QUANTIFYINGSPORTS TRAINING

QUANTIFYINGSPORTS TRAINING AND DOPING

CHAPTER 12CHAPTER 12

Did You Know…?

A person’s rate of adaptation and response to training depends on that individual. He or she cannot be forced beyond his or her body’s capacity for development. Thus, training programs must take these individual differences into account.

Optimal Training Load

Progressive overload—progressive increase in training load as body adapts

Training volume—duration or frequency

Training intensity—force of muscle action and stress on the muscular and cardiovascular systems

Resistance training (high intensity and low volume)

Aerobic training (high volume and lower intensity)

Rest periods—without them, muscles become chronically depleted

CHANGES IN HEART RATE AND BLOOD LACTATE

Did You Know…?

Long daily workouts may not be the best training method for some sports. It appears that training volume could be reduced by as much as one half in some sports, without reducing the training benefits and with less risk of overloading.

Overtraining

Training beyond the point that would be optimal; can be related to intensity, duration, frequency, or any combination of these three

Staleness is a related concept

The key is to design a training program that will provide the optimal level of stress but will not overstress the athlete

Symptoms of Overtraining Syndrome

Decline in physical performance

Decreased appetite and body weight loss

Muscle tenderness

Head colds, allergic reactions, or both

Occasional nausea

Sleep disturbances

Elevated resting heart rate and blood pressure

Feeling of “heaviness” and loss of desire to train and compete

Emotional instability

Possible Causes of Overtraining

Periods of excessive training or emotional stress

Abnormal responses in the autonomic nervous system—sympathetic and parasympathetic

Disturbances in endocrine function

Depressed immune function

Sympathetic NS Overtraining

Increased resting heart rate and blood pressure

Loss of appetite and decreased body mass

Sleep disturbances and emotional instability

Elevated resting metabolic rate

Parasympathetic NS Overtraining

Early onset of fatigue

Decreased resting heart rate and blood pressure

Rapid heart rate recovery after exercise

Less common than sympathetic NS overtraining

TRAINING VOLUME AND RISK OF INFECTION

Predicting Overtraining

Increase in oxygen consumption for the same rate of work (though impractical for coach to measure)

Increased heart rate response to the same rate of work

Declines in performance

VO2 IN EARLY AND LATE SEASON.

HEART RATE RESPONSES TO TRAINING

Treatment of Overtraining

Reduce training intensity for several days

Rest completely for three to five days

Seek counseling

Prevent overtraining by alternating easy, moderate, and hard training

Eat sufficient carbohydrate to prevent glycogen depletion

Key Points

Excessive training refers to training with an unnecessarily high volume or intensity.

Excessive training does not lead to additional gains in performance and can lead to overtraining.

Training Demands

Increase the duration or frequency of training to increase training volume.

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Key Points

Training Demands

Training intensity can determine specific adaptations to training.

High-intensity, low-volume training increases muscle strength and speed.

High-volume, low-intensity training (50% to 90% VO2max) increases aerobic capacity.

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Key Points

Overtraining leads to decreased performance capacity.

Symptoms of overtraining may occur briefly with regular training.

Overtraining

Overtraining may be caused by abnormal responses in the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems and suppressed immune function.

Heart rate response appears to be the most reliable warning of overtraining.

Overtraining syndrome is treated most effectively with rest and proper nutrition.

Did You Know…?

Tapering for competition involves a reduction in training intensity and volume. This rest allows your body to repair itself and restore its energy reserves to prepare you for your best performance.

Effects of Properly Tapering

Muscular strength increases

Energy reserves are restored

Performance increases (especially in swimmers)

No loss of VO2max occurs.

Detraining

Cessation of regular training; may be due to inactivity or immobilization

Loss of muscle size, strength, and power

Decrease in muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance

Loss of speed, agility, and flexibility

Loss of Muscle Strength

Muscle atrophy accounts for a loss in development of maximal muscle fiber tension.

Normal fiber recruitment is disrupted; some fibers are unable to be recruited.

Muscle requires minimal stimulation (training once every 10 to 14 days) to retain training gains.

STRENGTH CHANGES WITH DETRAINING

Loss of Endurance

Decreased performance may be related to losses in cardiorespiratory endurance.

Oxidative enzyme activity in muscles decreases.

Glycolytic enzymes remain unchanged with up to 84 days of detraining.

Muscle glycogen content (and thus storage capacity) decreases.

Acid-base balance becomes disturbed.

Muscle capillary supply and fiber type may change.

DETRAINING, VO2MAX, AND OXIDATIVE ENZYMES

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DETRAINING AND MUSCLE GLYCOGEN

Loss of Cardiorespiratory Endurance

Losses are greatest in highly trained individuals.

Plasma volume decreases

Stroke volume decreases

Endurance performance decreases

VO2max decreases.

Did You Know…?

You can prevent rapid losses to your cardiorespiratory endurance with a minimum of three training sessions per week at an intensity of at least 70% VO2max.

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CHANGES IN VO2MAX WITH BED REST.

Retraining

Recovery of conditioning after a period of activity.

Affected by fitness level and the length and extent of inactivity.

If a cast allows some range of movement, retraining time can be reduced.

Electrical stimulation of muscles can prevent muscle fiber atrophy.

Key Points

Detraining is the cessation of regular physical training

Retraining is resuming training after a period of inactivity.

Detraining and Retraining

The greater the training gains achieved, the greater the losses with detraining.

Detraining results in losses of muscle size, strength, power, and endurance; speed, agility, and flexibility; and cardiorespiratory endurance.

Detraining effects can be minimized by training three times a week at 70% VO2max..

Examples in Sports

Football—anabolic steroids

Cycling—blood doping or EPO; amphetamines

Weight category athletes—diuretics, amphetamines

Distance running—carbohydrate loading

Note: Scientific studies are limited by the accuracy of measurements and individual day-to-day variability. Events are won by hundredths of seconds or by centimeters.

Did You Know…?

The placebo effect refers to when your body’s expectations of a substance determine your body’s response to it. While the effect is psychological in origin, the body’s physical response to the substance is real.

THE PLACEBO EFFECT ON STRENGTH GAINS

Pharmacological Agents

Alcohol

Amphetamines

Beta blockers

Caffeine

Cocaine

Diuretics

Marijuana

Nicotine

Alcohol

Provides energy (7 kcal/g) but inhibits metabolism

Dulls pain sensation (increasing injury risk); reduces anxiety

Suppresses release of ADH which leads to dehydration

Appears to impair psychomotor function

Has no ergogenic effects on strength, power, speed, or endurance

ALCOHOL SUPPRESSES ADH RELEASE

Amphetamines

Increase mental alertness, blood pressure, heart rate, blood glucose and FFA levels, and muscle tension

Decrease sense of fatigue

Redistribute blood flow to skeletal muscles

May enhance speed, power, endurance, concentration, and fine motor coordination

May be addictive and can trigger cardiac arrhythmia or death

Beta Blockers

Prevent the binding of norepinephrine to its receptor, thus decreasing sympathetic nervous system effects

May improve accuracy (for shooting sports)

Decrease aerobic capacity but have no effect on strength, power, or muscular endurance

Prolonged use can cause bradycardia, heart blockage, hypotension, brochospasm, fatigue, and decreased motivation

Caffeine

Increases mental alertness, concentration, catecholamine release, and mobilization and use of FFA by the muscles

Decreases fatigue and lowers perception of effort

Improves endurance performance; may improve sprint and strength performance

Can cause nervousness, insomnia, tremors, diuresis, and lead to dehydration

Cocaine

Blocks reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine by neurons

Creates feelings of euphoria, alertness, and self-confidence

Masks fatigue and pain

Has no evidence of ergogenic properties; likely ergolytic

Extremely addictive; can cause psychological problems and compromise heart function

Diuretics

Increase urine production and excretion

Used for weight reduction and to mask other drugs during drug testing

Cause weight loss (water loss)

Can lead to dehydration, impaired thermoregulation, and electrolyte imbalances

Marijuana

Acts as a stimulant and depressant of CNS

Impairs performance requiring hand-eye and motor coordination, fast reaction times, tracking ability, and perceptual accuracy

Can lead to personality changes, memory impairment, hallucinations, and psychotic-like behavior

May pose same risks as cigarette smoking (if smoked)

Nicotine

Increases alertness and may calm nervousness

Increases heart rate, blood pressure, autonomic reactivity, vasoconstriction, ADH and catecholamine secretion, blood lipid levels, plasma glucose, glucagon, insulin, and cortisol

Lowers VO2max values (when smoked) and peripheral circulation

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Is addictive and causes various cancers and cardiovascular diseases

Hormonal Agents

Anabolic steroids

Human growth hormone

Oral contraceptives

Anabolic Steroids

Are nearly identical to male sex hormones; synthetic form maximizes building effects

Increase muscle mass and strength

Can cause testicular atrophy, reduced sperm count, and prostate and breast enlargement in men

Can cause breast regression, masculinization, and menstrual disruption in women

Cause personality changes, liver damage, and cardiovascular disease

BODY CHANGES WITH ANABOLIC STEROIDS

Human Growth Hormone

Secreted naturally by pituitary; synthetic form used by some athletes

Difficult to detect synthetic from natural in drug testing

Proven to increase lipolysis and blood glucose levels; changes in muscle mass and strength are found in some studies, but not in the best controlled studies or studies with athletes

Can cause acromegaly, enlargement of internal organs, muscle and joint weakness, diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease

Oral Contraceptives

Control menstrual cycle

Little research on ergogenic properties

May alleviate symptoms of PMS and restore menstrual cycle

Can cause nausea, weight gain, fatigue, hypertension, liver tumors, blood clots, stroke, or heart attack.

Physiological Agents

Blood doping

Erythropoietin

Oxygen supplementation

Aspartic acid

Bicarbonate loading

Phosphate loading

Blood Doping

Artificial increase in total volume of red blood cells (via transfusion or EPO)

Improves endurance performance by increasing blood’s O2-carrying capacity

Can cause blood clotting, heart failure, and transfusion complications

Increases VO2max, time to exhaustion, and measurable performance

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VO2MAX AND FATIGUE AFTER BLOOD DOPING

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PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT AFTER BLOOD DOPING

Erythropoietin

Natural hormone produced by the kidneys to stimulate red blood cell production

Can be cloned and administered to increase red blood cell volume

Can cause blood clotting and heart failure due to increased blood viscosity

Increases VO2max and time to exhaustion.

Oxygen Supplementation

Breathed by athlete to increase oxygen content of blood

Can improve performance if administered during exercise, but not before or after

Too cumbersome to be practical

No serious risks known

OXYGEN SUPPLEMENTATION AND PERFORMANCE

Aspartic Acid

An amino acid involved in liver’s conversion of ammonia to urea

Thought to reduce ammonia buildup during exercise and thus offset fatigue

Insufficient and conflicting research of ergogenic properties

No serious risks known

Bicarbonate

Naturally part of body’s buffering system to maintain normal pH

Loading increases blood alkalinity so that more lactate can be cleared (delay fatigue)

Ingesting 300 mg per kg body weight can increase performance in all-out exercise bouts between 1 and 7 minutes

Can cause gastrointestinal cramping, bloating, and diarrhea

BICARBONATE AND BLOOD CONCENTRATIONS

Phosphate

Loading is thought to increase phosphate levels throughout body, which then

Increase potential for oxidative phosphorylation and PCr synthesis

Enhance oxygen release to the cells

Improve cardiovascular response to exercise and buffering and endurance capacities

Studies are divided on results of phosphate loading.

No risks are yet known.

Nutritional Agents

Amino acids

L-carnitine

Creatine

Chromium

Glycerol

Amino Acids

L-tryptophan and BCAA

Proposed to increase endurance performance by delaying fatigue

Studies are inconclusive on effects on performance

Creatine

Supplement to better maintain muscle ATP levels

Shown to increase strength and possibly fat-free body mass

Not shown to help endurance performance, sprint running, or sprint swimming performance

Chromium

Essential trace mineral in foods that helps metabolize carbohydrate, fat, and protein

Often deficient in diets and lost via exercise

Supplements thought to increase glycogen synthesis and amino acid incorporation in muscle and improve glucose tolerance

Studies show little or no benefit