outside the classroom with listening to English inside the classroom. See page 101.

Activity 2Work in pairs and fill in the chart.

Listening in real life Listening in the classroom1. Usually not tape-recorded: language is fleeting.2. Purpose for listening is clear.

3. Listening happens in a context

4. We listen because we want to.

5. Language is not simplified.

6. We usually see the speaker when we listen (apart from radio and telephone).7. We usually respond as the discourse is going on.8. Environmental clues: provide info about the situation, speakers and general atmosphere9. Shortness of the chunks: usual pattern: a short period of listening > listener response > further short spell of listening

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> further response. Formal speech is less interrupted.10. Informal speech most of the discourse we hear is quite informal, being both spontaneous and colloquial in character.

Learner difficulties and problems in listening P.Ur recognizes six learner difficulties in listening.

1) Learners find it difficult to catch particular sounds. It is more a matter of teaching pronunciation, than listening. But still special techniques do exist, for ex. In the book ‘Self-Access’ by Susan Sheerin. She offers ‘minimal pairs’ as a kind of practice in discrimination between individual sounds.

2) Learners have to understand every word and if they don’t, they feel worried and stressed. Teachers are advised to teach learners selective ignoring of heard info – smth they do naturally in their mother tongue.

3) Learners can’t understand fast, natural native speech. And the temptation of any teacher is to slow down and speak clearly, but learners should try to cope with everyday informal speech.

4) Students need to hear things more than once. But the fact is that in real life they will have to cope with ‘one-off’ listening. One of the ways out suggested by P.Ur includes using texts with the essential info presented more than once and giving learners the opportunity to ask for clarification or repetition during the listening.

5) Learners cannot keep up with incoming info. The solution to this problem is to learn to pick out what is important and ignore the rest.

6) Long lasting passages can be broken into shorter ones through pauses, listener response.What do we listen for in classroom?Purposes:Work in groups, work out purposes for listening in the classroom: general info – main points specific info – particular items cultural interest people’s attitudes and opinions organization of ideas sequence of events lexical items – words, expressions structural items – use and meaning functional items – forms and use.How do we listen?Strategies: listening for gist (for the main idea) listening for the main points listening for specific infoAnd now a question: What makes up the overall skill of listening comprehension? What is ‘comprehension’? What does it involve?

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(understanding) What does it depend on?It depends on the level of the development of the so-called sub-skills which can be involved in effective comprehension.

Inferring the context of the discourse recognizing attitudes and opinions distinguishing main ideas from supporting details predicting the context or the development of the discourse recognizing familiar words interring info which isn’t explicitly stated (is implied) recognizing the speaker’s attitude towards the listener / topic using the context to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words

Activity 3Work in two groups and make a list of personal factors which may facilitate or inhibit effective listening comprehension.

inhibit facilitate cultural gap generation gap fear (inhibition) poor knowledge of the second

language experience in listening bad memory

eye-contact knowledge of the subject good ear familiar topic similar cultural background learning styles

Six basic principles of teaching listening (J. Harmer)Principle 1. The tape-recorder should be of very good quality and the recording must be heard all round the classroom.

Principle 2. Preparation is very important: students should be engaged with the topic so that they really want to listen.

Principle 3. The teacher shouldn’t play a tape only once, but listening to it twice or more than 3 times can also be boring.

Principle 4. Students should be encouraged to respond to the problem raised in the recording, not just to the language. The author considers questions like ‘Do you agree?’ just as important as question about the used language.

Principle 5. ‘Different listening stages demand different listening tasks’. For the first listening the task is general and for later listening – more detailed listening.

Principle 6. A listening text should be fully exploited.

Guidelines for listening texts (P.Ur)

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1) Informal talk. It means that listening texts should be improvised or at least be a fair imitation of it.

2) Speaker visibility: direct speaker – listener interaction. P.Ur advises the teacher to improvise some of the listening text in the presence of the learners.

3) Single exposure. Students should be encouraged to extract the info ‘from a single hearing’.

Guidelines for listening tasks

1. Expectations. The author thinks it would be more useful to know exactly what they’re going to listen about.

2. Purpose. No vague purpose can make listening successful. Learners should listen selectively for important info.

3. Ongoing listener response. It’s difficult to prepare a task where students can respond during the listening, not after it.

Activity 4Work in groups and design a spidergram of what you need to organize teaching listening effectively.

feedback students

assessment aims

cassette teacher’s instructions

a set of activities time

recordings

All kinds of listening activities may be divided into two categories:

listening for perception listening for comprehensionActivity 5Read the definition and define the type:

For perception:The main aim is to give the learner practice in identifying correctly different sounds, sound combinations, stress and intonation.For comprehension:

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LISTENING

The main aim is to be only the preliminary to or basis for more sophisticate activities involving other language skills and imaginative or logical thought.

Activity 6Read the following types of listening activities and say whether they refer to perception or comprehension.

Types of listening ActivitiesA Listen and repeatA Listen and say if the sound is English or notA Listen and say how often you heard the phraseA Listen and identify the right wordA Listen and write the wordA Listen and mark the intonationA Listen and mark stress and unstressA Listen and write down the dictationListening and making no response

B Listen and follow the textB Listen to the song (to the poem, to the tale)B Listen and look at the picturesB Listen to me (to the teacher)B Listen to the TV programme

Listening and making short responses

B Listen and do (physical movement)B Listen and draw picturesB Listen and tick …B Listen and find 3 mistakes in the pictureB Listen and number the pictures in the correct orderB Listen and name the objects on the mapB Listen and fill in the chartB Listen to the recipe and complete the list of ingredientsB Listen and draw a family tree

There are different classifications of types of listening activities. One of them is given by P. Ur. She chose to do her classification according the amount and complexity of response demanded of the learner. It is as following:

Read and underline the main idea:

1) No overt responseThe learners do not have to say anything in response, but the expressions of their

faces and body language can show if they are following or not.- stories. Teachers are offered to tell a joke or a real-life anecdote; or play a recording of a story. If the story is amusing, learners will enjoy it.- songs. Teachers are offered to sing by themselves.

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- entertainment: films, theatre, video. The content should be really entertaining and then learners will be motivated to make an attempt to understand without any further tasks.

2) Short responses- obeying instructions. Learners draw pictures or perform actions in response to instructions- ticking off items- True / false. Learners can put ticks or crosses or make brief responses or they may keep silent if the statements are true and say ‘No’ if they are wrong- detecting mistakes. The teacher tells a story making a number of deliberate mistakes. Listeners react by raising their hands or calling out when they hear smth wrong- Cloze. The listening text has occasional brief gaps represented by silence or some kind of buzz. Learners are to write down what they think is missing. It is easier to speak the text than to listen to a recording because then you can easily adapt the pace of your speech to the speed of learner responses- guessing definitions. The teacher gives oral definitions of a person, place or thing, learners write down what they think it is.- Skimming and scanning. Improvised or recorded a not too-long listening text for learners to identify the main idea (skimming) or certain info (scanning) 3) Longer responses- answering questions. Several questions (in a written form) are given in advance and the text provides the answers.- Note-talking. Learners take notes from a talk - paraphrasing and translating. Learners rewrite the listening text in different words: either in the same language (paraphrase) or in another (translate)- summarizing. Learners write a brief summary of the content of the listening passage- Long gap-filling. A long gap is left, at the beginning, middle or end of a text, learners guess and write down what they think might be missing

4) Extended responsesHere, the listening is integrated with other skills: reading, speaking and writing.- Problem-solving. A problem is described; learners discuss how to deal with it and write down or present orally a suggested solution- Interpretation. An extract (a piece of dialogue or monologue) is provided, with no previous info, the listeners try to guess what is going on

Activity 7Types of listening activities (P.Ur)

1) Read the types of listening activities and classify them in accordance with the amount and complexity of response.2) Define the learner level:Starter 5 – 6Elementary 7 – 8Pre-intermediate 9 – 11

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Box 8.3.1: LISTENING ACTIVITY 1Instructions

1. Listen to the recording of someone giving instructions. What are they talking about?

2. Look at the words below. Use a dictionary to check the meaning of any you are not sure about.Nouns: switch, slot, disk, handle, key, arrow, screenVerbs: lock, type Adjectives: bent, capital

3. Listen to the cassette again, and use the words to complete these notes:

Turn it on, here is the __________ at the side. Then you’ll see some words and numbers on the _____________ and finally a __________ C.

Take your ______________ and put it in the _________, and ______________ it in; you have to close this __________. Now _____________ in ‘A’ and press the _________ with the sort of ______________ ___________ at the side.

The listening text First you turn it on, here’s the switch at the side. Then you’ll see some words and numbers on the screen, and finally a capital C and a sort of V sideways on. OK, now take your disk, this one, and put it in the slot – it’s called a ‘drive’- and lock it in, you have to close this little handle here. Now type ‘A’ and press the key with the sort of bent arrow at the side.

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BOX 8.3.2: LISTENING ACTIVITY 2Instructions to studentYour worksheet shows a map of a zoo; write in the names of the animals in the appropriate cages as your teacher tells you.Instructions to teacherUsing your filled-in map of the zoo, describe to the class where each animal lives; they may ask you to repeat or explain anything they did not catch or understand.

Student's map

(Adapted from Penny Ur, Teaching Listening Comprehension,

Cambridge University

Press. 1984, pp. 109-10 © Cambridge University Press 1984)

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Box 8.3.3: LISTENING ACTIVITY 3Instructions

Listen to the following recorded talk, and then answer the multiple-choice questions below.The listening textCrash! was perhaps the most famous pop group of that time. It consisted of three female singers, with no band. They came originally from Manchester, and began singing in local clubs, but their fame soon spread throughout the British Isles and then all over the world. Their hairstyle and clothes were imitated by a whole generation of teenagers, and thousands came to hear them sing, bought recordings of their songs or went to see their films. The questions 1.Crash! was a) notorious b) well-known c) unpopular d) local 2. The group was composed of: a) three boys b) two girls and a boy

c) two boys and a girl d) three girls 3. The group was from: a) Britain b) France c) Brazil d) Egypt

4. A lot of young people wanted to a) sing like them b) look like them c) live in Manchester d) all of these

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Activity 8 Green and Tanner p.44-46Five principles of designing a listening task:

1. Immediate response (students react after while-listening activities)2. Motivation3. Success (students should be put in a situation of success at their own level)4. Simplicity (appropriate to the students’ level of the language)5. Feedback (immediate feedback after while-listening task)

Activity 9Designing listening material for the classroom

1) Read about the procedure which has become standard practice when dealing with a listening text in class and underline the main points.2) Read the following steps in a lesson and say what your opinion about this approach is.3) Evaluate different approaches to developing listening skills, say to which stage they can refer and whether they are effective or not.

Designing Listening Materials for the classroomThe following procedure has become standard practice

when dealing with a listening text in class:1.Pre-listening. Various activities are used to help students to become familiar with the topic, to exposed to some language features of the text or to its overall structure, and to activate any relevant prior knowledge they have.The teacher’s role is to create interest, reasons for listening, and the confidence to listening.2. While-listening. Before setting the students to do the task, the teacher makes sure that they have all understood what it involves.The students carry out the task independently without intervention from the teacher. Although the listening itself is done individually, student can be encouraged o check their responses in pairs or groups as soon as they are ready. As a feedback the teacher and students check and discuss the responses to the while-listening task. The teacher’s role is to help students see how successful they have been in doing the task.3.Post-listening. Follow-up activities can be of various kinds. The teacher may wish to focus on features of the text, or on listening process to assist further development of effective listening, or on integration with other skills. (from Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom by Tricia Hedge, Oxford, 2001.)

The following are some familiar steps in a lesson in which the teacher’s objective is to develop the students’ listening skills (pre-, while, post-listening activities):

Do a ‘warm-up’ on the topic of the listening passage Get some gist questions for the students to answer Play the tape once, ask the students to answer Check (correct, repeat if necessary) Get some tasks to listen for details Play the tape again, probably with stops Check Use the topic or the language of the listening text as an input for an ‘extension’ or ‘transfer’ activity in which students use other skills

What is your opinion about this approach?90

Is it perfect? Do any features trouble you?_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Perhaps the most vital element in learning to listen effectively in a foreign language is confidence, and confidence comes with practice and with achieving success from an early stage. The role of the teacher is to provide as much positive practice as possible.

Tricia Hedge

Developing Listening Skills

1.Evaluate different approaches to developing listening skillsLook at the following list of measures teachers might employ to develop listening skills. Indicate which measures you think are effective by writing E and ineffective by writing I. In some cases a measure may be considered as either effective depending on the circumstances.Example: The teacher instructs the class to listen carefully to every word. – I(Qualification: In most cases, effective listening involves paying attention selectively. However, listening carefully to every word might be effective- and indeed ‘appropriate’ – if, for example, the task involved dictation of an address.) a) The teacher encourages the class to listen to herself or to other speakers of Englishb) The teacher arouses interest in the material before the class listensc) The teacher uses materials which incorporate features of natural spoken English (false starts, hesitation, repetition, ungrammatical, unfinished sentences, etc.)d) The teacher sets tasks which focus specially on these featurese) The teacher sets clear, realistic tasks which encourage the students to listen only for certain informationf) The teacher makes it clear to students that they will have the opportunity to discuss their answers in groups before speaking to the whole classg) The teacher encourages discussion of the process of listeningh) The teacher devises tasks to infer information which is only implied in the discoursei) The teacher encourages the students to guess how the discourse will developj) The teacher encourages the students to use their knowledge of grammar and context to guess the next word.k) When focusing on new language, the teacher gives realistic models, taking care to draw attention to the weakening and elision of syllables in a continuous stream of speechl) The teacher always takes care to speak slowlym) The teacher always uses good quality tapes and ensures that there is no distraction by the presence of background noisen) The teacher tries to use materials which provide good models of ‘standard English’o) The teacher always takes care to find out and record how many questions each student answered correctly

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p) The teacher teaches the students ways of interrupting a speaker to ask for clarification

Material Selection__________________________________________________ The use of recordings of authentic unrehearsed discourse. Think about advantages and drawbacks of using it. The use of recordings which are approximation to authenticity (semi-authentic). Do they have any value? Why? The use of video. How important is it in developing listening skills? Listening material presented ‘live’. Can a teacher improvise listening material in the classroom? Can students design and present their own listening materials?Discuss in groups and make a conclusion:_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Activity 10Go through the list of types of listening activities, marking activity types that seem to you particular useful, or even essential. Divide them into 3 stages: pre-, while- , and post- listening Following a written text Listening to a familiar text Listening aided by visuals Describing pictures Maps, plans, grids, family trees Informal teacher-talk Entertainment (songs, stories) Films and TV programmes Obeying instructions-physical movement-constructing models-picture dictation Ticking off items True/False Detecting mistakes Aural cloze (with/without a text) Guessing definitions Noting specific information Identifying and ordering Naming features (maps) Alterations Ground-plans Graphs Repetition and dictation Paraphrase Translation

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Answering questions Predictions Filling gaps Summarizing Problem-solving Jigsaw Complementary texts Interpretative listening Evaluative stylistic analysis Interview Comedy Drama Advertising Rhetoric Poetry Conversation

Activity 11Study the chart and add activities from the previous task (Activity 10)

Stages and activities for a listening lessonStages ActivitiesPre-Listening

While-listening

Post-listening

Brainstorming (express ideas about the topic/content of the text based on background knowledge and experience)

Elicitation (eliciting something associated with the topic)

Discussion (encouraging students to exchange ideas/opinions)

Games (for warming-up relaxation)Introducing the task (giving

instructions)

Ticking off itemsFilling in gapsSequencingMatchingComparingInformation transfer (maps, plans,

grids, forms, pictures, etc.)Multiple-choice questionsTrue/false, etc

Speaking as follow-up activities (e.g. 93

debate, interview discussion, role play, summarizing, problem-solving, etc.)

Writing as follow-up activities (letters, telegrammes, messages, etc.)

Answering questions to show comprehension

Listening and Speaking Skills for the Cambr .Proficiency Exam2 V.Evans, S Scott

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Listening tasks Step 1

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TASK 2 Using an ear trumpet

In this task you examine and evaluate ten listening activities and decide on their aims.

Work in pairs.Match each of the Listening aims (1-10) in the table below with the instructions to the learner in Listening activities A-J (pp. 44-46), by writing the letter of one or more activities (A-J) in the right-hand column. Some aims apply to more than one activity. One example has been done for you.

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Listening aims Listening activity

1 Listening for the main ideas / gist

2 Listening for specific information

3 Listening to check if your answers are right or not

4 Listening to check for mistakes

5 Listening for dictation

6 Listening to re-order a jumbled dialogue

7 Listening to take notes

8 Listening to complete a picture

9 Listening to other learners

10 Listening to match pictures with descriptions

'

Listening activity E

Answer these questions about Susan's room. As you listen, note down either Yes, she has or No, she hasn't.

1 Has Susan got a big bookcase? Yes, she has.1 Has she got a picture of a kangaroo on the wall?

No, she hasn't.2 Has she got an easel?3 Has she got two pianos?4 Has she got a cassette player?

Adapted from Fountain Beginners

Listening activity GShow your project to your teacher and your friends. Look at your friends' projects and talk about them.

Listening activity F1. Here is a dialogue between Anna and Mr Baker.Read it to yourself and put it in the right order.Mr Baker; Five pencils, two exercise books, a rubber, and... how many envelopes?Anna: Can I have a newspaper, please?Mr Baker: Hello, Anna. I'm fine thanks. And you?Anna: Hello, Mr Baker, How are you?Mr Baker: Yes, certainly. Here you are.Anna: Thank you. And can I have ... let's see ... five pencils, two exercise books, a rubber and, er, ten envelopes.Mr Baker: Good.Anna: Ten, please.Anna: I'm OK, thanks.Mr Baker: Right. Here you are. Anything else?2. Now listen to the dialogue. Did you have theright order?

Taken from Mosaic 1

Adapted from Mosaic 1

3.2 Teaching Reading Aim: By the end of the session the students will get a clear idea of effective ways of developing reading skills.

The following issues will be considered: texts types for reading at school; purpose for reading; reading skills and strategies; criteria and guidelines for selecting texts for classroom studying; types of activities; methods of testing reading.

1. Texts for Reading

One can name more than 50 texts types people read in real life. They are: Novels, short stories, tales: other literary texts and passages(e.g. essays, diaries, anecdotes, biographies) Plays Poems, limericks, nursery rhymes Letters, postcards, telegrammes, notes Newspaper and magazines (headlines, articles, editorials, letters to the editor, stop press, classified ads., weather forecast, radio/TV/theatre programmes) Specialized articles, reports, review, essays, business letters, summaries, precis, accounts, pamphlets (political and other) Handbooks, textbooks, guidebooks Recipes Advertisements, travel brochures, catalogues Puzzles, problems, rules for games Instructions (e.g. warnings), directions (e.g. How to use...), notices, rules and regulations, posters, signs (e.g. road signs), forms (e.g. application forms, landing cards) graffiti menus, price lists, tickets Comic strips, cartoons and caricatures, legends (of maps, pictures) Statistics, diagrams, flow/pie charts, time-tables, maps Telephone directories, dictionaries, phrasebooks

Task 1. Please, read the list and pick the text types that pupils read at school.Teacher’s question: How many items have you got? What are these text types? Is there any great difference between these two lists? Can you see here any problems? Should we give our students the texts of all types?

2. Purpose for ReadingHere we come to the questions:What do we read for in real life? andWhat is the aim of learning reading and teaching reading at school?

Task 2. Working in groups of four define the purposes of reading in real life.

In real life people read for: pleasure information surviving

In general we read because we want to get the message from the writing: it might be facts, ideas, enjoyment, feelings, etc.

So, reading is communication or interaction through conveying a message.Different people understand the meaning of one and the same message differently.

Understanding depends on attitudes, values shared by people brought up in the same society. Understanding also depends on what we have experienced and how our minds have organized the knowledge we have got from our experiences.

We all get something different from a text. Whose understanding is better, closer to the writer’s message?

Understanding a written text means extracting the required information from it as efficiently as possible.

Task 3. Working in the groups of four state the aims of teaching reading at school.

The aim of teaching reading at school is: to enable students to read without help unfamiliar texts at appropriate speed silently with adequate understanding.

Task 4. Working in a group of four compare the aims and explain the difference. Share your ideas with the whole group.

If our students reach that aim they become competent readers.

3. Reading Skills and StrategiesCompetent readers should possess some specific skills. Reading involves a variety

of skills. The main are as follows: Recognizing the script of a language Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar lexical items Understanding explicitly stated information Understanding information when not explicitly stated Understanding conceptual meaning Understanding the communicative value (function) of sentences and utterances Understanding relations within the sentence Understanding relations between the parts of a text through lexical cohesion devices Understanding cohesion between parts of a text through grammatical cohesion devices Interpreting text by going outside it Recognizing indicators in discourse Identifying the main point or important information in a piece of discourse Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details Extracting salient points to summarize (the text, an idea etc.) Selective attraction of relevant points from a text Basic reference skills Skimming Scanning to locate specifically required information Transcoding information to diagrammatic display

Competent readers first take into consideration what they are going to read and then they choose the way of reading: Skimming: quickly running one's eyes over a text to get the gist of it. Scanning: quickly going through a text to find out a particular piece of information. Extensive reading: reading longer texts, usually for one's own pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global understanding. Intensive reading: reading shorter texts, to extract specific information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for detail.

These different ways of reading are not mutually exclusive. For instance, one often skims through the passage to see what it its about before deciding whether it is worth scanning a particular paragraph for the information one is looking for.

In real life, reading purposes constantly vary and we should vary the questions and the activities according to the type of text studied and the purpose in reading it. When working on a page of classified ads., for instance, it would be artificial to propose exercises requiring the detailed comprehension of every single advertisement.

Task 5. Working in groups of four discuss the reading skills and pick out the skills you have been teaching and would like to teach your students. Share your ideas with the whole group of participants.

Task 6. Working with partner fill in the chart for reading strategies. Discuss your ideas with the whole group of participants.

Text is the area for the skills and strategies implementation

Teacher’s question: What kind of texts should be used in a reading lesson: texts that teach language or texts that have been written just to inform, to entertain, to persuade?

4. Criteria and guidelines for selecting texts for classroom studying

Task 7. In a group of four make a list of criteria which are most important in choosing a text for reading in the classroom. Discuss the criteria with the whole group.

Task 8. Range the criteria in order of importance.

Criteria for evaluating texts for reading development Suitability of content Exploitability Readability Authenticity Presentation

Guidelines for choosing texts for classroom study Take a critical look at texts you currently use for comprehension work: do they fulfill these criteria?1. Will the text do one or more of these things? a) tell the students things they don't already know.b) introduce them to new and relevant ideas, make them think about things they haven't thought of before.c) help them understand the way others feel or think (e.g. people with different backgrounds, problems or attitudes from their own).d) make them want to read for themselves (to continue a story, find out more about a subject, and so on).

2. Does the text challenge the students' intelligence without making unreasonable demands on their knowledge of the language?

3. Is the language natural, or has it been distorted by the desire to include numerous examples of a particular teaching item (e.g. a tense)?

4. Does the language reflect written or spoken usage? (the spoken language presented to beginners is often limited to describing the obvious - e.g. a picture; this may carry over into coursebook texts.)

5. If there are new lexical items, are they worth learning at this stage, and not too numerous? Can the meaning of some of them be worked out without the help of a dictionary? Can some be replace by simpler words.

5. Types of ActivitiesThe idea that there are three main types of reading activity: pre-, while- and post-, is

now a common feature of discourse about reading.

Pre-reading activities can consist of questions to which the reader is required to find the answer from the text. Other pre-reading tasks tend to focus on preparing the reader for linguistic difficulties in a text; more recently attention has shifted to cultural or conceptual difficulties.

The aim of while-reading activities is to encourage learners to be flexible, active and reflective readers. Many while reading tasks, with the aim of active and reflective reading, attempt to promote the kind of dialogue between reader and writer. Different genres offer opportunities for different activities of this kind. For example discursive texts typically present a problem to which there are a number of potential solutions. One can interrupt such texts at points which appear especially to invite a reader contribution. The writer might signal such, natural breaks' in his or her text in a number of ways, most obviously by means of a question.

Texts in other genres such as narrative fiction may be divided into sections with intervening questions to encourage learners to predict the continuing events of the story. What such activities attempt to do is to replicate the process which occurs quite spontaneously in mature readers, we continually use the evidence of what has preceded to predict the continuation of a text.

Other while-reading tasks require students to transfer information from a continuous text to some kind of grid or matrix or while reading activities may be designed to offer prompts for readers in the case of difficult texts. A major problem with while reading tasks of this kind is that they can be very time consuming to prepare.

Post-reading activities can serve the purpose of heightening the reader’s awareness of other ways in which the topic could have been written about. Post-reading activity needs to be motivated by the genre, the context of learning and likely learner purpose.

Task 9. Read and identify activities for different stages of a reading lesson.

Activities for a Reading LessonStages Activities Explanation / Demonstration

PRE

- R

EA

DIN

GWarm-up exercises:elicitation / discussion about the topic (perhaps based on visuals, title)

a. to elicit something associated with the topicb. to encourage students to exchange ideas / opinions about

the topicbrainstorming a. word - star: ask students to predict the words and

expressions likely to appear in the passage. Teacher writes them on the blackboard.

b. expressing hypotheses about the content of the passage, based on previous knowledge, by writing notes down

games a. for warming-up relaxationb. for training in basic reading

guiding questions teacher asks / writes questions that help students exploit passages

WH

ILE

- R

EA

DIN

G

comparing to compare passage with prediction in pre-readingobeying instructions students are given instructions and show comprehension

by physical movement, finishing a task, etc.filling in gaps e.g., students read utterances of only one of the

participants and are asked to reconstruct those of the others

detecting differences or mistakes

students read passages, responding only when they come across something different or wrong

ticking off items (bingo) students read a list of words and tick off or categorize them as they read them

information transfer maps, plans, gifts, forms, lists, pictures, etc.paraphrase students are asked to focus on certain sentences and

paraphrase them sequencing e.g., students are asked to give the right order for a series

of picturesinformation search students read a passage and take notes on the segments

that answer a particular questionfilling in blanks students are given a passage with some words missing and

must fill in the blanks while readingmatching e.g., students are asked to match items that have the same

meaning as those they read

POST

- R

EA

DIN

G

answering to show comprehension of messages

e.g., multiple choice or true / false questions, open-ended questions, short questions

problem solving students read the information relevant to a particular problem and then set themselves to solve it

summarizing students are given several possible summary – sentence and asked to say which of them fits a text

jigsaw reading different groups of students read different but connected passages, each of which supplies some part of what they need to know. Then they come together to exchange information in order to complete a story or perform a task

writing as a follow-up to reading activities

e.g., letters, telegrams, postcards, messages, etc. related to passages

speaking as follow-up to reading activities

e.g., debate, interview, discussion, role-play, dramatization

translation

projects6. Methods of testing Reading

Task 10. Working with a partner make a list of traditional methods of testing reading. Look at the survey of test formats and pick out the best test formats for school. Explain your choice, please.

Survey of test formatsAbbreviations:IQ - intelligence quotient: a commonly used measurement of intelligencess - students info - information dk - don't know

Reading and listeningTEST FORMAT PROS CONSShort answer questions eg 'How tall are elephants?' 'Three metres.'

Easy to write and mark. Very good for checking gist or intensive understanding of texts.

Some writing. Important not to mark for accuracy and to decide what answers are correct. Need to ensure q's do not test ss' knowledge of the world.

Table completion eg 'Complete the table with information.' (age / family etc).

Easy to construct and mark. Good for checking specific info or data form a text.

Some writing. Need to decide on what answers accepted as correct.

Diagrams/maps/pictures eg 'Label the places on the map'

Quite realistic, motivating tasks. Good for checking specific info.

Can be difficult to draw pictures. Could involve non-linguistic skills (eg map reading).

Listing eg 'List the kinds of food mentioned in the text'.

Realistic. Easy to write and mark. Better for listening than reading.

Tests recognition of words. Does not test understanding or meaning.

True, false, don't know eg 'Mark the sentences t/f or dk: Lions are cats.'

Easy to write. Quite realistic. Tests gist or intensive understanding well.

High guessing element: 50% for t/f, 33% for tlfldk.

Multiple choice eg 'Choose the correct answer: John goes out- a sometimes b rarely с never.'

Very easy to mark thus good for very large classes. Good for checking gist or intensive understanding.

Very difficult to construct. Wrong options (distracters/ can distract better students. Guessing element.

Sequencing (texts/ pictures) eg 'Listen and put the paragraphs in order.'

Easy to construct. Good for stories (listening) and for linking of discourse.

Very difficult to mark. If one answer is wrong, others are too. Impractical unless marking scheme is adapted.

Text Completion eg 'Listen and complete the information about the film.'

Quite realistic. Good for listening for specific info.

For reading it tests knowledge of language, (see close and gap-fill)

Problem solving eg 'From the following info work out the people's names'

Realistic and good fun. Tests global understanding.

Can test general IQ not ability to read or listen.

Word attack eg 'Work out the meaning of these words from the text.'

Tests ability to infer meaning from context (for reading).

NOT suitable for listening (when it can work as a vocabularytest).

Identify topic (text/paragraph) eg 'Match the title with the text.'

Good for gist reading. Easy to construct and mark.

Need to think of suitable answers when questions are open (eg giving titles to texts).

Linking eg 'What does the underlined word refer to? Ц arrived late.'

Good for testing intensive understanding 1 linking within text, (cohesion)

Need to underline words and give line numbers to make task easier to do and mark.

Identify linking words in a text eg after/next etc

Good for working out how a text holds together (cohesion)

Can be more a test of word recognition than of understanding.

Discrepancies eg 'Read the text then listen and list the differences."

Realistic, integrative test of both reading and listening.

Difficult to see if problems are due to listening or reading.

This session is aimed at developing students' skills in selecting texts for reading in the classroom and designing activities for various texts.Task 1. Match different reading techniques with reading activities on p. 17- 19.Task 2• Select a text appropriate to your students' level.

• Define the aim of the task.

• Choose appropriate types of activities (techniques) for pre- while- post reading

stages.

• Think about integration with other skills.

• Present your design to your colleagues and explain your choice of materials and

techniques.

TaskIn this task you match different reading techniques with reading activities on p. 17 - p. 19. Read the description of reading techniques (1-12) in the table below.Reading techniques and their purposes

Reading technique Description and purpose Activity1. Skimming Reading a passage quickly to grasp the main idea (or gist)2 Scanning Reading a passage quickly to find specific information3. Contextual guessing Making guesses about the meaning of words by looking at

the surrounding words or situation4. Close exercise Fill-in-the-blank exercise, in which some words are

omitted, designed to measure how well the reader understands how a text is linked together

5.0utlining Note-taking. technique designed to help the reader see the overall organization of a text

6 Paraphrasing The ability to say or write ideas in other words: measures the reader's understanding of the main ideas of a text

7. Scrambled stories Also known as 'jigsaw reading': the reader re-orders the mixed up pieces of a text to he understands how a text fits together

8. Information transfer Exercise which requires readers to transfer information from the text into another form of related text or drawing (e.g. filling in a chart, tracing a route on a map), designed to measure comprehension

9.Making inferences 'Reading between the lines': the reader understands what is meant but not stated in a passage

10 Intensive reading Reading carefully for complete, detailed comprehension, (e.g. main ideas, details, vocabulary)

11. Extensive reading Reading widely in order to improve reading comprehension, reading speed and vocabulary

12. Passage completion Finishing a reading passage (orally or in writing), involves Predicting a logical or suitable conclusion based on a thorough understanding of the text

Adapted from Tanner &Green, 199 8, pp.62-65.

Reading activity ARead another story of your choice. Write a journal entry summarizing the main points of the plotAdapted from Reading 2.

Reading activity В How do you think the story ends Think about these questions to help you guess l. Was Mr. Jones really blind and crippled? 2.Did people pay him just for giving them advice? 3. Why do you think he disappeared?

Reading activity СRead the first passage and choose the best meaning for these words and phrases from the passage. Obsessed: a)worried b)interested c)shocked weird: a)strange b)unhappy c) dead teased: a)made fun of b)dangerous c)scared everyday conventions: a)school lessons b)common phrases c)thoughts and behaviour.Adapted from 'Reading 2.'

Reading activity DAnother feature of the article isthe images and similes the writer uses. What do you think he means by the following1... drifting slowly westward toward Central Time. 2...his electrical system suddenly switched off... 3...he was the first man to land on the moon... Can you find any other images and similes? Can you work out what they mean? Taken from 'Reading 3'

Reading activity E

Here are some more statements in which there are masculine-or feminine-gender words .Which of these refer only to men or women, and which refer to people in general?Man who hesitates is lost.The average working man earns almost twice as much as the average working woman.Man can do several things which animal cannot do ...Eventually, his vital interests arc not only life, food, access to female, etc., but also values, symbols, insti tutions. . .Englishmen are said to prefer tea or coffee.Give a man a fish and he'll eat for a day. Teach him to fish and he'll eat forever.Rewrite as many as you can, avoiding the words man and men.• Adapted from Reading2

Reading activity FNow work in groups of two, each grouphaving only one of the passages that follow.In your group follow these .steps:

• Read the passage carefully;• Sum up what it is about for the othergroups;• Try to guess how it is situated in thewholetext (e.g. does it come before or after the passage just summed up by one of the other groups? Why? What words,expressions or ideas can help you to justifyyour opinion?);• Discuss with the other groupsuntil you can reconstitute the wholestory, from the beginning to the end.

Taken from Developing Reading Skills.

Reading activity GYou are thinking of buying a collage in t h e Cotswolds (or North Cotswolds). This is what you want• Three bedrooms or moreAn o ld house you could modernizeyourself• In a small village• Price under 540,000Look at the following раge and circle the advertisements corresponding [ to what you are looking for ( i f any). Try to do t h i s as quickly as you can.

Taken from Developing Reading Skills.

Reading activity H

You are skimming through an article in which most of the words are unknown to you. Here are the ones you can understand, however:

professorinstitute of biochemistryhard-working manresults of experimentspublishedconfessioninventiondifferent resultsfraud

Can you guess, from these few words, if the article is about□ a well-known professor who has just published his confessions a scientist who has admitted inventing the results of his experiments□ a scientist who has killed himself because he couldn't get the same results as everybodyelse a scientist who regrets the publication of the results of his experiments Taken from 'Developing reading skills

Reading activity I Reading activity JWho or what did he see? What happened next Read the next passage and decide which isRead and guess what the missing words are. the most extraordinary piece of information

Complete the chart with the information fromAnd there came an old (1) ..................with two the passages.Cans of (2).................He stood before the(3).........The (4)..............said, 'Please I beg of you!'. Carole Philip

Bohanon Coatcs-Wright

Taken from 'Reading 2'. When didtheir obsessionsstart?What sort offamilies dothey come from?How do theirfamilies reactto them?How do olderpeople reactto them?Taken from 'Reading 2'.

Reading activity К Reading activity LRead passage В and put these notes in One of the strongest features of the

the right order. article is the writer's love for and pridea) technician came .in his son. For example:b) found other photos When my son called, I sat down at thec) noticed a bulge on photo kitchend) further studies table and leaned forward and hung one) looked carefully at photo every wordf) measuring Pluto's orbitg) stayed to help Can you find other examples?h) looked through archivesi) machine stopped working Taken from Reading 3j) using Star Scank) became interested1) thought it was an error

Taken from 'Reading 3'

Which reading strategies are effective?Reading strategies Effective or

Ineffective Reasons

a use my finger to help my eyes follow lines of textb read each word very carefully in order to understand the entire textс keep my eyes moving past the unfamiliar words and thus try to understand the main ideasd say words quietly to myself

e write the meaning of new words in LI in margin of pagef look up unfamiliar words in a bilingual dictionaryg start reading without panicking or thinking Help! I'm not going to understand

h look for linking words that help explain relationship between sentences (e.g. in contrast, for example)1 ask my teacher for help whenever I meet an unfamiliar word/ use different reading strategies to rend different types of textsк translate a difficult section of text into Ll/ think of other words I already know that are similar to the unknown word(s) 1 come acrossm find the sentence that contains the main idean read a lot of different things in order to expand my vocabulary and improve my general comprehensionо study or write vocabulary lists and translations of words into Llp try to understand the relationship between the main ideas and supporting detailsq look at titles, subtitles, pictures and other visuals before reading

Can help orient the reader

r read a text very quickly the first time to get the gist (main idea)s underline or highlight words 1 don't understandf create some questions for myself before I read which I think or hope the text will answerи limit myself to looking up in the dictionary only a few unknown wordsv circle or highlight key words in a bright colour

Task 4Read and identify activities for different stages of a reading lesson.Stages and activities for a reading lesson

Activities Pre-reading Activity 1

While-reading Activity 2

Post-reading Activity 3

a) Brainstorming (expressing ideas about the topic/ content of the text based on background knowledge and experience) is a...

b) Elicitation (eliciting something, associated with the topic), vocabulary work

c) Discussion (encouraging students to exchange ideas/ opinionsd) Memory games (for warming up relaxation)e) Introducing the task (giving instructions)t) Matchingg) Filling in gapsh) Information transfer (maps, plans, grids, forms, etc.)i) Sequencingj) Ticking of items true/false (yes/no) etc.

k) Identifying the main idea1) Answering questions to show comprehensionm) Writing answers (letters, telegrammes, messages, etc.)n) Speaking (e.g. debate, interview, discussion, role play, summarizing, problem solving, etc.)

o) Summarizing the text

Activities for a Reading LessonStages Activities Explanation / Demonstration

P R E - Warm-up exercises:elicitation / discussion about the topic (perhaps based on visuals, title)

a. to elicit something associated with the topic b. to encourage students to exchange ideas / opinions about the topic

brainstorming a. word - star: ask students to predict the words and expressions likely to appear in the passage. Teacher writes them on the blackboard, b. expressing hypotheses about the content of the passage, based on previous knowledge, by writing notes down

games a. for warming-up relaxation b. for training in basic reading

guiding questions teacher asks / writes questions that help students exploit passages

W HI

L E comparing to compare passage with prediction in pre-readingobeying instructions students are given instructions and show comprehension by

physical movement, finishing a task, etc.filling in gaps e.g., students read utterances of only one of the participants

and are asked to reconstruct those of the othersdetecting differences or mistakes

students read passages, responding only when they come across something different or wrong

ticking off items (bingo) students read a list of words and tick off or categorize them as they read them

information transfer maps, plans, gifts, forms, lists, pictures, etc.paraphrase students are asked to focus on certain sentences and

paraphrase themsequencing e.g., students are asked to give the right order for a series

of picturesinformation search students read a passage and take notes on the segments that

answer a particular questionfilling in blanks students are given a passage with some words missing and

must fill in the blanks while readingmatching e.g., students are asked to match items that have the same

meaning as those they readanswering to show comprehension of

e.g., multiple choice or true / false questions, open-ended questions, short questions

problem solving students read the information relevant to a particular problem and then set themselves to solve it

summarizing students are given several possible summary - sentence and asked to say which of them fits a text

jigsaw reading different groups of students read different but connected passages, each of which supplies some part of what they need to know. Then they come together to exchange information in order to complete a story or perform a task

writing as a follow-up to reading activities

e.g., letters, telegrams, postcards, messages, etc. related to passages

speaking as follow-up to reading activities

e.g., debate, interview, discussion, role-play, dramatization

translationprojects

3.3 Teaching SpeakingOf all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing) speaking seems the

most important: people who know a language are referred to as ‘speakers’ of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing and many if not most foreign language learners are interested in learning to speak. That’s why teaching speaking is vitally important for all language teachers at all levels.

Let’s start with the question ‘Why do we speak? What are the reasons for speaking in real life?

Task 1. Work in groups and make up a list of reasons for speaking in real life.

Possible answers:In real life we speak:- to transfer some info- to realize some intentions- to establish / maintain some relations- to show one’s knowledge- to ask for something

Task 2. How do we speak (characteristics of process / language used)?in real life in classroom- “long turns” (prepared speech, lectures)- “short turns”- simple structures- ellipsis- set expressions- fillers / pauses (hesitations)- repetitions / rephrasing

What is speaking in the classroom?Task 3. Mark these statements as true, false or debatable. Put a tick () in the right

column.Speaking in the classroom

T F D1. Speaking is producing oral utterances2. Speaking is always interactive3. Speaking always involves a thought process4. Speaking may have no message at all5. The language of speaking can be successfully acquired from books6. Speech errors show that the speaker needs more practice.7. The interaction of learners in lessons produces a lot of noise and makes learning difficult or impossible.8. The more English words learners know the more they are able to

speak.9. Natural communication between the teacher and learners in lessons in the best way to teach speaking.10. Communication games should be used to lower stress in lessons11. Simulation exercises should be used only after the learners have acquired the necessary language12. An information gap activity involves one learner communicating information that the other learner doesn’t have13. A task - based approach to speaking means that fewer texts will be offered to the learners 14. A process – oriented approach to speaking means that emphasis will be pout on developing skills rather than learning the text of a dialogue or a monologue

Speaking can be looked upon under these headings:1) Accuracy 2) Fluency

What do they both imply? If accuracy is form, then fluency is meaning.

What does accuracy involve? It involves the correct use of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.

What does fluency involve? It involves the ability to keep going when speaking spontaneously; when speaking fluently students should be able to get the message across, regardless of grammatical and other mistakes.

What problems occur with speaking activities?

Task 4. What problems occur with speaking activities? Can you think of any? Work in groups and make a list of problems with speaking you, yourselves as students come across with and learners at school might have.

Possible answers P.Ur p.121 Box 9.2

What can the teacher do to help solve some of the problems?

1. Use group and pair work. It increases STT and lowers inhibition of learners who are unwilling to speak in front of the class.2. Base the activity on easy language. In general, the level of language needed for a discussion should be lower than that used in intensive language – learning activities it should be easily produced, so that they can speak fluently with the minimum of hesitation. It is a good ides to teach or review essential vocabulary before the activity starts.

3. Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest. The clearer the purpose of the discussion the more motivated the learners will be.4. Give some instruction or training in discussion skills. If the task is based on group discussion then include instructions about participation when introducing it. For example, tell learners to make sure that everyone in the group contributes to the discussion, appoint a chairperson etc.5. Keep students speaking the target language. The best way to keep students speaking the target language is simply to be there yourself as much as possible, reminding them and modeling the language use yourself.

Characteristics of a successful speaking activityTask 5. Work in groups and work out your own characteristics of a successful speaking activity.

Now you can compare your finding with those given by P.Ur. p.120 Box 9.1

What is the teacher’s aim in a speaking activity? The teacher should teach:- to express intentions- to transfer information- to establish / maintain relations- to speak in situations of :

social aspect cultural aspect general context

P.Ur p. 123 Box 9.3

Task 6. Work in groups of four. Choose one observer in each group. Do both activities, one after the other. The observer should keep an eye on how things are going: how much people are talking, the kind of language they are using, how interested and motivated they are.

Task 7. Now compare both activities. Which was more successful in producing, good oral fluency practice? Can you give a reason why? Was it the topic? The task? The organization?

The main differences between the two activities is that the first is topic – based and the second one is task – based.

Topic. A good topic is one to which learners can relate using ideas from their own experience and knowledge, the ‘ability-grouping’ topic is appropriate for most schoolchildren. It should also represent a controversy, in which participants are likely to be fairy divided. Some questions or suggested lines of thought can help to stimulate discussion. A topic-centred discussion can be done as a formal debate, where the topic is discussed and finally voted on by all.

Task. A task is goal-oriented; it requires the group or pair to achieve an objective that is usually expressed by an observable result, such as brief notes or lists, a rearrangement of jumbled items, a drawing, and a summary. Within the task you often find instructions such as ‘reach a consensus’, or ‘find out everyone’s opinion’.

Which is better?As a generalization, it is probably advisable to base most oral fluency activities

on tasks. But there is usually a small but significant minority who prefer a topic-centred task and find them interesting.

Three of activities for developing Speaking skills are:- controlled- guided- free

? What do we mean by activities of these types? (activities 1-24) Knowledge ≠ Skill

? What analogy can you draw here? (knowledge – about a language; skill – using a language)

There are two basic ways to see a skill motor-perceptive skill interaction skill

involve perceiving, recalling and articulating in the correct order sounds and structures of the language

involve making decisions about communicating, such as: what to say, how to say, and whether to develop it, in accordance with one’s intentions, while maintaining the desired relations with others

↓ ↓ problem transfer of skills

‘If all the language produced in the classroom is determined by the teacher, we are protecting {the learner} from the additional burden of having to make his own choices. He will not be able to transfer his knowledge from a language – learning situation to a language – using situation.’

David WilkinsTask 8

Here is a list of things that we tend to teach in language courses. Which are only examples of motor-perceptive skills and which are also examples of interaction skills?1. Show an ability to produce at least 35 of the 40 phonemes in British English.2. Form the perfect tense correctly with have followed by the past participle of the lexical verb.3. Be able to ask someone the time.4. Have the ability to introduce yourself to someone you have never met.5. Be able to use at correctly with expressions of time and place.

6. Show an ability to describe your flat or home clearly to a decorator or estate agent.7. Be able to use correctly the three forms of lexical verbs.8. Be able to use the telephone to obtain info about trains / plane / bus times.

Think of criteria for a good speaking class involving 5 elements: our reasons why

The teacher••The learners•The atmosphere•Correction•Activities

Task 91. Non-communicative activity2. Communicative drill3. Communicative activity

? What makes a communicative activity?

Task 10How communicative are different classroom activities

Pre- communicative activitiesThe main purpose of the learner is to produce certain forms in an acceptable way. He is prompted to use these forms by

the teacher’s instructions (as in a drill). to produce language that they have recently learnt (e.g. through opened or cued

dialogues)The learner’s focus is more on language forms to be learnt than on meanings to be communicated.

Communicative activitiesThe purpose of the learner is to use the linguistic repertoire he has learnt, in order to communicate specific meanings for specific purposes. they improve motivation they allow natural learning they can create a context which supports learning

Is an activity pre-communicative or communicative? It depends on how the teacher presents the activity : exposition of activity, explanation of activity

(from William Littlewood (1994), “Communicative Language Teaching, CUP”)

How communicative are different classroom activities?What is communicative activity? Below are six criteria that you can use to decide how communicative different classroom activities are. Use these criteria to evaluate the selection of classroom activities attached.

Criteria for evaluating how communicative classroom activities are:1. Communicative purpose: The activity must involve the students inperforming a real communicative purpose rather than just practising languagefor its own sake. In order for this to occur there must be some kind of 'gap'(information or opinion) which the students seek to bridge when they arecommunicating.2. Communicative desire: The activity must create a desire to communicate inthe students. That is, even though speaking is forced on the students, theymust feel a real need to communicate.3. Content not form: When the students are doing the activity, they must beconcentrating on what they are saying not how they say it. They must havesome 'message' that they want to communicate.4. Variety of language: The activity must involve the students in using a varietyof language, not just one specific language form. The students should feel toimprovise, using whatever resources they choose.5. No teacher intervention: The activity must be designed to be done by thestudents working by themselves rather than with the teacher. The activityshould not involve the teacher correcting or evaluating how the students dothe activity, although it could involve some evaluation of the final 'product' ofthe activity when the activity is over. This assessment should be based onwhether the students have achieved their communicative purpose, not whetherthe language they used was correct.6. No materials control: The activity should not be designed to control whatlanguage the students should use. The choice about what language to useshould rest with the students.

Draw a table like the one below. Put a tick if you think the activities meet the criteria. Put a cross if you think they do not. In some cases you may not be sure, so put a question-mark.

Criteria Activities1 2 3 4 5

1. Communicative purpose 2. Communicative desire 3. Content not form 4. Variety of language5. No teacher intervention 6. No materials control

When you have finished filling in the table, rank the 5 teaching activities according to how communicative you think each activity is overall.

1. . (most communicative)2.3.4.5.(least communicative)

Group workWork in groups of three. Study the example and then continue.Student A to Student В to Student С (Replies)Ask Kay to give you her pen. Give me your pen please. YES (Here you are).Ask Mrs Wright to give us a sandwich.

Could we have a sandwich, Mrs Wright?

YES (Certainly).

1. Ask Jerry if he's got a letter for me.

NO

2. We must do some shopping tomorrow. Ask your boss to give you a day off.

NO

3. Ask Adrian to give you his dictionary.

YES

4. If you want more coffee, ask Mrs Wright.

YES

2. Communicative taskPractice with your parent:A Where are you from?В I'm from (country).A Which part of (country) are you from?В (Town).A What's your address?В (Address).

3. Pair workWork with your partner and ask each other questions about accommodation in your

country. Here are some of the questions:a. What is the cheapest type of accommodation?b. Are meals served in all types of accommodation?c. Does the price of a room always include breakfast?d. What facilities are provided?e. Is advance booking advisable?

4. Practice accepting and refusing things

Copy the table below into your exercise book. Put a tick next to each item if you like it. Put a cross if you do not like it.

Item Like / dislike1. apples 2. cabbage3. beer 4. coffee 5. pork 6. fish 7. milk8. cakes

Work with a partner. Offer him each item in the table. He should accept or refuse it and give a reason for his answer. He should then offer you each item.

5. Communicative taskDraw your family tree. Use it to talk to your partner about your family. Then complete your partner's family tree by asking him/her questions. When you have finished, compare your versions

1) Would you recommend in your town? Think about the following, and then answer the questions below.a factory a museum an airport observationgallery university othera. Is it open to the public?b. Is it a place that visitors would travel to see? Why?c Would it appeal to people interested in science or technology? Give reasons.

2) You are В; tell A what he/she needs.A. Oh dear, it's raining. B.You ...A. The baby's thirsty. B.She...A. he's very cold. B.He...

3) Work in pairs. Image that you are planning to invite some friends to a barbecue. You have already got the items listed below. Make a list of the things that you will need to buy.- a small piece of cheese - two tomatoes- five bottles of water - half a bottle of milk- one sausage - one bread roll

Now prepare a conversation about the things you need to buy using the dialogue in 1 to help you. Act out your dialogue for the class.

4) Teacher or student picks a card and the others must guess which it is by asking questions based on a model given.For example: (to practise the simple past)

T Guess what I did at six o'clock last night.S Did you visit your sister?T No, I didn't. 'S Did you go to the cinema? etc.

5) Class survey

Work in groups. Make a list of questions about talking risks, and then conduct a class

survey.

Example:

Would you eat or drink something that you knew might be dangerous?

Which dangerous sports might you be prepared to try? Have you ever...?

6) Situation 1

Your company has made much larger profits than anyone expected. You have to decide how to spend this extra money. The basic choices are:

a. to improve the social facilities for the employeesb. to give all staff a three per cent bonus.

Situation 2

You want to try to raise money for charity and you are meeting to decide on the best way of doing this.

7) a. make sentences about the picture below following the pattern:

I saw _____________________-ing ...E.g. We saw a girl waving at the people outside.a. I heard people shouting for help.

b. When the boy telephones the fire brigade to tell them there is fire, what questions will the fire brigade ask him?

c. Make up a dialogue, in pairs, between the boy and the fire brigade.

8) Imagine you are an estate agent. Work with your partner and try to 'sell' an unusual home to your partner. Your partner must think of all the objections.Example: An island house is just what you need. It is private and really quiet.Yes, but it's very expensive, and what happens when the sea is rough?

Five elements of a good speaking class

9) Expand the following:

Fred / holidays / JulyWhere / he / go?How much / fare / cost?

10) Listen and answer either "yes I do' or 'yes please' as appropriate.Do you like apples?Would you like an apple? Would you like a biscuit? Do you like biscuits? Do you like coffee? Would you like some?

11) 'Ali goes to school every day'.- yesterday- shopping- Mrs Moustapha- to town- every day etc.12) Work in pairs. Read your roles, then listen to the second story again to check for any information you need. Take turns to be Student A.

Student A You are a reporter for a local newspaper and you are going to interview the man who survived the fall. Prepare four or five questions for your interview.

Student В You are the man who survived the fall. To prepare for the interview think about the kinds of question you might be asked, then answer the reporter's questions about your experiences.

13) Work in pairs. Look at me two pictures and discuss these questions.

a. What sort of people live in these rooms? What sort of characters do you thinkthey have?b. Which of the two rooms would you feel more comfortable in? Why?

14) Work in pairs, but don't show each other your pictures.

Student A: Describe your room, saying exactly where your furniture and possessions are situated.

Student B: Draw a square to represent Student A's room. Mark where each item is situated according to his/her description.

Discuss the differences between your drawings.15) Your friend's parents have gone away for a few days, leaving your friend incharge of the house and family. You check that your friend has remembered to doeverything (sweep the yard, tidy up, do the shopping, feed the chickens). You askquestions like, "Have you swept the yard?" etc. In an office situation, a boss mightcheck on the secretary in the same way.

16) Work in pairs. Can you think of any well-known legends about people orplaces in your country? Talk about:- who the person was- if he or she really lived- what he or she is famous for- where the legend takes place- what happened17) (a) Make true statements comparing the things in the pictures, e.g., Cars are more expensive than bicycles.(b) Say which you would rather have as a present, tell your neighbour why.(c) Describes one of the objects to your neighbour (without naming it), until he/she guesses which it is.

The teacher …* should insist on learners` speaking English * should accept answers tactfully, even if they are wrong

The learners…* need to be tolerant of each other* should not laugh at each other* should make an effort to speak English

The atmosphere…* should be relaxed * should encourage everyone to participate

Correction…* It is not necessary to correct every single mistake* The teacher should not correct the learners rudely* Learners can correct each other

Activities…* should have lots of pair and group work * should include interesting discussion topics* should be varied

* the learners get a lot of input* the learners feel accepted and might contribute again in class* they might be shy or embarrassed if they scared of other learners*so that they will want to speak again*they will participate more

* if the learners feel relaxed, they will contribute more* if everyone participates, more English is spoken

* learners can sometimes be encouraged to speak fluently* learners are also people!They might feel less threatened if corrected by peers, if the teacher and fellow learners are supportive of this

*so that everyone gets a chance to speak

to motivate learnersto prevent boredom

Types of communicative activities

Non-communicative activity

Communicative drill Communicative activity

A В С

The purpose of the activity is

To prepare Ls for later communication

---► -4------- To enable Ls to communicate intelligibly

The focus is More on language ---► <-------

The Ls purpose is

The teacher's role

All possible roles appropriate to the aim of the particular activity

• Initiator • Classroom manager • Source of guidance and help (preparation stage) • Reasonable monitor or co-communicator (production stage)

Criterion of the assessment

-----► — Whether Ls convey meaning in accordance with a communicative task.

I) Discuss it with your small group, c) Present your findings to the tutor.

ls created by the activities Is created by the activity, Is created by activity, whichwhen the Ls are forced to which requires the Ls to lets the Ls share their feelingsexchange info in order to find describe and perhaps express about an experience they havea solution. and defend their views on in common.Examples: controversial texts or ideas. Examples:• Guessing games Examples; • Discussion games• Jigsaw tasks Ranking exercises• Problem-solving activities Values clarification

Thinking strategies

WHAT IS A COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITY?

Task 1. Discuss the diagram below with your colleagues in small groups of£. Present your understanding of it to the whole group.

Task 2. a) Use the description of a pre-communicative and communicative activity and your own experience to complete the chart

Pre-communicative activity- is an activity in which the learner is a) to produce correctlanguage forms in an acceptable way; s/he is prompted to use these forms by the teacher's instructions (as in a drill) or b) to produce correct language for specific communicative purpose (e.g. through open or cued dialogues).

Communicative activity - is an activity in which the learner is to use the languages/he has at her/his command, in order to communicate specific meanings for specific purposes.

Successful oral fluency practice

Question Of all the four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), speaking seems intuitively the most important: people who know a language are referred to as 'speakers' of that language, as if speaking included all other kinds of knowing; and many if not most foreign language learners are primarily interested in learning to speak.

Classroom activities that develop learners' ability to express themselves through speech would therefore seem an important component of a language course. Yet it is difficult to design and administer such activities; more so, in many ways, than to do so for listening, reading or writing. We shall come on to what the problems are presently, but first let us try to define what is meant by 'an effective speaking activity'.Imagine or recall a successful speaking activity in the classroom that you have either organized as teacher or participated in as student. What are the characteristics of this activity that make you judge it 'successful'? Compare your ideas with those shown in Box 9.1.

BOX 9.1: CHARACTERISTICS OF A SUCCESSFUL SPEAKING ACTIVITY1. Learners talk a lot. As much as possible of the period of time allotted to the

activity is in fact occupied by learner talk. This may seem obvious, but often mosttime is taken up with teacher talk or pauses.

2. Participation is even. Classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority oftalkative participants: all get a chance to speak, and contributions are fairly evenlydistributed.

3. Motivation is high. Learners are eager to speak: because they are interested inthe topic and have something new to say about it, or because they want tocontribute to achieving a task objective.

4. Language is of an acceptable level. Learners express themselves in utterancesthat are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable levelof language accuracy.© Cambridge University Press 1996

In practice, however, few classroom activities succeed in satisfying all the criteria shown in Box 9.1.

Successful oral fluency practiceQuestion What are some of the problems in getting learners to talk in the classroom? Perhaps think back to your experiences as either learner or teacher.

Now look at Box 9.2, and see if any of the problems I have come across in my teaching are the same as yours.

BOX 9.2: PROBLEMS WITH SPEAKING ACTIVITIES1. Inhibition. Unlike reading, writing and listening activities, speaking requires some

degree of real-time exposure to an audience. Learners are often inhibited abouttrying to say things in a foreign language in the classroom: worried about makingmistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention thattheir speech attracts.

2. Nothing to say. Even if they are not inhibited, you often hear learners complainthat they cannot think of anything to say: they have no motive to expressthemselves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking.

3. Low or uneven participation. Only one participant can talk at a time if he or sheis to be heard; and in a large group this means that each one will have only verylittle talking time. This problem is compounded by the tendency of some learnersto dominate, while others speak very little or not at all.

4. Mother-tongue use. In classes where all, or a number of, the learners share thesame mother tongue, they may tend to use it: because it is easier, because itfeels unnatural to speak to one another in a foreign language, and because theyfeel less 'exposed' if they are speaking their mother tongue. If they are talking insmall groups it can be quite difficult to get some classes - particularly the lessdisciplined or motivated ones - to keep to the target language.© Cambridge University Press 1996Follow-up Consider what you might do in the classroom in order to overcome each of discussion the problems described in Box 9.2. You may wish to supplement your ideas with those suggested below.What the teacher can do to help to solve some of the problems1. Use group workThis increases the sheer amount of learner talk going on in a limited period of time and also lowers the inhibitions of learners who are unwilling to speak in front of the full class. It is true that group work means the teacher cannot supervise all learner speech, so that not all utterances will be correct, and learners may occasionally slip into their native language; nevertheless, even taking into consideration occasional mistakes and mother-tongue use, the amount of time remaining for positive, useful oral practice is still likely to be far more than in the full-class set-up.2. Base the activity on easy languageIn general, the level of language needed for a discussion should be lower than that used in intensive language-learning activities in the same class: it should be easily recalled and produced by the participants, so that they can speak fluently

The functions of topic and taskBOX 9.3: TYPES OF ORAL FLUENCY ACTIVITIESActivity 1Discuss the following conflicting opinions.Opinion 1. Children should be taught in heterogeneous classes: setting them into ability groupings puts a 'failure' label onto members of the lower groups, whereas putting more and less able learners together encourages the slower ones to progress faster, without penalizing the more able.Opinion 2. Children should be divided into ability groupings for most subjects: this enables the less able ones to be taught at a pace suitable for them, while the better students do not need to wait for the slower ones to catch up.Activity 2A good schoolteacher should have the following qualities. Can your group agree together in what order of priority you would put them?sense of humour enthusiasm for teachinghonesty pleasant appearancelove of children fairnessknowledge of subjectability to create interestflexibility ability to keep orderclear speaking voice intelligence© Cambridge University Press 1996

The results I usually get from this experiment are described under Which is better? overleaf.Topic- and task-based activitiesThe main difference between the two activities in Box 9.3 is that the first is topic-based and the second task-based. In other words, the first simply asks participants to talk about a (controversial) subject, the main objective being clearly the discussion process itself; the second asks them actually to perform something, where the discussion process is a means to an end.

Topic. A good topic is one to which learners can relate using ideas from their own experience and knowledge; the 'ability-grouping' topic is therefore appropriate for most schoolchildren, schoolteachers or young people whose school memories are fresh. It should also represent a genuine controversy, in which participants are likely to be fairly evenly divided (as my own classes tend to be on this one). Some questions or suggested lines of thought can help to stimulate discussion, but not too many arguments for and against should be 'fed' to the class in advance: leave room for their own initiative and originality. A topic-centred discussion can be done as a formal debate, where a motion is proposed and opposed by prepared speakers, discussed further by members of the group, and finally voted on by all. (This technique is used in the task of Unit Six below.)

Task. A task is essentially goal-oriented: it requires the group, or pair, to achieve an objective that is usually expressed by an observable result, such as brief notes or lists, a rearrangement of jumbled items, a drawing, a spoken

Writing

Lecture sessionThe lecture is to cover the following issues:•What writing is•What kind of process writing is.•Why is it important to teach writing in a foreign language.•What basic principles of writing are.•What approaches and techniques bring to better results in teaching writing skills.•How to design tasks for writing.•How to assess written works.

Everybody will agree that writing is a part of our everyday routine, and it is also a part of our professional life.

Activity 1 But what is writing? What does your experience tell you about writing? Work in groups of four, think it over and write your definition of writing.(Writing is one of the means of communication having some purpose, organization and addressed to somebody.)

Activity 2 (Handout 1)Task: Analyze what you were doing while writing the definition ranging the sequence of your actions.

First I was thinking about….. then…..1. Accurate use of words2 Accurate use of grammar3. Punctuation4. Content5. Organization of the text6. Good ideas7. Communicative value of the definition8. Cohesive devices8. Spelling10. How the reader will be effected by this definition11. The purpose of my piece of writing12. How the reader(s) might understand my message13.14.

Activity 3 Handout 2.

Task: Read a number of quotations about writing, examine them and single out

the key issues concerning writing.

А. "Письменная речь - это вид речевой деятельности, который имеет целью передачу информации в письменной форме в соответствии с ситуацией общения." {Методика преподавания русского языка как иностранного/ Под редакцией А. Н. Щукина - М., 1990, стр. 133)

В. "Письменная речь представляет собой коммуникативное умение сочетать слова в письменной форме для выражения своих мыслей в соответствии с потребностями общения." (Методика! Под редакцией А. А. Леонтьева - М., 1988, стр. 142).

С. " any piece of writing is an attempt to communicate something: that the writer has a goal or purpose in mind, that he has to establish and maintain contact with his reader; that he has to organize his material and that he does this through the use of certain logical and grammatical devices." (Byrne, D., Teaching Writing Skills; Longman, 1988, p.14)

D. "Effective writing involves conveying a message in such a way as to affect the audience as the writer intends." (Parrott, M., Tasks for Language Teachers; CUP, 1993, p/211)

E. "... effective writing requires ... a high degree of organization in the development of ideas and information; a high degree of accuracy so that there is no ambiguity of meaning; the use of complex grammatical devices for focus and emphasis; and a careful choice of vocabulary, grammatical patterns and sentence structures to create a style which is appropriate to the subject matter and the eventual readers." (Hedge, Т., Writing; OUP, 1995, p. 5)

The main features of writing are:

The main features of writing are:In the last few decades writing is being paid more and more attention to

which leads closer inspection of the methods of teaching this skill. Several things should be taken into consideration when we think about teaching writing.

1). Firstly, teaching writing involves both a teacher and a student in a partnership, where the participants are equal. Treating any peace of writing only for correcting language errors and mistakes on the teacher's side misses the aim of this creative process on the student's side.

2). Secondly, it is a myth that all it takes to write is to sit down in front a blank page to begin at the beginning and write through to the end, without planning, drafting, revising, editing or discussing. The following diagram shows the complex process of writing.

Activity 4Task: In groups of four discuss and come to a conclusion why most of the arrows on the diagram are the two-ways ones.

II Process of WritingExamine the diagram "A Model of Writing"

(White. R. and Anult. V., Process tt iling; Longman. 1992, p.4)

Give a brief outline of the processes that go on at each of the stages.

3).Thirdly, for the reader to understand the message of the text, the writer should deal with a number of issues shown in the following scheme.

1. Generating ideas – brainstorming, producing ideas, selecting ideas, reading from the book.

2. Reviewing - analyzing ideas, searching for ways to make them better.3. Focusing – choosing the idea, concentrating on the idea.

4. Structuring – organizing the text, choosing the form paragraphing.5. Drafting – writing process, re-writing the draft for many times.6. Evaluating – rereading the text and trying to improve it.4). Finally, writing is a task which is often imposed on us, that's why we

should develop positive attitude to writing trying to overcome some psychological, linguistic and cognitive problems.

In conclusion it should be mentioned that though the situation is complex and there is no one set of answers, still writing is a skill worth developing. Our problem, as teachers, how to do this in such a way that the students see the purpose of learning this skill.

Activity 5

Task: Mark the following statements true (T) or false (F):

1. We usually write a text once for ever without any change.2. The teacher and the students are both participants in the process of writing who have complementary roles and similar status.3. The teacher should concentrate on the accuracy of using the language when checking students’ written works.4. The writer should take into consideration all aspects of language and the process of writing to create a clear, fluent, effective and meaningful text.5. Writing is a long process of going back and forward, of revising and reviewing, of evaluating and restructuring.

Activity 6

Task: Analyze the mind-map and be ready to speak about things necessary for producing a good piece of writing.

Producing a Piece of Writing.

Sentence structure, sentence boundaries Relevance, clarity, originality, logic, etc. stylistic choices

Rules for verbs, agreement,articles, pronounce, etc. getting ideas, getting started,

drafting, revising. Handwriting, spelling, the reader(s)punctuation, etc.

Paragraphs topic and support cohesion and unity the reason for

Vocabulary, idiom, tone, register, etc.

Clear, fluent meaningful and effective communication

The process of writing is divided into 3 stages. What are they?- pre-writing- while-writing- editing

Since writing is about organizing info and communicating the meaning; generating, collecting and putting down ideas is a crucial point of the writing process. Getting started is usually the most difficult and inhibiting step in writing.

Activity 7 Task: Work in groups, recollect your experience at writing sessions and make a list of activities for a pre-writing stage.- gathering info- pyramid planning- discussion- making mind maps- using a diagram of ideas- brainstorming- organizing points- using questionnaires- observing- note-taking- conducting a survey

The main goal of writing is to help students learn how to create a clear, meaningful, fluent text which will pass your ideas, feelings, thoughts in such a way that the reader gets your message as you have intended him\her to understand. That's why the task of writing session is to concentrate on techniques to get students to go beyond those sentence exercises, so that they write:- to communicate with a reader- to express ideas without the pressure of face-to face communication- to explore a subject- to record experience- to become familiar with the conventions of Written English discourse(a text)

What are the three purposes of writing in real life? -to inform-to persuade-to clarify

Activity 8 Types and kinds of written textsTask: Read the following paragraphs and decide what was each of them written for, that is determine the purpose of each paragraph: to inform (which implies that the audience has imperfect knowledge of a subject), to persuade ( which

implies the audience to be persuaded/ be given reasons why they should think о do in a certain way) or to clarify (which includes not only the audience but tin writer who 'puts pen to paper to test whether his or her own ideas are coheren and clear' [Brooks, a. and Grundy, P. Writing for Study Purposes: CUP, 1990, p 14])

Text oneNiagara Falls is one of the most beautiful wonders in North America. The

2000,000 tons of water that plummet 160 feet into the bed of the Niagara River each minute provide a continuous visual spectacle for tourists. The greater part of the deluge rushes over a craggy ledge of limestone on the, Canadian side creating Horseshoe Falls. The lesser flow sends the sparkling liquid down even farther forming the American Falls. The two falls known commonly as Niagara Falls were first observed by European explorers in 1678. At night, white and coloured lights dance across the water like millions of tiny diamonds transforming the sight into a colour wheel.

Text twoIt is one matter to make New Year's resolutions and quite another to keep them. There are several suggestions one may follow to make the undertaking a bit easier. In the first place, be serious. Don't make a resolution simply because it seems the Thing to do at the moment. You should really have every intention of keeping Resolutions when they are made. Secondly, don't make too many resolutions. It is not reasonable to expect to alter one's life in an evening resolve. Make one or two resolutions, no more. And finally, make your pledge to the future in the presence of witnesses. Granted it is possible to hold to resolutions made in private, but making them public provides the additional motivation to keep them. Most people don't like the idea of breaking a promise, especially when it is on the public record. So, if you take in what has been said above, you might really have a chance to make your wish come true.

Text threeLOVE is a strong feeling of fondness for another person, especially between

members of a family or close friends. This notion also includes fondness combined with sexual attraction and, definitely, warm interest and enjoyment. Alternatively, the word LOVE may mean the object of such interest and attraction. In addition, LOVE or LUV (informal) is a friendly form of addressing to somebody, especially to or by a woman.

Activity 9 Task: Kinds of written text are looked at from the point of view of the purpose. Think what may be the purpose of the following kinds of texts.Kinds of written texts PurposeStatic descriptionProcess and procedure descriptionNarrativeFormal lettersInformal lettersArgumentative essaysArticles ReportsReviewsDiscursive essaysClassificationsDefinitionsAdvertisementsNotesOthers

Activity 10 Task: Study the table of the types of written texts depending on the addressee (audience, readers). Tick those kinds and types of texts you are going to teach at school.Types of writingPersonal writing Public writing Creative writingdiaries shopping lists Letters of-enquiry Poemsjournals packing lists complaint storiesaddresses recipes request rhymesreminders for oneself form filling drama

applications (for member- songsships) autobiographies

Social writing Study writing Institutional writingletters making notes while reading Agendas postersinvitations taking notes from lectures Minutes instructionsnotes of- condolence making a card index Memoranda speeches- thanks reports of- experiments Reports applications- congratulations - workshops Reviews contractscablegrams curriculum vitae specificationstelephone messages summaries reviews business-letters note-makinginstructions - to friends synopses essays public notices (doctors and- to family bibliographies- advertisements other profess-

ionals)

Activity 11 The task and its components

Task: Read the definitions of "task" and decide which one fits better teaching a foreign language. What are the most important components of the "task"?

A. "[a task is] a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or forsome reward... In other words, by 'task' is meant the hundred and one thongspeople do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between" (Long, M, A Role forInstruction in Second Language Acquisition; 1985, p. 89).

B. "[a task is] an activity or action which is carried as the result of processing orunderstanding language (i.e. as a response). . . A task usually requires the teacherto specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. The use of avariety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make languageteaching more communicative . . . since it provides a purpose for a classroomactivity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake." (Richards,J., Platt, j. and Weber, H.: Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics; Longman,1986, p. 289).

C. ". . . any structured language learning endeavour which has a particularobjective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range ofoutcomes for those who undertake the task. 'Task' is therefore assumed to refer toa range of work plans which have the overall purpose of facilitating languagelearning - from a simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and length activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision making (Breed, M, Learner Contributions to Task Design, 1987, p. 23)

Task designActivity 12 Task: Think of the components of the task setting Patterns of interaction

input TASK goal Activities (step by step) Learner role

If a teacher wants a student to have some progress, his\her written works should be graded\marked\tested\evaluated\assessed\examined.

(The most important components of the tasks are: - particular objective- appropriate content- a specified working procedure- a certain range of activities)

Activity 13 Task: Put the following steps of students" writing process and of the teacher's interference to help during this process of writing into the scheme and explain why it is appropriate to intervene at various points of process of creating a written paper.

student writes draft 1

student writes draft 2

student writes draft 3 or proofreads edits

student reads draft 2 with guidelines or checklist: makes changes

student makes outline of draft one

preparation for writing/ prewriting activities

selection of topic by teacher and/ or by student(s)

teacher evaluates progress from draft 1 to 3

teacher reads notes, lists, outlines, etc. and makes suggestions

teacher reads draft 2; indicates good points and areas for improvement

teacher assigns follow-up tasks to help in weak areas of the language, style, etc.

T. and sts read draft: add comments and suggestions about content

Activity 14 Task: In groups of four make rules\establish some basic principles for intervening at various points in the writing process.1). Never take a pan before reading students" work up to the end.2). Students should know symbols for error correction. What are they?SpWoOrVocPWwCan you think of some more symbols?

Activity 15 Task: Consider the scheme "The process of writing" and write down the areas that should be assessed.

>content>style (word choice)Organization of the text>vocabulary>>grammar

Activity 16 (Handout 11)Task: Read what J Hammer thinks about correcting writing. Underline the main issues.How shouldteachers correctwriting?

Most students find it very dispiriting if they get a piece of written work back and it is covered in red ink, underlinings and crossings-out. It is a powerful visual statement of the fact that their written English is terrible.

Of course, some pieces of written work are completely full of mistakes, but even in these cases, over-correction can have a very demotivating effect. As with all types of correction, the teacher has to achieve a balance between being accurate and truthful on the one hand and treating students sensitively and sympathetically on the other.

One way of avoiding the 'over-correction' problem is for teachers to tell their students that for a particular piece of work they are only going to correct mistakes of punctuation, or spelling, or grammar etc. This has two advantages: it makes students concentrate on that particular aspect, and it cuts down on the correction.

Another technique which many teachers use is to agree on a list of written symbols (S = spelling, WO = word order etc). When they come across a mistake they underline it discreetly and write the symbol in the margin. This makes correction look less damaging.

However many mistakes you may want to identify, it is always worth writing a comment at the end of a piece of written work - anything from 'Well done' to 'This is a good story, but you must look again at your use of past tenses - see X grammar book page 00'.

Two last points: correcting is important, but it can be time-consuming and frustrating, especially when it is difficult to know what the mistake is because it is unclear what the student is trying to say. Common sense and talking to students about it are the only solutions here. The other really important point is that correction is worthless if students just put their corrected writing away and never look at it again. Teachers have to ensure that they understand the problem and then redraft the passage correctly.

Activity 17

Task: Study the assessment scale and explain each criterionRegister (linguistics) the range of vocabulary, grammar, etc., used by speakers in particular social circumstances or professional contexts.

Activity 18 Task: What can be done about handwriting?J. Harmer. Read the paragraph and find out what J. Harmer suggest doing.

What can bedone about

handwriting?Handwriting is a very personal matter. It is supposed to reflect character. Different

nationalities certainly have recognizable handwriting traits. Some people have easily readable writing. Some produce written work which is indecipherable, whether beautiful or messy and ugly.

Many nationalities do not use the same kind of script as English, so for students from those cultures writing in English is doubly difficult: they are fighting their expressive limitations as well as trying to work out a completely new writing system at the same time. And now that word processors are becoming more and more common, people have less motivation for good handwriting. Teachers are not in a position to ask students to change their handwriting style, but they can insist on neatness and legibility. Especially when students are heading towards an exam, such things are crucial. With students who are having problems with English script, special classes or group sessions may have to be arranged to help them. In these classes they can be shown many examples of certain letters, and the teacher can demonstrate the strokes necessary for making those shapes - and where the letter starts (writing from left to right is difficult for some students). They can be asked to write 'in the air' to give them confidence or they can be asked to imitate letters on lined paper which demonstrates the position and height of letters, e.g.

Activity 19 Task: Read the paragraph and present your findings. How does writing fit into ESA?

How does writing fit

into ESAThe four writing examples in this chapter approach the ESA procedure

from a number of different angles. In the case of the postcard the teacher to students about postcards and/or holidays in such a way as to Engage them. They then Study the postcard looking for typical 'postcard features' and finally they Activate that knowledge by writing their own version.

In the 'altering dictations' activity, the students are, hopefully, Engaged by the dictation and topic of the sentence they write down. When they alter the sentence they are Activating the knowledge of English which they have. After the discussion {Activate) which this will provoke, the teacher will give feedback on the language used, making corrections where appropriate [Stud]).

A different kind of boomerang procedure is evident in the newspaper-writing activity. Students are first Engaged with the topic of newspapers before doing the matching task [Activate). They then Study headlines before going on to a creative writing stage {Activate).

In report writing, a number of stages are gone through, giving the whole sequence a patchwork feel. Students need to be Engaged with the topic, they need to Study the language which they will need, knowledge which is Activated in the collection of results before students come back to study the structure of reports in order to produce a final piece of work (Activation).

Activity 20

More writing suggestions

Students write letters to a newspaper in response to a controversial article, (intermediate/advanced)Students expand a variety of headlines into newspaper articles, (intermediate/advanced)Students write/design their own menus, (beginner/lower intermediate)Students design posters for a party/play/concert etc. (beginner/lower intermediate)Students write a radio news bulletin, (elementary/intermediate)Pre-writing: planning the pieces of writing:a) analyze the situation;b) make a plan;c) gather information;d) organize your notes;Drafting: getting ideas clown on paper in a rough form:a)write a quick draft;b) your draft need not be perfect;c)keep your audience, purpose and voice in mind as you write;d) keep yourself open to new idease)allow yourself enough time to write. Do not try to do all your writing at the last minute;f) write as many drafts as you need to write.

Revising: changing and improving the rough draft:

a) rework a written draft to enhance its content and organization;b)use the checklist for revision to identify ways to improve your paper;Proofreading: correcting any errors in spelling, grammar, vocabulary, punctuation,

capitalization:

a) Use the checklist for proofreading checking for errors in grammar and usage of the words, spelling, punctuation, capitalization and manuscript form;Publishing: letting others read and share the writing:

a)share your writing with friends, groupmates or room-mates;b)read your paper aloud to a discussion group or to the whole class;c)trade papers with other students of your class or other classes;d)create a publication that contains writing by all students in your class.

Module 4. Assessment

Aim: By the end of the session the students will be able to design a classroom test on their own.Stages in designing a test.Stage 1: Preparation Prepare your test. It is a good idea to list in writing all the material that you want your test to cover: you can then refer back to the list during and after the test-writing to see if you have included all you intended.

Your notes: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Stage 2. Performance /Pre-testing/ If possible, administer your test to a class of learners; if not, ask colleagues to try doing it themselves.

Your notes:____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Stage 3. Feedback /Validating the test/ Look at how your test was done, and ask the testees how they felt about it.

Your notes:__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Guidelines for test preparation.While preparing a test you should take into consideration these six factors. What for? Discuss in pairs and write your explanation. Validity - /example/. Check that your items really test what they are meant to!______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Clarity:________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Do-ability:___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Marking:_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Interest:________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Heterogeneity___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Some useful tips: Students are not required to use knowledge of the world for giving correct answers. Students are not required to demonstrate specific knowledge. Test should reflect what students have been doing in class, i.e. should accurately reflect the syllabus and design of the course in terms of content and format. Test format should be well-known for students.

Test typesgroup test divergent

objective test interactive

short answer classificatory

graduated or graded invigilated pencil and paper capability

convergent criterion-referenced

standardized performance

categorical

computerized / automated

readiness

norm-referenced

individual

subjective type

extended answer

pass / fail

Test types

Group test IndividualObjective test Subjective type Short answer Extended answerGraduated or graded Pass / failPencil and paper PerformanceConvergent DivergentStandardized InteractiveCategorical ClassificatoryComputerized/automated InvigilatedReadiness CapabilityNorm-referenced Criterion-referenced

Module 5. Materials evaluationIN FAVOUR OF USING A COURSEBOOK1. FrameworkA coursebook provides a clear framework: teacher and learners know where they are going and what is coming next, so that there is a sense of structure and progress.2. SyllabusIn many places the coursebook serves as a syllabus: if it is followed systematically, a carefully planned and balanced selection of language content will be covered.3. Ready-made texts and tasksThe coursebook provides texts and learning tasks which are likely to be of an appropriate level for most of the class. This of course saves time for the teacher who would otherwise have to prepare his or her own.4. EconomyA book is the cheapest way of providing learning material for each learner;alternatives, such as kits, sets of photocopied papers or computer software, are likely to be more expensive relative to the amount of material provided.5. ConvenienceA book is a convenient package. It is bound, so that its components stick together and stay in order; it is light and small enough to carry around easily; it is of a shape that is easily packed and stacked; it does not depend for its use on hardware or a supply of electricity.6. GuidanceFor teachers who are inexperienced or occasionally unsure of their knowledge of the language, the coursebook can provide useful guidance and support.7. AutonomyThe learner can use the coursebook to learn new material, review and monitor progress with some degree of autonomy. A learner without a coursebook is more teacher-dependent.© Cambridge University Press 1996

AGAINST USING A COURSEBOOK1. InadequacyEvery class - in fact, every learner - has their own learning needs: no one coursebook can possibly supply these satisfactorily.2. Irrelevance, lack of interestThe topics dealt with in the coursebook may not necessarily be relevant or interesting for your class.3. LimitationA coursebook is confining: its set structure and sequence may inhibit a teacher's initiative and creativity, and lead to boredom and lack of motivation on the part of the learners.4. HomogeneityCoursebooks have their own rationale and chosen teaching/learning approach They do not usually cater for the variety of levels of ability and knowledge or of learning styles and strategies that exist in most classes.5. Over-easinessTeachers find it too easy to follow the coursebook uncritically instead of using their initiative; they may find themselves functioning merely as mediators of its content instead of as teachers in their own right.© Cambridge University Press 1996

area questions to consider

How expensive is the textbook? Can the students afford it? Will they have to buy an accompanying workbook? Can they afford both? What about the teacher; can he or she pay for the teacher's book and tapes?

1 price

Is the course available? Are all its components (students' book, teacher's book, workbook etc.) in the shops now? What about the next level (for the next term/semester)? Has it been published? Is it available? What about tapes, videos etc.?

2. availability

Is the book attractive? Does the teacher feel comfortable with it?Do the students like it? How user-friendly is the design? Does it get in the way ofwhat the book is trying to do or does it enhance it?

33.layout design

What kind of teaching and learning does the book promote? Can teachers and students build appropriate ESA sequences from it? Is there a good balance between Study and Activation?

4 methodology

Does the book cover the four skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking) adequately? Is there a decent balance between the skills? Are there opportunities for both Study and Activation in the skills work? Is the language of the reading and listening texts appropriate? Are the speaking and writing tasks likely to Engage the students' interest?

5 skills

Is the syllabus of the book appropriate for your students? Does it cover the language points you would expect? Are they in the right order? Do the reading and listening texts increase in difficulty as the book progresses?

6 syllabus

Does the book contain a variety of topics? Are they likely to engage the students' interest? Does the teacher respond to them well? Are they culturally appropriate for the students? Are they too adult or too childish?

7 topic

Does the book represent people and situations in a fair and equal way? Are various categories of people treated equally? Is there stereotyping of certain nationalities? Does the book display conscious or unconscious racism or sexism?Is there a good teacher's guide? Is it easy to use? Does it have all the answers the teacher might need? Does it offer alternatives to lesson procedures? Does it contain a statement of intention which the teacher and students feel happy with?

8 stereotyping

9. teacher's guide

COURSEBOOK COVERAGE- some entertaining or fun activities pronunciation practice- introduction of new vocabulary and practice- grammar explanations and practice- recordings for listening practice- listening and speaking communicative tasks- reading and writing communicative tasks- mixed-skills communicative tasks- short and long reading texts- dictionary work- review of previously learnt material© Cambridge University Press 1996

PACKAGES OF SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALSPackage 1: A set of computers for learners' use, with accompanying language-learning programs on floppy disk.Package 2: A set of reference books for the teachers, including: grammars, dictionaries; various specialized textbooks; handbooks of activities; and a subscription to a teachers' journal of your choice.Package 3: A number of overhead projectors and slide projectors, with all necessary film, slides and markers. Package 4: Video equipment, with assorted cassettes, including language-learning material and films in the target language.Package 5: Computers and printers for teachers' use; each computer has a hard disk with the latest word processor and various programs that enable you to compose your own computer tasks for learners. Package 6: Several cassette recorders with accompanying earphones (so that several learners can listen quietly to one machine); a selection of accompanying cassettes for language learning. Package 7: A wide variety of posters and sets of coloured pictures, plus board and card games for language learning. Package 8: A library of simplified readers in the target language, ranging from very simple to advanced. There would be enough books in this library to enable all students to borrow freely.© Cambridge University Press 1996

6. Module Syllabus designУчебная программа (syllabus), стандарт (curriculum), цели

(aims), задачи (objectives), содержание обучения (content ).Русский термин «программа» имел широкое значение и фактически соответствовал

английскому термину National Curriculum в значении «государственный стандарт»Этот термин приобрел новое значение, которое соответствует английскому syllabus и

означает разработку программ по какому-то предмету применительно к конкретным условиям обучения.

Появление многочисленных учебных программ привело к необходимости? вновь вернуться к разработке единых государственных стандартов

Необходимость создания таких стандартов очевидна, так как они позволяют унифицировать требования, предъявляемые к учащимся по окончании учебного заведения того или иного типа, а также определить уровень владения языком на каждом этапе обучения.

Стандарты должны включать единые и обязательные для всех школ данного типа требования к уровню обученности учащихся, общие направления обучения, предлагать рекомендации по их реализации, должны сопровождаться инструктивно-методическими документами.

В отечественной методике проблемы разработки учебных программ, как у правило, рассматриваются в связи с отбором содержания обучения и отражены в теоретической литературе в разделе «Цели, задачи и содержание обучения иностранным языкам»,

В отечественной лингводидактике и методике хорошо разработаны проблемы целеполагания и кроме практических целей обучения выделены воспитательные и общеобразовательные

Разработка учебных программ связана с трудностями выбора типа программы и ее компонентов.

General concepts - Основные понятия

Сurriculum1. Учебный план — «документ, определяющий состав учебных предметов, изучаемых в данном учебном заведении, их распределение по годам обучения, количество времени, отводимое на каждый учебный предмет, и в связи с этим структуру учебного года» Учебный план отражает общее направление, стратегию подготовки специалистов или учащихся в том или ином учебном заведении. Учебные планы составляются в соответствии с государственным образовательным стандартом2. Стандарт, образовательная программа - документ, отражающий основную концепцию образования применительно к конкретному предмету (иностранный язык). Стандарт определяет конечные требования к уровню владения иностранным языком в том или ином виде речевой деятельности (attainment),Стандарты отражают:1)цели и задачи обучения, конечные требования к уровню владение языком;2)общая характеристика содержания обучения;3)характеристика используемого материала;4)характеристика упражнений, заданий и приемов;5)контроль результатов обучения и их оценка учащимися.

National CurriculumГосударственный образовательный стандарт — утвержденный государством

нормативный документ, определяющий обязательный минимум требований к образованию и содержанию обучения; описывает цели и задачи обучения, включает в себя перечень умений и навыков, на достижение которых направлено образование, устанавливает максимальный объем учебной нагрузки обучающихся.

На основании Госстандарта разрабатываются региональные стандарты.Государственный образовательный стандарт служит также ориентиром при написании учебников разработке экзаменационных материалов, контрольных заданий и тестов.

Британский стандарт по иностранным языкам формулирует цели и задачи обучения, требования к уровню владения языком; особо оговариваются требования к уровню владения восточными языками. Указанные требования разбиты на восемь групп, соответствующих восьми уровням обученности (level), предусмотрен также наивысший уровень.

Course1. Курс по предмету — учебная дисциплина, включенная в программу обучения как обязательная или факультативная2. Курсы — организационная форма обучения тому или иному предмету3. Курс обучения — система занятий, разработанная и организованная в соответствии с учебным планом для различных типов учебных заведенийПо окончании курса выдается диплом, свидетельство или сертификат

ProgrammeПрограмма обучения Теаcher Тгаining Соursе / Рrogramme (курс или программа

подготовки учителей), Еnglish Language Course / Programme (курс английского языка) и т. д. Программа обучения больше по объему, чем курс, рассчитана на длительный период обучения и большее, чем курс, количество часов.

Подготовка преподавателей английского как иностранного в Великобритании и США осуществляется как в рамках высшего образования, когда специализированная магистерская программа обучения в университете составляет один-два года, так и на различных краткосрочных курсах продолжительностью в несколько недель. В университетах предлагаются следующие программы по подготовке преподавателей английского языка: МА, ВА, Diploma, Сertificate Course / Programmes in TEFL, TESL, TESOL.

Выделяются также специализированные курсы подготовки и повышениям Квалификации преподавателей английского языка: PRESETT, INSETT в рамках которых готовят преподавателей английского языка для работы с определенной группой учащихся: ESP Teacher Development Course.Teacher Business English (преподавание делового английского), Teaching English to Young Learners (раннее обучение иностранным языкам) и другие.

Course design / Programme designРазработка курса — планирование курса обучения, которое предполагает

решение следующих вопросов: метод, который будет лежать в основе обучения,•умения и навыки, подлежащие формированию, используемые материалы и приемы обучения, время, отведенное на каждый раздел курса, средства поэтапного и итогового контроля, способы оценки учащимися итогов каждого этапа и всего курса обучения.

Course design и syllable design используются в качестве синонимов в том случае, если syllable design трактуется в широком смысле.

SyllabusУчебная программа — рабочий документ, которым пользуется учебное

заведениеУчебная программа может изменяться или корректироваться в зависимости от нужд и типа конкретного учебного заведения, изменения условий обучения.

В отличие от учебного плана, программа посвящена вопросам преподавания одного предмета: содержание курса, приемы обучения и контроля, предусматривает определенные организационные формы обучения и дает характеристику используемых материалов.Учебная программа, как правило, имеет определенные временные рамки.

Типы программ Type of syllabus.Любая учебная программа реализует теоретические положения

три уровня программ:1) basic level — базисный, или теоретический, уровень,2) policy level — стратегический уровень, или уровень разработки3) practical action level — уровень практического применение

Типовая учебная программа состоит из нескольких разделов, которые строятся в произвольной форме. Программа сопровождается объяснительной запиской, в которой описываются условия обучения, методические принципы подход или метод, лежащий в основе программы, дается теоретическое обоснование и определяются принципы отбора содержания обучения и организации процесса обучения.

В настоящее время нет единого мнения по вопросу о том, какие компоненту должны включаться в учебную программу

Многие зарубежные методисты сходятся во мнении, что программа должна включать в себя следующие разделы: цели и задачи обучения; содержание, языковой и речевой материал, который может быть представлен по-разному в зависимости от подхода и принципов обучения; упражнения, задания и приемы обучения и учения, которые используются учителем и учащимися; требования к уровню владения видами речевой деятельности на разных этапах обучения; различные виды и формы контроля и оценки уровня обученности, включая самооценку и самоконтроль; используемые материалы.

Примером типовой программы по английскому языку может служит «Пороговый уровень», который в настоящее время используется в качестве ориентира и справочного материала при разработке программ.

Syllabus designРазработка учебной программы по какому-либо предмету для определенного

типа учебного заведения, которая осуществляется с учетом условий обучения и рассчитана на определенный контингент учащихся.

Имеются различные подходы к разработке программ.Разработка программ должна осуществляться специалистами в этой области (syllabus design),

В настоящее время имеется два подхода к разработке программ. Согласно первому подходу разработка программ трактуется в узком смысле и предполагает только отбор материала и его организацию в определенной последовательности. Составители не занимаются описанием методики работы с отобранным материалом. Второй подход предусматривает решение более широкого спектра задач, связанных

не только с отбором и организацией материала, но и с проблемами методики преподавания языка авторы-составители рассматривают методические приемы.

Threshold level1) Пороговый уровень — коммуникативно-достаточный уровень владения

языком, который необходим для общения на иностранном языке.2) Пороговый уровень — программа по английскому языку, разработанная в

рамках Совета Европы и рассчитанная на самый широкий круг учащихся во всем мире. «Пороговый уровень» не обеспечивает специальную и профессиональную подготовку по языку, однако материал «Порогового уровня» может быть использован для разработки специальных программ.

Программа «Пороговый уровень» состоит из трех частей: «General characterisation» (общая характеристика), «Extended characterisation» (детальная характеристика), «Specification» (спецификация). Названные разделы различаются по степени конкретизации содержащегося в них материала.

Первая часть содержит общие требования к уровню владения речевыми навыками и умениями в различных ситуациях общения. В разделе формулируются основные цели обучения.

Детальная характеристика представляет собой перечень навыков и умений, которыми должны овладеть учащиеся в процессе обучения. Описываются цели общего характера.

Спецификация содержит перечень конкретных коммуникативных явлений языка, которыми должен овладеть учащийся в процессе обучения. Перечень включает в себя следующие компоненты: коммуникативные функции английского языка (function) — сообщение — и запрос информации, выражение собственного отношения и выяснение мнения собеседника, построение собственного высказывания — как начать, закончить, продолжить разговор. общие понятия (general notions) — временные (temporal), пространственные (spatial), качественные (qualitative), количественные (quantitative) и другие; специфические понятия (specific notions) или темы — всего представлено 14 тем, среди них такие, «О себе», «Путешествия», «Еда» и другие; языковой материал (фонетический, лексический, грамматический).

Раздел «Specification» рассчитан на специалистов, занимающихся разработкой учебных программ, и преподавателей английского языка, которые составляют тематические планы и в той или иной степени руководят учебным процессом.

Таким образом, была разработана программа для начинающих, которая получила название Waystage - «Базовый уровень английского языка»

Программа «Пороговый уровень» может использоваться преподавателями — неносителями языка в качестве справочного материала, так как она содержит полный список речевых функций и понятий английского языка и приводит языковые образцы и явления, выражающие их.

SubjectУчебная дисциплина, предмет

Содержание предмета «Методика преподавания иностранных языков» наиболее точно передается английским термином Language Pedagogy или English Language Teaching (ELT).Syllabus Design, Second Language Acquisition, ELT Methods and Approaches.

Unit1)Раздел учебника, урок2)Единица обучения (teaching unit / learning unit) — минимальная единица языка, которая лежит в основе обучения.

Needs analysisАнализ специфических языковых потребностей обучаемых при изучении

иностранного языка предполагает определение мотивов, которые лежат в основе учебной деятельности учащихся и влияют (положительно или отрицательно) на процесс обучения. Термин needs analysis можно также соотнести с термином «диагностика потребностей и мотивов». Анализ проводится с целью определения исходного уровня владения языком, выявления тематики и объема языкового материала

Сбор информации может осуществляться с помощью субъективных и объективных источников: анкеты, тесты, интервью, беседы, наблюдения и т. д. Полученные данные влияют на выбор метода, приемов и средств обучения, на отбор языкового материала.

AimsЦели обучения и учения — заранее планируемый результат обучающей

деятельности учителя и учебной деятельности учащихся. Цели обучения и учения отражают социальный заказ общества и зависят от условий обучения (количество часов, их концентрация, наполняемость классов, уровень подготовки учащихся, наличие ТСО, учебников и т. д.) и языковых потребностей учащихся.

Цели обучения являются ведущим компонентом учебной программы па иностранному языку и обусловливают выбор метода

С точки зрения учителя, цель — заранее планируемый результат обучающей деятельности, достигаемый с помощью набора приемов и средств обучения.

Постановка целей (целеполагание)Цели обучения ориентированы на потребности определенной группы обучаемых

и не могут учитывать индивидуальные интересы каждого учащегося, что также приводит к несоответствию между целями обучения и потребностями учащихся. Примером такого несоответствия могут быть цели обучения языку в педагогическом вузе, рассчитанные на подготовку будущего учителя иностранного языка, которые зачастую не соответствуют индивидуальным потребностям студентов, желающих овладеть языком, но не ориентированных на работу в школе.Существуют три основных направления целеполагания в зарубежной методике: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.

В настоящее время практические цели обучения формулируются с ориентацией на коммуникацию.

В интенсивных методах основной целью обучения является «формирование умений общения на изучаемом языке», а иностранный язык, иноязычная речевая деятельность, рассматривается в качестве одного из возможных средств реализации общения»

Каждая из сформулированных на любом уровне целей может быть детализирована в виде задач обучения об основах практического владения языком

ObjectivesЗадачи обучения — детальное описание того, какими навыками и умениям

должны овладеть учащиеся, чтобы эффективно пользоваться иностранным языком как новым средством общения.

Задачи обучения, отражающие процессы реального общения на иностранном языке в условиях языкового окружения (real-world objectives), задачи обучения, которые представляют собой моделирование задач реального общения в педагогических целях и отражают искусственные условия овладения языком вне языковой среды (pedagogic objectives).

Graded objectivesЗадачи обучения, градуированные по степени трудности, отражают процесс

овладения тем или иным умением; описывают уровень владения языком на каждом этапе обучения, выделенном в программе, и, как правило, отражают требования, соответствующие тому или иному уровню. Градуированные задачи обучения используются в Великобритании при разработке программ по иностранным языкам и почти отсутствуют в практике преподавания английского для иностранцев.

Государственный образовательный стандарт по иностранным языкам для средних школ Великобритании формулирует задачи обучения по каждому виду речевой деятельности на восьми уровнях. Задачи градуированы по степени трудности.

Детальная разработка градуированных задач способствует лучшему планированию учебного процесса учителем, отражает уровень владения языком учащимися и обеспечивает возможность самоконтроля.

Process objectives vs. Product objectives.Задачи, отражающие процесс учения (process objectives) или продукт обучения,

результат обучающей деятельности учителя.(product objectives).Задачи первого типа подчеркивают процессуальный характер обучения,

отражают процесс овладения языком, показывают, какие стратегии используются учащимися для достижения результата, описывают их действия в классе при выполнении коммуникативных заданий.

Задачи второго типа отражают результативность процесса обучения, описывают, какой результат достигается в процессе их решения, какими умениями будут владеть учащиеся по завершении курса обучения или его этапа.

Приверженцы «процессуального» подхода к обучению выступают за постановку задач первого типа, считая, что они более точно отражают процессы учения и овладения языком, носят гуманистический и демократический характер.

Приверженцы подхода к обучению, ориентированному на «продукт», а также многие исследователи, занимающиеся разработкой учебных программ и планов, отдают предпочтение задачам второго типа. Задачи второго типа позволяют учителю целенаправленно отбирать содержание обучения и учебные материалы, планировать учебный процесс, организовывать деятельность учащихся, проверять результаты своей обучающей деятельности.

ContentСодержание обучения — «совокупность того, что учащиеся должны освоить,

чтобы качество и уровень их владения изучаемым языком соответствовали задачам данного учебного заведения».

Между терминами content и «содержание образования» нет полного соответствия, так как ни в зарубежной, ни в отечественной методике нет единого мнения по поводу того, какие компоненты следует включать в содержание образования.

Термин «содержание обучения включает в себя: системные знания об изучаемом языке, имеющие коммуникативное значение, специфические речевые правила высокого уровня обобщенности; а также фоновые знания; навыки (произносительные, лексические, грамматические и орфографические) оперирования отобранным минимумом языкового материала; речевые умения; учебные умения; языковой материал (фонетический, лексический, грамматический и орфографический); речевой материал: речевые образцы, формулы и клише, ситуации общения, темы, образцы текстов для аудирования, для различных видов чтения, а также диалоги-образцы; приемы обучения

Одной из актуальных проблем отбора содержания обучения является вопрос о том, как обеспечить такую методическую организацию материала, которая позволяла бы сочетать коммуникативный подход к обучению с систематизацией учебного материала.

Существуют две полярные точки зрения. Одни исследователи говорят о необходимости использования учебных материалов, составленных учителями — неносителями языка на основе ситуаций общения, характерных для страны, в которой проживают учащиеся. Другие строят обучение только на аутентичных материалах и Корпусе английского языка (Corpus of the English Language).

Orienting / SequencingПоследовательность в построении содержания курса, в организации языкового

и речевого материала (фонетического, лексического, грамматического, текстового и т. д.), которым должны овладеть учащиеся, а также последовательность овладения речевыми навыками и умениями на основе отобранного материала.

Как правило, такая последовательность отражает дидактический принцип «от простого к сложному».Некоторые методисты, в особенности сторонники сознательно-ориентированного подхода и обучения с использованием базы данных.

Сторонники коммуникативного метода обучения располагают языковой материал в той последовательности, которая отражает коммуникативные потребности обучаемых и обеспечивает реализацию этих потребностей средствами иностранного языка за минимальный период времени.

Общепринятой является точка зрения о взаимосвязанном обучении всем четырем видам речевой деятельности, однако признается следующий порядок в овладении ими: аудирование — говорение — чтение — письмо.

GradingГрадуирование (ранжирование) изучаемого языкового материала по

определенному признаку, например по степени трудности.В зарубежной методике выделяется свободное ранжирование (natural order) и

фиксированное (lock-step grading). Свободное ранжирование означает, что учащиеся овладевают языковыми явлениями по мере того, как эти явления встречаются в устной или письменной речи.

Approaches to syllabus designПодход к разработке программы — практическая реализация концепции и

принципов обучения в конкретной учебной программе.Выделяются аналитический и синтетический подходы к разработке программ и

программы аналитического и синтетического типа, функционально-содержательный подход к разработке программ и программы такого же типа.

Synthetic approachСинтетический подход к разработке программ и учебные программы

синтетического типа. Программы этого типа ориентированы на результат, продукт обучения и опираются на структуру языка и его системный анализ. Обучение на основе таких программ носит дедуктивный характер и предполагает отбор текстов и языкового материала, их анализ, деление на речевые образцы, структуры или другие единицы, которые градуируются по трудности, а затем вводятся и тренируются в рамках правила, часто вне связи с другими языковыми явлениями.

Большинство действующих учебных программ можно отнести к этому типу, так как они содержат перечень языковых структур, градуированных по трудности, и списки слов, подлежащих усвоению. Эту группу составляют программы структурного и функционально-содержательного типа.

Analytical approach'Аналитический подход к разработке программ и учебные программы

аналитического типа. Программы этого типа ориентированы на процесс, а не на результат обучения. Характерной чертой данного подхода является использование методически необработанного языкового и текстового материала, то есть материала, который не был организован и градуирован специальным образом.

Программы аналитического типа ориентированы на коммуникативные интенции, для выражения которых используется разнообразный лингвистический материал. Обучение по таким программам носит индуктивный характер(Inductive approach). В качестве учебного материала могут служить темы, ситуации, коммуникативные задания или выделенные на основе анализа дискурса речевые интенции.

В процессе обучения по этим программам языковой материал в виде единых блоков (chunks).Для программ аналитического типа характерно использование коммуникативных единиц речи, таких, как просьба, приказание, извинение, запрос информации, и других.

На более поздних этапах обучения, если в этом есть необходимость, лексический и грамматический материал, который используется в различных коммуникативных функциях (function) и выражает конкретные коммуникативные понятия (notions).

К этой группе можно отнести программы содержательного типа и программы, построенные на коммуникативных заданиях.

Functional approach / Notional-functional approachФункциональный (функционально-содержательный) подход к разработке программ и

учебные программы функционально-содержательного типа. Этот подход реализуется в коммуникативном методе преподавания иностранных языков и предполагает не системную, а функциональную, соответствующую речевым функциям, организацию изучаемого материала. Особое внимание обращается на значение языкового явления, а не на его форму.

Исходя из положения Хомского о том, что одинаковые языковые структуры могут иметь разные значения, а разные структуры могут выражать одно и то же значение, исследователи пришли к выводу, что в зависимости от цели высказывания в процессе

речепорождения речевая интенция (intention) может быть реализована в виде конкретной функции (function) или понятия (notion).

Функционально-содержательный подход к разработке программ оказал существенное влияние на преподавание иностранных языков. Его использование заставило учителей переориентироваться на содержательную сторону обучения, обратить внимание на достижение практических целей овладения языком и привело в дальнейшем к идее обучения коммуникации и общению. Однако следует отметить, что зарубежные исследователи функционально-содержательного подхода занимались в основном проблемами разработки учебных программ, отбором и организацией содержания обучения на функциональной основе.

Type of syllabusТип учебной программы. В зарубежной методике принято рассматривать различные

типы программ в зависимости от того, какой метод обучения используется. Известно, что метод и подход существенно влияют на цели и задачи обучения, отбор языкового материала и формируемые умения. Разработка различных типов программ обычно осуществляется в рамках методов обучения, ориентированных на продукт, результат обучающей деятельности. Такие программы принято называть product-oriented syllabus.

Функционально-содержательный и коммуникативный подходы к обучению предполагают, что в программе должны быть отражены темы и понятия, а также коммуникативные функции, которые выражаются с помощью конкретных языковых структур.

Программы, разрабатываемые в рамках этих методов, ориентированы на процесс учения (process-oriented syllabus). Приверженцы метода «общины» отвергают необходимость учебных программ, так как в соответствии с этим методом учащиеся сами выбирают темы и ситуации общения, а языковой материал, необходимый для реализации общения, появляется в процессе обучения стихийно, без предварительного отбора и планирования.

Зарубежные специалисты по разработке учебных программ отмечают, что наличие различных типов программ не означает, что тот или иной тип должен быть строго обязательным, закрепленным за конкретным методом обучения. Одни программы конкретизируют темы, функции и понятия, подлежащие усвоению; другие не предполагают отбор языкового материала, а содержат полный перечень выполняемых за период обучения коммуникативных заданий, которые расположены в определенной последовательности и ранжированы по трудности.

Следует отметить, что различные типы программ не исключают, а дополняют друг друга. На практике любая действующая программа представляет собой комбинацию из нескольких типов программ (mixed syllabus, multi-strand syllabus). «Разнообразные типы программ — это различные способы описания учебного процесса. Любой вид коммуникации имеет три уровня: структурный, функциональный уровни и уровень дискурса. Эти уровни не исключают, а дополняют друг друга, и каждый из них должен быть отражен в программе при ее разработке».Представляется целесообразной следующая классификация типов программ: по степени обязательности разработки: a priori syllabus, a posteriori syllabus, negotiated syllabus. по ориентации на цели обучения: learning-centered syllabus, skill-centered syllabus. в зависимости от используемой единицы обучения: structural / grammatical / language-centered syllabus, content-based (topic-based / theme-based, situational syllabus), functional-notional syllabus, lexical syllabus, task-based / procedural syllabus.

A priori syllabus vs. A posteriori syllabusПрограмма а priori предполагает предварительный отбор и организацию

материала, разработку курса до начала учебного процесса. Она служит основой для дальнейшего планирования учителем хода урока и заданий для учащихся. Этот тип программы обычно противопоставляется программе а posteriori, которая не планируется заранее, а составляется в процессе ретроспективного анализа. По окончании курса обучения в ней фиксируется использованный языковой материал и выполненное задание. Поэтому программу а posteriori иногда называют ретроспективной (retrospective syllabus).

Negotiated syllabus«Программа-договор» обсуждается, а затем разрабатывается преподавателем

совместно со студентами в процессе обучения на основе анализа и учета специфических коммуникативных потребностей обучаемых.

Ключевым отличием программы этого типа от традиционных программ является то, что она разрабатывается учащимися и учителями совместно, учащиеся активно вовлекаются в решение вопросов, связанных с содержанием обучения и используемой методикой.Learning-centred syllabus

Программа, ориентированная на процесс учения, овладения языком. В отличие от личностно-ориентированного подхода к обучению применительно к разработке программ предлагается использовать термин learning-centred. Это позволяет сместить акценты с учащегося, его интересов и желаний, которые не всегда обоснованы, на учебный процесс, на то, как формируется коммуникативная компетенция обучаемых.

Программы, ориентированные на процесс учения, способствуют более эффективному формированию коммуникативной компетенции учащихся.

Skill-centred syllabusПрограмма, ориентированная на навыки и умения, которыми должны овладеть

учащиеся за период обучения. Программа такого типа может быть рассчитана на формирование речевых навыков и умений в одном, нескольких или во всех четырех видах речевой деятельности взаимосвязанно.

Программа может предусматривать формирование как речевых, так и специальных умений. Примером специальных умений являются умения учиться, которые могут носить вспомогательный характер и способствовать более эффективному формированию речевых умений или являться целью обучения в рамках курса «Английский для академических целей» (English for Academic Purposes - EAP), который готовит студентов для обучения в Великобритании.

В рамках курсов по подготовке преподавателей английского языка (Teacher Training Course) кроме коммуникативных умений должны формироваться профессиональные методические умения учителя (teaching skills). •

Исследователи отмечают, что программы такого типа ориентированы на продукт. Как недостаток следует отметить их жесткость, которая не позволяет учитывать меняющиеся в ходе обучения приоритеты, а также пожелания и интересы учащихся.

Content-based syllabusПрограмма содержательного типа разрабатывается на основе содержательного

подхода к обучению. Организация программы такого типа основана не на структурных или функциональных единицах языка, а на более крупных единицах речи, которые несут смысловую нагрузку на уровне целого текста.

В рамках программ содержательного типа можно выделить следующие: Situational syllabus - программы, построенные на ситуациях ситуативные программы;

Topic-based syllabus / theme-based syllabus — программы, построенныена темах, тематические программы.Программы первого типа основаны на ситуативном подходе к обучению. В

отличие от других программ, которые опираются на ситуации только для тренировки языковых явлений, программы данного типа предполагают использование ситуаций в качестве единицы обучения, что означает их отбор, организацию и дальнейшее применение с целью формирования речевых умений учащихся.Functional syllabus / Notional-functional syllabus (NFS)

Программа функционального (функционально-содержательного) типа разрабатывается на основе функционального подхода. Основной характеристикой этих программ является использование в качестве единицы обучения речевых функций (functions) и понятий (notions), с помощью которых осуществляется коммуникация и реализуются речевые интенции обучаемых.

В отличие от программ структурного типа, программы, построенные на основе функционального принципа, включают в себя перечень коммуникативных функций (просьба, предложение, несогласие и т. д.), отражающих коммуникативные намерения говорящего, а также языковые структуры, посредством которых данные функции могут быть реализованы в процессе общения. Так, например, для выражения просьбы могут быть использованы следующие структуры: Could you…..? Will you……? и другие.

В качестве примера программы, разработанной на основе функционально-содержательного подхода, можно привести программу «Пороговый уровень».

Lexical syllabusПрограмма лексического типа разрабатывается в соответствии с лексическим

подходом, в противовес программам, основу которых составляет грамматика. Авторы лексического подхода к разработке программ руководствовались положением о том, что все понятия выражаются не столько грамматическими структурами и явлениями, сколько лексическими средствами, которые представляются более важными при оформлении высказывания.

Structural syllabus / Grammatical syllabus / Language-centred syllabusПрограмма структурного (грамматического) типа разрабатывается в соответствии

со структурным подходом, опирается на системное описание языка и включает в себя в качестве языкового материала такие категории, как видо-временные формы глагола, артикль и другие. Такая программа может также строиться на грамматических структурах (structures), которые представляют собой изолированные предложения, типичные для использования конкретного языкового явления (sentence patterns).

Обучение по программе структурного типа ведется в основном с опорой на правила и с использованием языковых упражнений.

Task-based syllabus / Procedural syllabusПрограмма, построенная на коммуникативных заданиях, является программой

аналитического типа и ориентирована на процесс учения. Единицей обучения является коммуникативное задание, выполняя которое, учащийся овладевает коммуникативной компетенцией в различных видах речевой деятельности.

В отличие от программ, ориентированных на продукт, характерной чертой такой программы является отсутствие какого бы то ни было целенаправленного отбора и организации языкового материала и приемов обучения. В программе предлагается перечень коммуникативных заданий, например: начертить схему или таблицу, основываясь на прочитанном или прослушанном материале; выполнить команды товарища по группе; отреагировать с помощью жестов и мимики на прослушанный или прочитанный текст; используя любые доступные средства общения, речевые и неречевые,

выяснить необходимую информацию. Задания располагаются в определенной последовательности, которая отражает порядок их усвоения. Зачастую эта последовательность основывается на принципе «от простого к сложному».

Forms of syllabus organisation — Организационные формы учебных программ

Linear syllabusПрограмма линейного типа предполагает такую последовательность в подаче и

тренировке языкового материала, когда в каждом новом разделе курса вводится и тренируется новый языковой материал, который в дальнейшем практически не повторяется.

Modular syllabusПрограмма модульного типа, согласно которой курс должен состоять, из

нескольких модулей. Каждый модуль является независимым в рамках курса, а их комплекс представляет собой единое целое и направлен на достижение целей и задач обучения. Важным условием разработки программ, построенных по модульному принципу, является учет роли каждого модуля в достижении конечных целей всего курса.

В качестве примера можно привести образцы построения модульных курсов в разных типах учебных заведений. В условиях неязыкового вуза курс английского языка может включать в себя следующие модули: общий курс английского языка (General English), английский для специальных целей (English for Specific Purposes — ESP), деловой английский (Business English), английский для физиков, математиков и т. д., проектная работа (project work) и другие. В условиях школ с углубленным изучением иностранного языка программа курса может включать в себя модули по истории, культуре и литературе стран изучаемого языка (например, British and America Studies).

Spiral syllabus / Cyclical syllabusПрограмма цикличного типа предполагает использование отобранного языкового

материала, сгруппированного в виде циклов. Такая организация программы и процесса обучения по ней обеспечивает повторяемость языкового материала от цикла к циклу и способствует более тщательной его тренировке.

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Оригинал – макет и компьютерная верстка: А.П. Афанасьева, Т.Н Вахрушева, Е.Н.Федоров