Central America 1900-2001 - Dr. Juan R. Céspedes' Contemporary History Class

8/7/2019 Central America 1900-2001 - Dr. Juan R. Cspedes' Contemporary History Class

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Dr. J. CspedesDr. J. CspedesContemporary History of theContemporary History of the

AmericasAmericas

Central America: 1900Central America: 1900 20012001An OverviewAn Overview

Presented in collaboration with TiffanyPresented in collaboration with Tiffany TroubadyTroubady,,

John DiGiacomo, andJohn DiGiacomo, and GaelanGaelan JonesJonesClass of 2009Class of 2009


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BelizeBelize

Main Exports: Chicle, MahoganyMain Exports: Chicle, Mahogany

Colonized by: BritishColonized by: British

Independence Gained: 1981Independence Gained: 1981


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BelizeBelize -- EconomicEconomic

In 1927, Creole merchants and professionals replaced theIn 1927, Creole merchants and professionals replaced therepresentatives of British landowners on the Legislativerepresentatives of British landowners on the LegislativeCouncil in the Belize Government.Council in the Belize Government. The participation of the Creole elite in the political process wasThe participation of the Creole elite in the political process was

evidence of emerging social changes that were largelyevidence of emerging social changes that were largelyconcealed by economic stagnationconcealed by economic stagnation

The Great Depression shattered the colony's economy, andThe Great Depression shattered the colony's economy, andunemployment increased rapidlyunemployment increased rapidly

The worst hurricane in the country's recent historyThe worst hurricane in the country's recent historydemolished Belize Town in 1931, killing more than 1,000demolished Belize Town in 1931, killing more than 1,000people and worsening the already depressed economypeople and worsening the already depressed economy The British government seized the opportunity to imposeThe British government seized the opportunity to impose

tighter control on the colony and endowed the governor withtighter control on the colony and endowed the governor withthe power to enact laws in emergency situationsthe power to enact laws in emergency situations

The Belize Estate and Produce Company was one of theThe Belize Estate and Produce Company was one of theonly companies that survived the depression because it wasonly companies that survived the depression because it wasprimarily a European companyprimarily a European company


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BelizeBelize -- SocioeconomicSocioeconomic

The Masters and Servants Act of 1883, made it a criminal offenseThe Masters and Servants Act of 1883, made it a criminal offensefor a laborer to breach a contract.for a laborer to breach a contract.

In 1931 the governor, Sir John Burdon, rejected proposals toIn 1931 the governor, Sir John Burdon, rejected proposals tolegalize trade unions and to introduce a minimum wage andlegalize trade unions and to introduce a minimum wage andsickness insurancesickness insurance

In 1934 there was a series of demonstrations, strikes, petitions,In 1934 there was a series of demonstrations, strikes, petitions,and riots that marked the beginning of modern politics and theand riots that marked the beginning of modern politics and theindependence movementindependence movement

Antonio Soberanis Gmez and his colleagues of the Labourers andAntonio Soberanis Gmez and his colleagues of the Labourers andUnemployed Association (LUA) attacked the governor and hisUnemployed Association (LUA) attacked the governor and hisofficials, the rich merchants, and the Belize Estate and Produceofficials, the rich merchants, and the Belize Estate and ProduceCompany demanding social reformCompany demanding social reform

18841884 Colonial ties to Jamaica severed; separate colony statusColonial ties to Jamaica severed; separate colony status

announced. Guatemala threatens to repudiate treaty of 1859.announced. Guatemala threatens to repudiate treaty of 1859. 18941894 Mahogany workers organizeMahogany workers organize


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19311931 Hurricane hits; Britain suppliesHurricane hits; Britain suppliesaid for reconstruction and regainsaid for reconstruction and regains

reserve powers under newreserve powers under newconstitutionconstitution


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BelizeBelize -- PoliticalPolitical

19191919 Belizean soldiers returning from World War I protestBelizean soldiers returning from World War I protestdiscrimination in Exdiscrimination in Ex--Servicemen's Riot.Servicemen's Riot.

19221922 Establishment of Civil Service AssociationEstablishment of Civil Service Association 19361936 Constitution promulgated with elective principle. Property,Constitution promulgated with elective principle. Property,

income, and literacy qualifications restrict eligible voters.income, and literacy qualifications restrict eligible voters. 19371937 F

ormation of Laborers and Unemployed Association (LUA),Formation of Laborers and Unemployed Association (LUA),which stages boycotts and demonstrations.which stages boycotts and demonstrations.

19391939 Formation of British Honduras Workers and TradesmenFormation of British Honduras Workers and TradesmenUnion, which later becomes General Workers Union (1943).Union, which later becomes General Workers Union (1943).19411941 Mass meetings held; demands made for adult suffrage andMass meetings held; demands made for adult suffrage andright to elect government. Labor unions legalized by colonialright to elect government. Labor unions legalized by colonialgovernor.governor.

19451945 Belize is defined as the 23rd department in Guatemala'sBelize is defined as the 23rd department in Guatemala's

new constitution.new constitution. In new constitution, majority of Executive Council is elected.In new constitution, majority of Executive Council is elected.


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19521952 General Workers Union (GWU) mounts 49General Workers Union (GWU) mounts 49--day strike.day strike.

19541954 New constitution promulgated whichNew constitution promulgated whichprovides for universal adult suffrage, and electedprovides for universal adult suffrage, and electedmajority in Legislative Council. PUP begins 30majority in Legislative Council. PUP begins 30--year winning streak in all general and most localyear winning streak in all general and most localelections.elections.19551955 SemiSemi --ministerial government introducedministerial government introducedbut governor keeps reserve powers.but governor keeps reserve powers.

19581958 Formation ofNational Independence PartyFormation ofNational Independence Party(NIP) as first political opposition to PUP. (This(NIP) as first political opposition to PUP. (Thissignifies Belize becoming a democracy)signifies Belize becoming a democracy)


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19611961 Belize obtains associateBelize obtains associate--member status inmember status inUnited Nations Economic Commission for LatinUnited Nations Economic Commission for LatinAmerica. Belize turns down offer to becomeAmerica. Belize turns down offer to becomeassociate state of Guatemala.associate state of Guatemala.

19631963 Guatemala breaks off negotiations withGuatemala breaks off negotiations withBritain, threatens war.Britain, threatens war.19651965 U.S. lawyer appointed by PresidentU.S. lawyer appointed by PresidentJohnson mediates dispute with Guatemala. HisJohnson mediates dispute with Guatemala. Hisproposal favors Guatemala and is rejected by allproposal favors Guatemala and is rejected by allparties in Belize.parties in Belize.

19721972 Guatemala breaks off negotiations withGuatemala breaks off negotiations withBritain, threatens war by mobilizing troops atBritain, threatens war by mobilizing troops atborder. Britain sends fleet and several thousandborder. Britain sends fleet and several thousandtroops to Belize.troops to Belize.


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Hurricane Hattie, 1961, levels BelizeHurricane Hattie, 1961, levels BelizeCity. (Again)City. (Again)


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19631963 Guatemala breaks off negotiations with Britain, threatens war.Guatemala breaks off negotiations with Britain, threatens war. 19651965 U.S. lawyer appointed by President Johnson mediates dispute withU.S. lawyer appointed by President Johnson mediates dispute with

Guatemala. His proposal favors Guatemala and is rejected by all parties inGuatemala. His proposal favors Guatemala and is rejected by all parties inBelize.Belize.

19721972 Guatemala breaks off negotiations with Britain, threatens war byGuatemala breaks off negotiations with Britain, threatens war bymobilizing troops at border. Britain sends fleet and several thousandmobilizing troops at border. Britain sends fleet and several thousandtroops to Belize.troops to Belize.

19731973 Name changes to Belize; Belmopan becomes capital. Formation ofName changes to Belize; Belmopan becomes capital. Formation ofthe United Democratic Party (UDP).the United Democratic Party (UDP).

19751975 Tension with Guatemala prompts Britain to send squadron ofHarrierTension with Guatemala prompts Britain to send squadron ofHarrierjets to Belize. Britain allows Belize government to act in internationaljets to Belize. Britain allows Belize government to act in internationalmatters. First of series of votes by United Nations on Belize's right to selfmatters. First of series of votes by United Nations on Belize's right to self--determination, United States abstains.determination, United States abstains.

19761976 Panama's President Torrijos supports Belize's independence bid.Panama's President Torrijos supports Belize's independence bid.

19771977 Latin American countries begin to shift from siding with GuatemalaLatin American countries begin to shift from siding with Guatemalato solidarity with Belize.to solidarity with Belize.


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19781978 Hurricane Greta causes majorHurricane Greta causes majordamage, leveling banana plantationsdamage, leveling banana plantations(and Belize city of course) but no(and Belize city of course) but nodeaths. Formation of Belize Defensedeaths. Formation of Belize DefenseForce.Force.


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19791979 Refugees from El Salvador and GuatemalaRefugees from El Salvador and Guatemalabegin flowing into Belize.begin flowing into Belize.

19801980 UN passes resolution demanding secureUN passes resolution demanding secureindependence of Belize before next session inindependence of Belize before next session in

1981. No country votes against measure;1981. No country votes against measure;Guatemala refuses to vote.Guatemala refuses to vote. 19811981 New constitution promulgated.New constitution promulgated.

Apr.Apr. Negotiations with Guatemala (Heads of Agreement)Negotiations with Guatemala (Heads of Agreement)provoke riots and state of emergency in Belize.provoke riots and state of emergency in Belize.

SepSep. Belize becomes fully independent member of. Belize becomes fully independent member of

Commonwealth ofNations.Commonwealth ofNations. 19841984 The UDP wins in landslide victory inThe UDP wins in landslide victory in

parliamentary elections, Manuel Esquivelparliamentary elections, Manuel Esquivelbecomes prime minister.becomes prime minister.


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19911991 Disatisfaction from the public with party politics andDisatisfaction from the public with party politics andfailed parliamentary rule. First Civics and Government bookfailed parliamentary rule. First Civics and Government booksent to High Schools through Belize, pointing out, Belizesent to High Schools through Belize, pointing out, Belizewas NOT A DEMOCRACY! Seven more Civics andwas NOT A DEMOCRACY! Seven more Civics andGovernment books published and mailed to High SchoolsGovernment books published and mailed to High Schoolsand civic leaders and politicians, outlining problems withand civic leaders and politicians, outlining problems withthe governing political setup of the Belize Constitution overthe governing political setup of the Belize Constitution overthe next five years.the next five years.

19921992 The main newspapers, the Amandala and TheThe main newspapers, the Amandala and TheReporter take up articles on revision of the BelizeReporter take up articles on revision of the BelizeConstitution, seeking deConstitution, seeking de--centralization and democracy.centralization and democracy.

19931993 Esquivel returns as Prime Minister. Negotiations withEsquivel returns as Prime Minister. Negotiations with

Guatemala collapse due to Serrano's problems.Guatemala collapse due to Serrano's problems.


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NicaraguaNicaragua

Main Exports: Bananas, Sugar,Main Exports: Bananas, Sugar,Coffee, Beef, TobaccoCoffee, Beef, Tobacco

Colonized by: SpainColonized by: Spain Independence Gained: 1850Independence Gained: 1850


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1893: The Liberal Party seizes power and names Jos Santos Zelaya1893: The Liberal Party seizes power and names Jos Santos Zelayapresident ofNicaragua.president ofNicaragua.

1907: U.S. war ships take possession of the Fonseca Gulf.1907: U.S. war ships take possession of the Fonseca Gulf.1909: Two U.S. mercenaries are shot with authorization from the1909: Two U.S. mercenaries are shot with authorization from theNicaraguan Nationalist government. U.S. officials respond with the KnoxNicaraguan Nationalist government. U.S. officials respond with the KnoxNote, which legitimizes North American intervention in Nicaraguan affairs.Note, which legitimizes North American intervention in Nicaraguan affairs.

1910: U.S. troops impose a puppet government in Nicaragua. Liberal1910: U.S. troops impose a puppet government in Nicaragua. LiberalPresident, Jos Santos Zelaya is forced out of office and Adolfo Daz isPresident, Jos Santos Zelaya is forced out of office and Adolfo Daz ismade provisional president.made provisional president.

1912: Daz requests U.S. military assistance to control civil unrest.1912: Daz requests U.S. military assistance to control civil unrest.Nicaraguans resist U.S. occupation and the national hero, BenjaminNicaraguans resist U.S. occupation and the national hero, BenjaminZeledn dies.Zeledn dies.

1914: Nicaraguan president, Emiliano Chamorro signs the Bryan1914: Nicaraguan president, Emiliano Chamorro signs the Bryan--Chamorro Treaty with the U.S. administration. In exchange for $3 million,Chamorro Treaty with the U.S. administration. In exchange for $3 million,the U.S. acquires the right to build a canal across Nicaraguan territory,the U.S. acquires the right to build a canal across Nicaraguan territory,lease the Great and Little Corn Islands, and establish a naval base in thelease the Great and Little Corn Islands, and establish a naval base in theGulf ofFonseca. The BryanGulf ofFonseca. The Bryan--Chamorro Treaty provokes antiChamorro Treaty provokes anti--NorthNorthAmerican sentiment and guerrilla warfare in Nicaragua, and elicits protestAmerican sentiment and guerrilla warfare in Nicaragua, and elicits protestfrom other Central American countries.from other Central American countries.

1925: When U.S. forces withdraw from Nicaragua, rebellions ensue; and1925: When U.S. forces withdraw from Nicaragua, rebellions ensue; andthe marines return to quell the disturbances.the marines return to quell the disturbances.


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1927: Liberal candidate, Gen. Jos Moncada wins the presidential elections, which1927: Liberal candidate, Gen. Jos Moncada wins the presidential elections, whichare monitored by U.S. officials. Moncada, who had fought against U.S. intervention,are monitored by U.S. officials. Moncada, who had fought against U.S. intervention,enters into negotiations with Henry L. Stimson, personal envoy of President Coolidge.enters into negotiations with Henry L. Stimson, personal envoy of President Coolidge.

1927: Augusto Csar Sandino, Commander of the Army to Defend the National1927: Augusto Csar Sandino, Commander of the Army to Defend the NationalSovereignty, rejects Moncada's pact with Stimson. Sandino launches a guerrilla warSovereignty, rejects Moncada's pact with Stimson. Sandino launches a guerrilla waragainst U.S. forces in Nicaragua.against U.S. forces in Nicaragua.

19271927--1934: After five hundred battles fought against U.S. marines and sympathizers,1934: After five hundred battles fought against U.S. marines and sympathizers,Sandino successfully expels U.S. armed forces from Nicaragua.Sandino successfully expels U.S. armed forces from Nicaragua.

1934: The U.S. withdraws, leaving Nicaraguan military officer, Anastasio Somoza as1934: The U.S. withdraws, leaving Nicaraguan military officer, Anastasio Somoza asCommander of the National Guard.Commander of the National Guard.

1934: Under the tutelage of Arthur Bliss Lane, U.S. ambassador to Nicaragua,1934: Under the tutelage of Arthur Bliss Lane, U.S. ambassador to Nicaragua,Somoza masterminds the assassination of Augusto Csar Sandino.Somoza masterminds the assassination of Augusto Csar Sandino.

1936: Anastasio Somoza founds a brutal dictatorship, fueled by U.S. funds, which is1936: Anastasio Somoza founds a brutal dictatorship, fueled by U.S. funds, which ispassed from father to son to brother for over 43 years.passed from father to son to brother for over 43 years.

1941: Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Nicaragua enters World War II 1945:1941: Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Nicaragua enters World War II 1945: In June, Nicaragua is recognized as a charter member of the United Nations.In June, Nicaragua is recognized as a charter member of the United Nations.

1948: Nicaragua joins the Organization of American States. Somoza dispatches an1948: Nicaragua joins the Organization of American States. Somoza dispatches aninterventionist military force to Costa Rica.interventionist military force to Costa Rica.


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1954: Somoza sends mercenary forces to Guatemala to help U.S. forces1954: Somoza sends mercenary forces to Guatemala to help U.S. forcesoust socialist president, Jacobo Arbenz.oust socialist president, Jacobo Arbenz.

1955: Somoza pulls Nicaraguan troops from the Dominican Republic, who1955: Somoza pulls Nicaraguan troops from the Dominican Republic, whohave intervened with U.S. military operations.have intervened with U.S. military operations.

1956: Anastasio Somoza is assassinated and succeeded by his son, Luis1956: Anastasio Somoza is assassinated and succeeded by his son, LuisSomoza Debayle.Somoza Debayle.For four years after his son's regime, close associates of the SomozaFor four years after his son's regime, close associates of the Somozafamily maintain political control ofNicaragua.family maintain political control ofNicaragua.

1960: The U.S. dispatches its Caribbean Float to Nicaragua and Guatemala1960: The U.S. dispatches its Caribbean Float to Nicaragua and Guatemalato protect administrations from popular sector uprisingsto protect administrations from popular sector uprisings

1961: US mercenaries depart from Nicaragua's Puerto Cabezas and invade1961: US mercenaries depart from Nicaragua's Puerto Cabezas and invadePlaya Girn, Cuba. They suffer a historical defeat known as the "Bay ofPlaya Girn, Cuba. They suffer a historical defeat known as the "Bay ofPigs."Pigs."

1966: Somoza Debayle makes Ren Schick president . During a visit to1966: Somoza Debayle makes Ren Schick president . During a visit to

the U.S., Schick volunteersN

icaragua to serve as an U.S. military base forthe U.S., Schick volunteersN

icaragua to serve as an U.S. military base forinvading Cuba.invading Cuba. 1967: Somoza Debayle establishes a military autocracy, silencing his1967: Somoza Debayle establishes a military autocracy, silencing his

opposition through the National Guard.opposition through the National Guard.


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1968: Nicaraguan functionaries, sent by Somoza Debayle, help overthrow1968: Nicaraguan functionaries, sent by Somoza Debayle, help overthrowPanamanian president, Arnulfo Arias.Panamanian president, Arnulfo Arias.

1971: Somoza Debayle steps down from government, but retains the1971: Somoza Debayle steps down from government, but retains thepost, Chief of the Armed Forces. A governing coalition is formed, which ispost, Chief of the Armed Forces. A governing coalition is formed, which iscomprised of a Conservative and two Liberal executives.comprised of a Conservative and two Liberal executives.

1972: A devastating earthquake strikes Managua, leaving 6,000 dead and1972: A devastating earthquake strikes Managua, leaving 6,000 dead and20,000 injured. Somoza Debayle embezzles money from international20,000 injured. Somoza Debayle embezzles money from internationalrelief funds. Martial law is declared; and Somoza Debayle is made Chiefrelief funds. Martial law is declared; and Somoza Debayle is made ChiefExecutive of the Nicaraguan government. U.S. marines are sent toExecutive of the Nicaraguan government. U.S. marines are sent toNicaragua to insure Somoza's regime is instituted.Nicaragua to insure Somoza's regime is instituted.

1974: Somoza is decreed president ofNicaragua.1974: Somoza is decreed president ofNicaragua. 1978: By the end of the decade, Nicaragua experiences an economic1978: By the end of the decade, Nicaragua experiences an economic

slowdown and circumstances are ripe for a revolution. Joaqun Chamorro,slowdown and circumstances are ripe for a revolution. Joaqun Chamorro,editor of the antieditor of the anti--Somoza newspaper, La Prensa, is assassinated. TheSomoza newspaper, La Prensa, is assassinated. Thepublic holds Somoza responsible. Led by the Sandinista National Liberationpublic holds Somoza responsible. Led by the Sandinista National LiberationFront (FSLN), antiFront (FSLN), anti--Somoza guerrilla forces launch a violent uprisingSomoza guerrilla forces launch a violent uprisingagainst the military. Nicaragua is plunged into a near civil war.against the military. Nicaragua is plunged into a near civil war.

1979: Somoza resigns on July 17th, and flees to Miami, exiling to1979: Somoza resigns on July 17th, and flees to Miami, exiling toParaguay. On July 20th, Sandinista forces enter Managua, and hundredsParaguay. On July 20th, Sandinista forces enter Managua, and hundredsof thousands ofNicaraguans celebrate their triumph.of thousands ofNicaraguans celebrate their triumph.


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1980: Somoza is assassinated in Paraguay. The Sandinista government1980: Somoza is assassinated in Paraguay. The Sandinista governmentimplements social programs, which receive international recognition forimplements social programs, which receive international recognition fortheir gains in literacy, health care, education, childcare, unions, and landtheir gains in literacy, health care, education, childcare, unions, and landreform. For the first time in history, Nicaraguans are called to decide theirreform. For the first time in history, Nicaraguans are called to decide theirown future. Just as they struggle for increased selfown future. Just as they struggle for increased self--sufficiency, thesufficiency, theReaganReagan--Bush administration begins funding the Contra War. The goal is toBush administration begins funding the Contra War. The goal is toundermine the Sandinista regime. This tenundermine the Sandinista regime. This ten--year war is fought at the costyear war is fought at the cost

of 60, 000 lives, 178 billion dollars, and the Nicaraguan infrastructure andof 60, 000 lives, 178 billion dollars, and the Nicaraguan infrastructure andeconomy.economy. 1980: Political control is shifted to a five1980: Political control is shifted to a five--member junta, which rulesmember junta, which rules

Nicaragua from 1980 to 1985. Among the junta members is VioletaNicaragua from 1980 to 1985. Among the junta members is VioletaChamorro, the widow of the late journalist, Joaqun Chamorro.Chamorro, the widow of the late journalist, Joaqun Chamorro.

1985: FSLN's presidential candidate, Daniel Ortega takes office and1985: FSLN's presidential candidate, Daniel Ortega takes office anddeclares a state of national emergency, suspending civil rights. The Irandeclares a state of national emergency, suspending civil rights. The Iran--Contra Affair begins. This U.S.Contra Affair begins. This U.S.--orchestrated operation secretly channelsorchestrated operation secretly channels

funds to the Contras soldiers, which is in direct violation with the Bolandfunds to the Contras soldiers, which is in direct violation with the BolandAmendment.Amendment. 1988: Nicaragua is a disaster zone, ravaged by civil war and the onslaught1988: Nicaragua is a disaster zone, ravaged by civil war and the onslaught

ofHurricane Hugo. President Ortega agrees to the first round of peaceofHurricane Hugo. President Ortega agrees to the first round of peacetalks with Contra leaders. A temporary truce is reached in March.talks with Contra leaders. A temporary truce is reached in March.


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1990: The moderate UNO Coalition candidate, Violeta1990: The moderate UNO Coalition candidate, VioletaChamorro is elected president ofNicaragua. ChamorroChamorro is elected president ofNicaragua. Chamorroimproves diplomatic relations with the U.S. At this time, theimproves diplomatic relations with the U.S. At this time, theFSLN party still holds the majority of popular support inFSLN party still holds the majority of popular support inNicaragua.Nicaragua.

1991: The UNO

coalition governsN

icaragua. They severely1991: The UNO

coalition governsN

icaragua. They severelycut government spending on successful, Sandinistacut government spending on successful, Sandinista--ledledsocial programs in such areas as health care and education.social programs in such areas as health care and education.On July 1st, right wing sectors attack Sandinista landOn July 1st, right wing sectors attack Sandinista landreforms, which have redistributed land to smallreforms, which have redistributed land to small--scalescalefarmers. The impact is felt across the nation.farmers. The impact is felt across the nation.

1997: Arnoldo Alemn Lacayo, the Liberal Party's1997: Arnoldo Alemn Lacayo, the Liberal Party's

conservative candidate, wins the presidential electionsconservative candidate, wins the presidential elections-- 4949to 39 percent over FSLN opponent, Daniel Ortega.to 39 percent over FSLN opponent, Daniel Ortega.


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PanamaPanama

Main Exports: CoffeeMain Exports: Coffee

Colonized by: Spain and ColombiaColonized by: Spain and Colombia



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1880s1880s -- France attempts to build a canal linking the Atlantic and PacificFrance attempts to build a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacificoceans, but fails due to financial difficulties and the death of more thanoceans, but fails due to financial difficulties and the death of more than20,000 workers from tropical diseases.20,000 workers from tropical diseases.

Panama splits from Colombia and becomes fully independent. US buysPanama splits from Colombia and becomes fully independent. US buysrights to build Panama Canal and is given control of the Canal Zone inrights to build Panama Canal and is given control of the Canal Zone inperpetuity. Panama Canal completed is completed in 1914perpetuity. Panama Canal completed is completed in 1914

19391939 -- Panama ceases to be a US protectorate.Panama ceases to be a US protectorate. 19681968--8181 -- General Omar Torrijos Herrera, the National Guard chief,General Omar Torrijos Herrera, the National Guard chief,

overthrows the elected president and imposes a dictatorship.overthrows the elected president and imposes a dictatorship. 19771977 -- US agrees to transfer the canal to Panama as from 31 DecemberUS agrees to transfer the canal to Panama as from 31 December

1999.1999. 19811981 -- Torrijos dies in plane crash.Torrijos dies in plane crash. 19831983 -- Former intelligence chief and oneFormer intelligence chief and one--time US Central Intelligencetime US Central Intelligence

Agency informant Manuel Noriega becomes head of the National Guard,Agency informant Manuel Noriega becomes head of the National Guard,

builds up the size of the force, which he renames the Panama Defencebuilds up the size of the force, which he renames the Panama DefenceForces, and greatly increases its power over Panama's political andForces, and greatly increases its power over Panama's political andeconomic life.economic life.


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19881988 -- US charges Noriega with drug smuggling; NoriegaUS charges Noriega with drug smuggling; Noriegadeclares state of emergency in the wake of a failed coup.declares state of emergency in the wake of a failed coup.

19891989 -- Opposition wins parliamentary elections, but NoriegaOpposition wins parliamentary elections, but Noriegadeclares results invalid. Noriega declares "state of war" in the facedeclares results invalid. Noriega declares "state of war" in the faceof increased threats by Washington. US invades Panama, oustsof increased threats by Washington. US invades Panama, oustsNoriega and replaces him with Guillermo Endara.Noriega and replaces him with Guillermo Endara.

19911991 -- Parliament approves constitutional reforms, includingParliament approves constitutional reforms, includingabolition of standing army; privatisation begins.abolition of standing army; privatisation begins.

19921992 -- US court finds Noriega guilty of drug offences andUS court finds Noriega guilty of drug offences andsentences him to 40 years imprisonment, to be served in a USsentences him to 40 years imprisonment, to be served in a USprison.prison.

19991999 -- Mireya Moscoso becomes Panama's first woman president.Mireya Moscoso becomes Panama's first woman president. 19991999 DecemberDecember -- Panama takes full control of the Panama CanalPanama takes full control of the Panama Canal

((ending nearly a century of American jurisdiction over one of theending nearly a century of American jurisdiction over one of theworld's most strategic waterways.)world's most strategic waterways.)

20002000 -- Moscoso announces creation of a panel to investigateMoscoso announces creation of a panel to investigatecrimes committed while military governments were in powercrimes committed while military governments were in powerbetween 1968 and 1989.between 1968 and 1989.


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Costa RicaCosta Rica

Main Export: BananasMain Export: Bananas

Colonized by: SpainColonized by: Spain



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18741874 -- US businessman Minor Cooper Keith introducesUS businessman Minor Cooper Keith introduces bananabananacultivationcultivation and starts the United Fruit Company.and starts the United Fruit Company.

19171917 -- Frederico Tinoco ousts the elected president, Alfredo Gonzalez, butFrederico Tinoco ousts the elected president, Alfredo Gonzalez, butis himself deposed two years later.is himself deposed two years later.

19401940--4444 -- President Rafael Angel Calderon Guradia, founder of the UnitedPresident Rafael Angel Calderon Guradia, founder of the UnitedChristian Socialist Party (PUSC), introduces liberal reforms, includingChristian Socialist Party (PUSC), introduces liberal reforms, includingrecognition of workers' rights and minimum wages.recognition of workers' rights and minimum wages.

19481948 -- SixSix--week civil war over a disputed presidential election result.week civil war over a disputed presidential election result. 19491949 -- New constitution gives women and people of African descent theNew constitution gives women and people of African descent the

right to vote; armed forces abolished and replaced by civil guard; Joseright to vote; armed forces abolished and replaced by civil guard; JoseFigueres Ferrer is elected president and begins ambitious socialistFigueres Ferrer is elected president and begins ambitious socialistprogram, including introducing a social security system and nationalizingprogram, including introducing a social security system and nationalizingbanks.banks.

19581958--7373 -- Costa Rica governed by mainly conservative administrations.Costa Rica governed by mainly conservative administrations.

19631963--6464 -- Irazu volcano erupts, causing serious damage to agricultureIrazu volcano erupts, causing serious damage to agricultureand economy in generaland economy in general


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19681968 -- Arenal volcano erupts, causing many casualties and massive monetaryArenal volcano erupts, causing many casualties and massive monetarydamagedamage

19741974 -- Daniel Oduber (PLN) elected president and pursues socialist policies.Daniel Oduber (PLN) elected president and pursues socialist policies. 19781978 -- Rodrigo Carazo, a conservative, elected president amid a sharp deteriorationRodrigo Carazo, a conservative, elected president amid a sharp deterioration

in the economy.in the economy. 19821982 -- Luis Alberto Monge (PLN) elected president and introduces harsh austerityLuis Alberto Monge (PLN) elected president and introduces harsh austerity

program Meanwhile, Costa Rica comes under pressure from the US to fight againstprogram Meanwhile, Costa Rica comes under pressure from the US to fight againstthe Sandinistas in Nicaragua.the Sandinistas in Nicaragua.

19851985 -- USUS--trained antitrained anti--guerrilla force begins operating following clashes withguerrilla force begins operating following clashes withSandinista troops.Sandinista troops.

19861986 -- Oscar Arias Sanchez (PLN) elected president on a neutral platform.Oscar Arias Sanchez (PLN) elected president on a neutral platform. 19871987 -- Leaders ofNicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras sign peace planLeaders ofNicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras sign peace plan

devised by Oscar Arias Sanchez, who in turn wins the Nobel Peace Prize for the plan.devised by Oscar Arias Sanchez, who in turn wins the Nobel Peace Prize for the plan. 19901990 -- Rafael Calderon, of the centrist PUSC, elected president.Rafael Calderon, of the centrist PUSC, elected president. 19941994 -- Jose Maria Figueres Olsen (PLN) elected president.Jose Maria Figueres Olsen (PLN) elected president. 19981998 -- Miguel Angel Rodriguez (PUSC) elected president.Miguel Angel Rodriguez (PUSC) elected president. 20002000 -- President Rodriguez and his Nicaraguan counterpart resolve longPresident Rodriguez and his Nicaraguan counterpart resolve long--standingstanding

dispute over navigation along San Juan river, which serves as their border.dispute over navigation along San Juan river, which serves as their border.


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GuatemalaGuatemala

Main Export: Fruits, Vegetables,Main Export: Fruits, Vegetables,Handicrafts and ClothHandicrafts and Cloth



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18731873--8585 -- Guatemala ruled by liberal President Justo Rufino Barrios, whoGuatemala ruled by liberal President Justo Rufino Barrios, whomodernises the country, develops the army and introduces coffee growing.modernises the country, develops the army and introduces coffee growing.

19311931 -- Jorge Ubico becomes president; his tenure is marked byJorge Ubico becomes president; his tenure is marked byrepressive rule and then by an improvement in the country's finances.repressive rule and then by an improvement in the country's finances.

19411941 -- Guatemala declares war on the Axis powers.Guatemala declares war on the Axis powers. 19441944 -- Juan Jose Arevalo becomes president following the overthrow ofJuan Jose Arevalo becomes president following the overthrow of

Ubico and introduces socialUbico and introduces social--democratic reforms, including setting up ademocratic reforms, including setting up asocial security system and redistributing land to landless peasants.social security system and redistributing land to landless peasants. 19511951 -- Colonel Jacobo Arbenz Guzman becomes president, continuingColonel Jacobo Arbenz Guzman becomes president, continuing

Arevalo's reforms.Arevalo's reforms. 19541954 -- Land reform stops with the accession to power of Colonel CarlosLand reform stops with the accession to power of Colonel Carlos

Castillo in a coup backed by the US and prompted by Arbenz'sCastillo in a coup backed by the US and prompted by Arbenz'snationalisation of plantations of the United Fruit Company.nationalisation of plantations of the United Fruit Company.

19631963 -- Colonel Enrique Peralta becomes president following theColonel Enrique Peralta becomes president following the

assassination of Castillo.assassination of Castillo. 19661966 -- Civilian rule restored; Cesar Mendez elected president.Civilian rule restored; Cesar Mendez elected president. 19701970 -- MilitaryMilitary--backed Carlos Arena elected president.backed Carlos Arena elected president. 1970s1970s -- Military rulers embark on a programme to eliminate leftMilitary rulers embark on a programme to eliminate left--wingers,wingers,

resulting in at least 50,000 deaths.resulting in at least 50,000 deaths.


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19761976 -- 27,000 people are killed and more than a million rendered27,000 people are killed and more than a million renderedhomeless by earthquake.homeless by earthquake.

19811981 -- Around 11,000 people are killed by death squads and soldiers inAround 11,000 people are killed by death squads and soldiers inresponse to growing antiresponse to growing anti--government guerrilla activity.government guerrilla activity.

19821982 -- General Efrain Rios Montt gains power following military coup.General Efrain Rios Montt gains power following military coup. 19831983 -- Montt ousted in coup led by General Mejia Victores, who declaresMontt ousted in coup led by General Mejia Victores, who declares

an amnesty for guerrillas.an amnesty for guerrillas. 19851985 -- Marco Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo elected president and theMarco Vinicio Cerezo Arevalo elected president and theGuatemalan Christian Democratic Party wins legislative elections under aGuatemalan Christian Democratic Party wins legislative elections under anew constitution.new constitution.

19891989 -- Attempt to overthrow Cerezo fails; civil war toll since 1980Attempt to overthrow Cerezo fails; civil war toll since 1980reaches 100,000 dead and 40,000 missing.reaches 100,000 dead and 40,000 missing.

19911991 -- Jorge Serrano Elias elected president. Diplomatic relationsJorge Serrano Elias elected president. Diplomatic relationsrestored with Belize, from whom Guatemala had longrestored with Belize, from whom Guatemala had long--standing territorialstanding territorial

claims.claims. 19931993 -- Serrano forced to resign after his attempt to impose anSerrano forced to resign after his attempt to impose an

authoritarian regime ignites a wave of protests; Ramiro de Leon Carpioauthoritarian regime ignites a wave of protests; Ramiro de Leon Carpioelected president by the legislature.elected president by the legislature.


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19941994 -- Peace talks between the government and rebels ofPeace talks between the government and rebels ofthe Guatemalan Revolutionary National Unity begin; rightthe Guatemalan Revolutionary National Unity begin; right--wing parties win a majority in legislative elections.wing parties win a majority in legislative elections.

19951995 -- Rebels declare a ceasefire; UN and US criticiseRebels declare a ceasefire; UN and US criticiseGuatemala for widespread human rights abuses.Guatemala for widespread human rights abuses.

19961996 -- Alvaro Arzu elected president, conducts purge ofAlvaro Arzu elected president, conducts purge ofsenior military officers and signs peace agreement withsenior military officers and signs peace agreement withrebels, ending 36 years of civil war.rebels, ending 36 years of civil war.

19981998 -- Bishop Juan Gerardi, a human rights campaigner,Bishop Juan Gerardi, a human rights campaigner,murdered.murdered.

19991999 -- UNUN--backed commission says security forces werebacked commission says security forces werebehind 93% of all human rights atrocities committed duringbehind 93% of all human rights atrocities committed duringthe civil war, which claimed 200,000 lives, and that seniorthe civil war, which claimed 200,000 lives, and that seniorofficials had overseen 626 massacres in Maya villages.officials had overseen 626 massacres in Maya villages.

20002000 -- Alfonso Portillo sworn in as president after winningAlfonso Portillo sworn in as president after winningelections in 1999elections in 1999


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HondurasHonduras

Main Exports: Bananas, Coffee,Main Exports: Bananas, Coffee,ShrimpShrimp



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US is very economically involved in Honduras, with the UnitedUS is very economically involved in Honduras, with the UnitedFruit Company (controlling twoFruit Company (controlling two--thirds of banana exports bythirds of banana exports by1913).1913).

19321932--4949 -- Honduras under rightHonduras under right--wing National Party ofHonduraswing National Party ofHonduras(PNH) dictatorship led by General(PNH) dictatorship led by General TiburcioTiburcio CariasCarias AndinoAndino..

19631963 -- ColonelColonel OsvaldoOsvaldo Lopez Arellano takes power after leadingLopez Arellano takes power after leading

a coup.a coup. 19691969 -- Brief but costly war with El Salvador over heavyBrief but costly war with El Salvador over heavy

immigration and disputed border.immigration and disputed border. 19741974 -- Lopez resigns after allegedly accepting a bribe from a USLopez resigns after allegedly accepting a bribe from a US

company.company. 19751975 -- Colonel Juan AlbertoColonel Juan Alberto MelgarMelgar Castro take power.Castro take power. 19781978 -- MelgarMelgar ousted in coup led by Generalousted in coup led by General PolicarpoPolicarpo Paz Garcia.Paz Garcia. 19801980 -- General Paz signs peace treaty with El Salvador.General Paz signs peace treaty with El Salvador. 19811981 -- RobertoRoberto SuazoSuazo Cordova of the centrist Liberal Party ofCordova of the centrist Liberal Party of

Honduras (PLH) is elected president, leading the first civilianHonduras (PLH) is elected president, leading the first civiliangovernment in more than a century.government in more than a century.


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But armed forces chief General Gustavo Alvarez retainsBut armed forces chief General Gustavo Alvarez retainsconsiderable power and Honduras becomes embroiled in variousconsiderable power and Honduras becomes embroiled in variousregional conflicts. USregional conflicts. US--run camps for training Salvadorans inrun camps for training Salvadorans incounterinsurgency are set up on Honduran territory.counterinsurgency are set up on Honduran territory.

19821982 -- USUS--backed Nicaraguan counterbacked Nicaraguan counter--revolutionaries, orrevolutionaries, orContras, launch operations to bring down Nicaragua's SandinistaContras, launch operations to bring down Nicaragua's Sandinista

government from Honduran territory.government from Honduran territory. 19821982--8383 -- General Alvarez responds to increasing political unrestGeneral Alvarez responds to increasing political unrest

by ordering the detention of trade union activists and leftby ordering the detention of trade union activists and left--wingwingsympathisers. Death squads are allegedly used to eliminatesympathisers. Death squads are allegedly used to eliminatesubversive elements.subversive elements.

19841984 -- General Alvarez is deposed amid antiGeneral Alvarez is deposed amid anti--AmericanAmericandemonstrations in Tegucigalpa. USdemonstrations in Tegucigalpa. US--run training camps forrun training camps for

Salvadoran counterSalvadoran counter--revolutionaries are shut down, but therevolutionaries are shut down, but thegovernment continues to cooperate with the US administration'sgovernment continues to cooperate with the US administration'santianti--Sandinista activities in return for substantial economic aid.Sandinista activities in return for substantial economic aid.

19861986 -- Another Liberal Party man, Jose Azcona del Hoyo, electedAnother Liberal Party man, Jose Azcona del Hoyo, electedpresident after the law was changed to stipulate a maximum onepresident after the law was changed to stipulate a maximum one--term presidencyterm presidency


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19871987 -- Amnesty granted both to military and leftAmnesty granted both to military and left--wing guerrillas for abuseswing guerrillas for abusescommitted during early 1980s.committed during early 1980s.

19881988 FebruaryFebruary -- An Amnesty International report alleges an increase in humanAn Amnesty International report alleges an increase in humanrights violations by armed forces and rightrights violations by armed forces and right--wing death squads.wing death squads.

19881988 AugustAugust -- InterInter--American Court ofHuman Rights finds Honduran governmentAmerican Court ofHuman Rights finds Honduran governmentguilty of "disappearances" ofHonduran citizens between 1981 and 1984.guilty of "disappearances" ofHonduran citizens between 1981 and 1984.

19891989 JanuaryJanuary -- General Alvarez is assassinated by leftGeneral Alvarez is assassinated by left--wing guerrillas inwing guerrillas inTegucigalpa.Tegucigalpa.

19891989 FebruaryFebruary -- Summit of Central American presidents in El Salvador reachesSummit of Central American presidents in El Salvador reachesagreement on demobilisation ofNicaraguan Contras based in Honduras.agreement on demobilisation ofNicaraguan Contras based in Honduras.

19901990 JanuaryJanuary -- Rafael Callejas sworn in as president; proceeds to introduce neoRafael Callejas sworn in as president; proceeds to introduce neo--liberal economic reforms and austerity measures.liberal economic reforms and austerity measures.

19901990 JuneJune -- Last Nicaraguan Contras leave Honduras.Last Nicaraguan Contras leave Honduras. 19921992 -- International Court of Justice gives ruling establishing new boundariesInternational Court of Justice gives ruling establishing new boundaries

between Honduras and El Salvador.between Honduras and El Salvador. 19931993 MarchMarch -- Government sets up commission to investigate alleged human rightsGovernment sets up commission to investigate alleged human rights

violations by military.violations by military. 19931993 NovemberNovember -- Liberal Party candidate and veteran rights activist Carlos ReinaLiberal Party candidate and veteran rights activist Carlos Reina

elected president. Reina pledges to reform judicial system and limit power of armedelected president. Reina pledges to reform judicial system and limit power of armedforces.forces.


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19951995 AprilApril -- Compulsory military service abolished.Compulsory military service abolished. 19951995 JulyJuly -- First military officers charged with human rights abuses.First military officers charged with human rights abuses. 19971997 -- Carlos Flores of the Liberal Party elected president; pledges toCarlos Flores of the Liberal Party elected president; pledges to

restructure armed forces.restructure armed forces. 19981998 MayMay -- Control of police transferred from military to civilianControl of police transferred from military to civilian

authorities, but reports of rights abuses continue.authorities, but reports of rights abuses continue.

19981998 OctoberOctober -- Hurricane Mitch devastates Honduras.Hurricane Mitch devastates Honduras. 19991999 -- Armed forces placed under civilian control.Armed forces placed under civilian control. 19991999 NovemberNovember -- Congress ratifies 1986 maritime agreement withCongress ratifies 1986 maritime agreement with

Colombia settling claims over the Caribbean Sea. This upsets Nicaragua,Colombia settling claims over the Caribbean Sea. This upsets Nicaragua,which claims some of the area as its own.which claims some of the area as its own.

19991999 DecemberDecember -- Honduras and Nicaragua agree to halt ground troopHonduras and Nicaragua agree to halt ground troopdeployments and pull out naval forces from the Caribbean sea pendingdeployments and pull out naval forces from the Caribbean sea pendingresolution of a border dispute.resolution of a border dispute.

20012001 AugustAugust -- UN calls on government to prevent extrajudicial killings ofUN calls on government to prevent extrajudicial killings ofhundreds of children and teenagers, some at the hands of police officers.hundreds of children and teenagers, some at the hands of police officers. 20022002 JanuaryJanuary -- Ricardo Maduro inaugurated as president.Ricardo Maduro inaugurated as president.


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El SalvadorEl Salvador

Main Export: Coffee BeansMain Export: Coffee Beans

Colonized by: SpainColonized by: Spain



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18591859--6363 -- President Gerardo Barrios introduces coffee growing.President Gerardo Barrios introduces coffee growing. 19321932 -- Some 30,000 people are killed during the suppression of a peasant uprisingSome 30,000 people are killed during the suppression of a peasant uprising

led by Agustine Farabundo Marti.led by Agustine Farabundo Marti. 19611961 -- RightRight--wing National Conciliation Party (PCN) comes to power after a militarywing National Conciliation Party (PCN) comes to power after a military

coup.coup. 19691969 -- El Salvador attacks and fights a brief war with Honduras following theEl Salvador attacks and fights a brief war with Honduras following the

eviction of thousands of Salvadoran illegal immigrants from Honduras.eviction of thousands of Salvadoran illegal immigrants from Honduras. 19771977

-- Guerrilla activities by the leftGuerrilla activities by the left--wingF

arabundoM

artiN

ational LiberationF

rontwingF

arabundoM

artiN

ational LiberationF

ront(FMLN) intensify amid reports of increased human rights violations by government(FMLN) intensify amid reports of increased human rights violations by governmenttroops and death squads; General Carlos Romero elected president.troops and death squads; General Carlos Romero elected president.

19791979--8181 -- Around 30,000 people are killed by armyAround 30,000 people are killed by army--backed rightbacked right--wing deathwing deathsquads.squads.

19791979 -- General Romero ousted in coup by reformist officers who install a militaryGeneral Romero ousted in coup by reformist officers who install a military--civilian junta, but this fails to curb armycivilian junta, but this fails to curb army--backed political violence.backed political violence.

19801980 -- Archbishop of San Salvador and human rights campaigner Oscar RomeroArchbishop of San Salvador and human rights campaigner Oscar Romeroassassinated; Jose Napoleon Duarte becomes first civilian president since 1931.assassinated; Jose Napoleon Duarte becomes first civilian president since 1931.

19811981 -- France and Mexico recognise the FMLN as legitimate political force; USFrance and Mexico recognise the FMLN as legitimate political force; UScontinues to assist El Salvadoran government whose army continues to back rightcontinues to assist El Salvadoran government whose army continues to back right--wing death squads.wing death squads.


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19821982 -- Extreme rightExtreme right--wing National Republican Alliance (Arena) winswing National Republican Alliance (Arena) winsparliamentary elections marked by violence.parliamentary elections marked by violence.

19841984 -- Duarte wins presidential election.Duarte wins presidential election. 19861986 -- Duarte begins quest for negotiated settlement with FMLN.Duarte begins quest for negotiated settlement with FMLN. 19891989 -- FMLN attacks intensify; another Arena candidate, Alfredo Cristiani,FMLN attacks intensify; another Arena candidate, Alfredo Cristiani,

voted president in elections widely believed to have been rigged.voted president in elections widely believed to have been rigged.

19911991

--FM

LN

recognised as political party; government andFM

LN

signFM

LN

recognised as political party; government andFM

LN

signUNUN--sponsored peace accord.sponsored peace accord. 19931993 -- Government declares amnesty for those implicated by UNGovernment declares amnesty for those implicated by UN--

sponsored commission in human rights atrocities.sponsored commission in human rights atrocities. 19941994 -- Arena candidate Armando Calderon Sol elected president.Arena candidate Armando Calderon Sol elected president. 19971997 -- FMLN makes progress in parliamentary elections; leftist HectorFMLN makes progress in parliamentary elections; leftist Hector

Silva elected mayor of San Salvador.Silva elected mayor of San Salvador. 19991999 -- Arena candidate Francisco Flores beats former guerrilla FacundoArena candidate Francisco Flores beats former guerrilla Facundo

Guardado in presidential election.Guardado in presidential election. 20012001 -- Massive earthquakes kill 1,200 people and render another oneMassive earthquakes kill 1,200 people and render another one

million homeless (devastating to economy and social hierarchy)million homeless (devastating to economy and social hierarchy)


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How do students learn?How do students learn?

..It is beyond the space allotted here to summarize the massive amount ofliterature and research on the subject. However, the following important andrelevant points have been made by educational researchers repeatedly: When students are actively participating in explaining, thinking, and analyzingthey learn more. If you accept the above, then it is the instructors primary task to makelearning interactive.

Set the pace for the class: explain the learning goals, model the behaviordesired, then make the student the teacher. The previous presentation wascrafted by my students. I am very proud of them. I act as the Socraticquestioner, the analyzer, the one who points out problems and limitations, theclarifier, and (of course) the one who will correct errors as well as addssupplementary information and personal perspective. Naturally, many, students

if not the vast majority, will need time and guidance in developing these skills.Thats also the job of the instructor.Let your students fly and make them the teacher. You may be pleasantlysurprised with the results.~ Dr. Juan R. Cspedes, Ph.D.

Please visit my website at Think-Learn.com


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For additional documentsFor additional documents

and study guides, pleaseand study guides, please

visit Thinkvisit Think--Learn.comLearn.com

Dr. Juan R. Cspedes, Ph.DDr. Juan R. Cspedes, Ph.D..

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Central America 1900-2001 - Dr. Juan R. Céspedes' Contemporary History Class

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