cari buku tradisi pesantren
Transcript of cari buku tradisi pesantren
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and attachment theory
Crittenden and Mary D. S. Ainsworth
has grown exponentially in the years since
child syndrome" (Kempe, Silverman, and
area has experienced many of the conflicts
emerging field #nderlying these problems
ive theoretical approach to child maltreatd 'ampton, 19)! Itis the purpose of this
theory in regard to its ade*uacy in account
abuse and child neglect
ntified as a social issue earlier than child
'owever, in regard to the early literature,
metimes impossible, to ma$e because cases
were included indiscriminately under the
chapter will be to disentangle the conditions
vant attachment theory is to understanding
e focused on identifying the characteristics
re not usually found to be mentally ill, they
gressive, punitive, domineering, and incon
.s more cases of less severe child abuse
the incidence of clear parental deviance
cultural and child influence increased The
h abuse included unemployment, /ob dis
s, and social isolation oflowincome, mul
ly, there has been a focus on those charac
art by grant 2.33 from the &ational 4enter one first author
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ent theory 433
make them targets for abuse. Premature,
ally difficult children have all been identi:
en and Wrench, 1!!" #ational $enter on
" Parke and $oil mer, 1!'.
ns of abuse and increases in both the dataes being tested lead to t*o general conclu:
*ere related to abuse (lo* income, stress,
neighborhoods, unemployment, infant birth
conditions, limited parental education, and
ysical punishment and (- that abusers *ere
nonabusers.
(1!3 to integrate all of this information
abuse occurred *hen a deviant parent of anlly stressful situation (*ithin a society that
has this hypothesis never been tested under
assess the several factors, but also very little
e probability that these factors are causally
elative influence of the correlates of abuse
. 0urthermore, the research has not ade:
bers of families *ith one or more risk con:
children. 2he emphasis has largely been onepossible and seeking linear, additive e/pla:
ct is considerably more scant (Wolock and
ere is evidence that failing to provide ade:
sed to providing inappropriate care is asso:
maternal depression, social isolation, and
, $halmers, 5utten*ieser, and Williams,
lansky, 1!6. o*ever, it is not clear that2here is certainly evidence that not all lo*:
re neglectful, as *ell as evidence that some
higher 78 mothers are unresponsive to their
contribution that a theoretical perspective
se conditions together logically in *ays that
pattern of occurrence of neglect.
have pursued a more sophisticated approach
e models described above. 5oth ;arbarinoproposed comprehensive ecological models
h models replace naive simplicity *ith infi:
tion of the necessary, sufficient, and contrib:
even one case may be impossible" for large
nrealistic. What is needed is a *ay to narro*
that can both e/plain the pattern of occur:
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ENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
altreatment and describe the rocess b!
from one erson to another #Aber and
& '()',. Such a model should also be suf0
ations for interention.
/critical causes/ of maltreatment 0 that"ould lead to imroements in the other
to imroed famil! functionin%. 1ecause
t caused maltreatment mi%ht not be the
correct it& such causes mi%ht iml! one
atment and another for the amelioration
at an2ious #or insecure, attachment is a
the ori%in of famil! maltreatment and there man! adanta%es of such a h!othesis.
uch of the e2istin% 4no"led%e about mal0
h not simle& concet "hile concurrentl!
use from ne%lect. Second& because attach0
eor!& it is resonsie to differences in the
hment at different oints in the lifesan.
imossible to deelo aroriate dia%0
"ithout an a"areness of deelomentall!
!& '()'* Sroufe and Rutter& '()5,. Third&
atible "ith a famil! ersectie on mal0
ible "ith an aroach focused entirel! on
theor! also ermits the inte%ration of
onditions and eents "ith interersonal
es uon the deeloment of attachment.
ersecties in the conte2t of a focus on
e considered to ar! across both families
als6 ast e2eriences& current conte2tual
sses as "ell as random #or une2ectable,
el into an oerl! simlistic eer!thin%0is0
althou%h issues re%ardin% maltreatment
! e2erimental means& attachment theor!
ic h!otheses that can be tested "ith mal0
e2tent to "hich attachment0related con0
e comared to that of other theoretical
or! is comatible "ith ecolo%ical theor!
and redicted hierarch! of influences.
some of the basic concets of attachment
secificall! to maltreatment& considerin%
r those roositions.
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ment theory 435
vely new, open-ended theory with eclectic
evision of psychoanalytic theory, particularly
etapsychology, it has been infused by pres-ith an emphasis on ethology and evolutionary
-systems theory and cognitive psychology.
mpt to understand the disturbed functioning
nced traumatic losses or early separations, it
ent that offers eplanations for some types
by, #$%$, #$&3, #$'(). *ince "owlby+s prelim-
$5'), it has stimulated research into socio-
e growth of interpersonal relationships anddings of such research with continuous clari-
ensions of applications. For eample, it sug-
een anomalies of attachment in the parent
rth, #$'().
that there are species-characteristic patterns
because they function to promote species sur-
ene survival. he propensity to develop these
ically and evoed by specific and epectableconditions. Attachment theory applies this
l occurrence of infant attachment to the par-
to the infant, as well as to attachment com-
between adult partners !Ainsworth, #$'5,
construct
e survival of humans and, especially, human
proimity to an attachment figure is main-
ially accomplished through complementary
f behavior. Infant signals such as crying tend
into closer proimity. *uch infant behaviors
g situations, such as those involving loud
e persons or ob/ects, and being left alone, as
r pain. 0nce close bodily contact is attained,
tend to be terminated and other behaviors,
ocali1ing, function to maintain contact with
.
me of an infant+s attachment behavior is the
trusted person !"owlby, #$%$). *ub/ectively,
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ENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
ng o security. Attachment beha!ior may
"istance a#ay rom an attachment igure$
rce%tion o e&ternal threat an" no other
Such beha!ior$ ho#e!er$ is not %eculiar
e tolerable time %erio"s an" "istancesmost ol"er chil"ren an" a"ults eel lonely
their lo!e" ones either ine&%licably or or
%ort o an attachment igure "uring %eri0
s "e!elo% through three %hases in the
attachment usually being achie!e" about
he emergence o beha!iors such as loco0
ta'e initiati!e in 'ee%ing %ro&imity an"research has been "e!ote" to this thir"
s #ay to a ourth an" much more so%his0
ater a chil"/s thir" birth"ay$ #ith the
, terme" a 2goal0correcte" %artnershi%3
a"!ance is ma"e %ossible both by the
ication bet#een the %artners through the
an" by his or her increase" ability to see
o another. As
the chil" becomes morer has moti!ations$ eelings$ an" %lans o
better able to communicate moti!ations$
%artners$ become able to negotiate "ier0
al agreement about them )Mar!in$ +,--4
Mean#hile the chil"/s com%etence has
e able to sustain coni"ence in the attach0
ong %erio"s o absence rom them. The
/s sense o security no longer "e%en"s so
e attachment igure as u%on the mutual
een built u% in the %artnershi%. Ho#e!er$
l be han"ica%%e" either in %ers%ecti!e0
icate moti!ation$ eelings$ an" %lans to
ies or %ers%ecti!e ta'ing an" or clearer
un"e!elo%e" or$ i "e!elo%e"$ be li'ely to
"ing an" trust. Ne!ertheless$ normally$
ase" on mutual un"erstan"ing an" trust
n regar" to the other/s %erce%tion o "an0
!er time$ "istance$ or other rele!ant con0
curity.
n be maintaine" #ithout actual %hysical
erio"s o time. During absences$ "istal
s letters an" %hone calls$ can tem%orarily
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ment theory 437
Furthermore, adolescents become active in
outside the family, and more consciously
lity for being an attachment figure to new
affectionate relationships are wanted and
nt, of course, is expected not only to manage
his or her partner, but concurrently to be a
nt figure in the nonsymmetric relationship
to Bowlby, attachment first to the parents
is basic to the security of all.
tem
one of the important speciescharacteristic
d survival. The individual's overt behavior
depends upon the relative strength of acti
s, with the most intensely activated having
systems may often act in synchrony as, for
to the avoidance of the ob"ect feared and to
ent figure other systems are usually anti
tensely activated the other is at least tempo
ral systems that chiefly compete with the
oratory and affiliative systems. As long as the
he more highly activated and his behavior is
proximity to an attachment figure, he or she
onment. $f an infant feels secure in his rela
ever, he can use her as a secure base from
ed with his world and the other people in itetical arrangement itself has survival value,
cognitive, language, and social development
is physical and social environment. Because
ustaining reasonable proximity to a caregiv
t gained under ris#y conditions.
adults normally re%uire much less proximity
n do infants, much the same principle per
oo, en"oy being with those to whom they areey feel free to respond to other demands on
follow up other interests and activities. ow
gested, the attachment system functions pri
ce system. Throughout life, attachment
ivated under stressful conditions that evo#e
opment of #nowledge about the world, com
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ENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
red "# feeln$ sec%re a"!%t t&e a'ala"lt#
d. T&%s, t&e nat%re !f t&e c!ndt!ns t&at
fed "# eac& pers!n*s !)n e+perence, par
&s !r &er past and present relat!ns&ps
ruct
s!n !f an attac&(ent s t&e de$ree t!
s !f sec%rt# !r nsec%rt#. H!)e'er, -%al
p!rtant. T&ese ndcate t&e 'ar!%s )a#s
!r &er "e&a'!r, t&!%$&ts, and feeln$s
fanc#, t&ree (a/!r patterns, t!$et&er )t&$%s&ed and are especall# &$&l$&ted n
0Stran$e St%at!n0 1Ans)!rt&, 2le&ar,
a/!r patterns are ndcat'e !f 136 sec%re
, 176 an+!%sa'!dant attac&(ent, )t&
a("'alent !r an+!%sresstant attac&
T&e dsc%ss!n "el!) )ll f!c%s !n t&e
!r and nfant pattern !f attac&(ent, t&e
t# !r %nresp!ns'eness, and ad/%st(entst! acc!%nt f!r t&e "e&a'!r !f dst%r"ed
ldren.
attern of attachment. Infant patterns !f sel# related t! t&e "e&a'!r !f t&e attac&
t&e c&ef e'dence !f t&s s! far pertans
. S%c& e'dence ste(s fr!( t&e )!r9 !f
s%"se-%entl# !t&er st%des &a'e #elded#, R!'ne, and Ta#l!r, 84: E$eland and
ann, Span$ler, S%ess, and =ner, 8>6.
st'e n &er resp!ns'eness t! nfant s$
ect n nteract!n )t& &er and cres rela
separat!ns fr!( &er. W&en &s attac&
# act'ated 1f!r e+a(ple, "# separat!n
rc%(stances6, &e tends t! "e easl# reas
presence, and s s!!n read# a$an t! p%rs /%d$ed t! "e sec%rel# attac&ed t! &s
er tends t! "e naccess"le, %nresp!ns'e,
&s "e&a'!ral c%es s l9el# t! e(er$e as
ent t! &er. 2eca%se &s "ds f!r pr!+(t#
trated, attac&(ent "e&a'!r perssts and
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ment theory 439
e mingled with anger. Consequently, when
behaves ambivalently and is hard to soothe.
e accessible, he is vigilant for any indications
isplays more distress at little everyday sepa+
h behavior is characteristic of the anxiousnt.
voidant pattern of attachment have experi+
who are also inaccessible, unresponsive, or
their behavioral cues. "hese infants behave at
bivalent babies do. #hen the stress is rela+
Strange Situation, they behave quite differ+
on separation and upon reunion they display
r than see$ing proximity to her. %thers dis+and proximity see$ing upon reunion. "his
as a defensive maneuver, similar to the
hildren after long, depriving separations from
savoidant babies differ from the mothers of
&insworth's sample in that the latter are
esponsiveness and accessibility, whereas the
d angry, whether overtly or covertly. )ecauseaversion to close bodily contact, it appeared
ely to be expressed by rebuffing or withhold+
the baby most needed it-for example, when
activated at high intensity. "his implies that
approachavoidance conflict whenever he
other, for he not only feels angry because he
e, but he also fears he may be painfully
se seems to enable him to disconnect hissituational cues that usually activate it.Con+
his mother's departure nor her return as cues
her. *e avoids both the contact+see$ing and
o$e rebuff. ecently, -rossmann et al. /9012
number of their sample of orth -erman
idant pattern, which they attributed to cul+
ependence as early as the middle of the first
attitudes of re(ection2. "his suggests that inclose bodily contact + with or without re(ect+
r the anxiousavoidant pattern.
nsensitivity or unresponsiveness. "here are a
result in maternal insensitivity. !f a mother
no one, it is expected that it will be difficult
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ENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
such !" tht he cn #eco$e securel"
deed' if she hs hd histor" of n-ious
sed lielihood tht her o!n ttch$ent
her infnts. &ecuse e/en nor$l infnt
to her' the n1r"' esclted ttch$ent
ent to her hs lred" #eco$e n-ious
el" or /oid respondin1 or #eco$e n1r"
f n-ious ttch$ent $" #e co$$uni2
ro$ its prent. E/idence tht $others
childhood e-periences !ith her o!n pr2
ltionship !ith her infnt hs #een de$2
he results of n Adult Attch$ent Inter2
r1e' 5pln' nd Min' ()67, !ith thef the children in infnc" s !ell s their
of 1e %Min' 5pln' nd Cssid"' ()67,.
cceptin1 of their reltionships !ith their
rel" ttched infnts nd children. This
nts nd children necessril" hd $others
re si$ilrl" secure. Rther' it su11ests tht
nd ccepted the relit" of their o!n dif2
e/en for1i/in1 their $others' !ere #estti/e effects of their pre/ious insecure rel2
hildren !ith sensiti/e nd responsi/e
s their $ens for doin1 so $" h/e
cure reltionship !ith surro1te ttch2
lin1 or ps"chotherp".
ill" liel" to result in e-tre$es of unre2
sponsi/eness on the prt of n dult in
include unresol/ed tru$tic seprtionsent fi1ures. In t!o s$ples' prents !ho
tch$ent fi1ure in childhood !ere prtic2
ched infnts !hose #eh/ior did not fit
e$ %Ains!orth nd Eich#er1' in press9
7,. Periods of depression or other se/ere
for the prent' recent deth of si1nificnt
of #use' includin1 se-ul #use' $"
close contct. Such situtions cn resultrentl ptterns of cre1i/in1 or in persis2
e t!o conditions re e-pected to #e so$e2
system. Althou1h ll 78 of the infnts in
op the clssifictor" s"ste$ could #e cls2
tterns' it !s #elie/ed fro$ the #e1innin1
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ment theory 441
nts would not fit this classificatory scheme.
ors have identified infants whose behavior
ny of three patterns described by Ainsworth
in and #eston, 1981! $ad%e'arrow, Cum
n, 198! +pie%er and ooth, in press-. woclassificatory system have been ta%en. 0ne
describe the behavior of a number of appar
behavior in the +trange +ituation could
using the Ainsworth criteria ("ain and
oach was the result of studies of samples of
infants and infants of severely depressed
ain and #eston as unclassified were lateriented ("ain and +olomon, in press-. It
stituted a fourth pattern. Indeed it seemed
ed disorgani*ation of one of the three ma3or
+uch disorgani*ations did tend to imply even
the basic patterns of which they were
, a disorgani*ed pattern of infant attachment
tency of maternal behavior rather than pertency is not the daytoday mi/ture of sen
hat is associated with mothers of infants with
. $ather, it appeared to occur when the
t for a sufficiently e/tended period of time
pectations about her behavior. his consis
sudden inter3ection of uite different behav
ions are especially frightening to the child if
ior is itself threatening or if the mother hernd 5esse, in press-.
6s behavior is thought to be consistently and
both a basis for developing e/pectations and
unsatisfying conditions. his situation has
o e/panding the classificatory system. he
on of many children of such mothers does
devised by Ainsworth. Although the behav
present, they are organi*ed differently thanthe development ofthe classificatory system.
insensitive mothers may show in one obser
ypes of behavior described by Ainsworth7 the
indicative of secure or an/ious2ambivalent
indicative of avoidant attachment, and the
mbivalent attachment (Crittenden, 198 a,
198.- In addition, many of the children
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CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
aviors described by Ainsworth or one o the
e Crittenden and Rad#e,%arrow research &ro!ps
in& this pattern as avoidant(a)biva'ent *A(C+.
are partic!'ar'y re'evant here beca!se they per,
. In two separate sa)p'es- )a'treated chi'drenor ab!se,and,ne&'ect were re/!ent'y c'assiied
t and open'y resistant or avoidant and over,
ctive'y. "oth &ro!ps o chi'dren were very dis,
ported by the presence- in )any cases- o c'ini,
o stress *i.e.- stereotypic behaviors s!ch as
he 'oor- wettin&+. 1!rther)ore- these patterns
inants- b!t a'so in preschoo',a&ed )a'treated
an&e Sit!ation wo!'d ordinari'y be epected to
cate&ory o inant Stran&e Sit!ation behavior
t'y tho!&ht o as a disor&ani2ed or) o one o
tenden views the avoidant(a)biva'ent c'assii,
arate pattern , that is- another or&ani2ation o
Ainsworth as re'evant to the assess)ent osec!,
avior o )a'treated chi'dren in the Crittenden
ibed as or&ani2ed aro!nd reso'vin& the con'ict
or proi)ity to the )other and his epectationshis behavior. That is- the )a'treated chi'd needs
h his )other o''owin& separation as )!ch as
t- his eperiences o previo!s )a'treat)ent
the brie separation o the Stran&e Sit!ation-
ct )ore i)perative. However- the )a'treated
pect that his bids or contact wi'' be i&nored-
hed. The abi'ity o s!ch chi'dren to )aintain
ress o separation toðer with their abi'ity toncontet!a' a&&ression directed away ro) the
sta' and circ!)spect )eans o achievin& pro,
y contro''ed- or or&ani2ed- pattern o behavior.
the disor&ani2ed cate&ory and the avoidant(
other and to the ori&ina' Ainsworth patterns in
here is so)e evidence that the disor&ani2ation
o inants had been reso'ved by the a&e o 4 years
i)i'ar'y both Rad#e,%arrow3s and Crittenden3sa&ed chi'dren who showed the *or&ani2ed+ A(C
at yo!n& chi'dren or&ani2e their behavior )ost
ior is predictab'e re&ard'ess o how sensitive or
'der chi'dren who have had to cope with )a5or
nte&rate that inor)ation into their set o epec,
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ttachment theory 443
anized pattern of responding. The nature of that
research.
ay occur at any age. Some of the indications of
er children and adults resemble the indications of
ancy: undue preoccupation with the whereaboutsd undue difficulty in separating from him or her,
ent figure, chronic anger and resentment toward
or use support from the attachment figure when
absence of feeling toward him or her. !ther indi#
to be observed in infancy are: compulsive com#
e attachment figure, compulsive caregiving, or an
iance and emphasis on independence from any
figure. The conditions leading to such anxiety
ing separation from an attachment figure or per#
ponsiveness of an attachment figure, or inappro#
ese conditions can have impact at any time
$owever, they are more influential when they
because previous experiences influence the way
ived and interpreted.
tional construct
infant%s repeated experiences with his mother
ions regarding the nature of future interactions.
the basis for the infant%s development of internal
f his mother and of himself &'owlby, ()*)+. fhis
tly responsive and sensitive to his signals, he
odel of her as responsive and accessible and of
eliciting her response and worthy of it. Such an
ly attached to his mother &Ainsworth et al., ()-+.however, is of a mother who either does not
or who does not respond appropriately, whether
interfering+ or inconsistent. The representational
hese infants of the mother figure reflects the par#
ior his experience with her has led him to expect.
st her to give the ind of response he wants or
s an image of himself as ineffective in obtaining
worthy of it.
fant forms a representational model of his father
igure&s+ who constitute a prominent part of his
that at first the models of such figures, as well as
of self, are independent of each other. Although
in the course of development it happens, these
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. CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
chment figues !ecome moe o less loosel" inte7
odel of attachment figues. As the child continues
ents and esta!lishes ne% elationships %ith oth7
e'peiences into his models of attachment figue
'tent altes his model accodingl". Thus& at an"n )open model) moe o less open to ne% input
!ased on additional e'peience& o ,pehaps not
ood- ethining of pe(ious e'peience. Ne(e7
e cuent model that the indi(idual tends to pe7
d to see out some pesons and situations and
child %hose e'peiences %ith attachment figues
hole& the tas of integating e'peiences into a
models is elati(el" simple. Occasional e'pei7
fustation& o an'iet" do not loom lage enough
all" positi(e natue of the models. Ho%e(e& fo
%hose e'peiences ha(e led to an'ious attach7
tion is moe difficult. 0o%l!" ,1234& 1256- sug7
of e(en one attachment figue ae liel" to !e
ho is inconsistent& sometimes offeing close com7
it& "et often failing to do so& ma" lead a child to
one of a esponsi(e mothe and anothe that isilal" t%o models of self& one of a peson %ho is
and anothe of a peson %ho is incompetent and
of models ma" altenate %ith one !eing uppe7
times the othe.
liel" to !e complicated !" anothe consideation
(e!al communication impo(es& and the child
competent. No longe ae the models !ased solel"
es of e'peience& !ut integation and geneali$a7ceptual pocesses& so that the conceptual fomu7
actual episodes of e'peience that ga(e ise to it.
tual fomulation ma" !e much influenced !"
po(ided !" the paent. Thus& a child %ho is
ad& and is !eing depi(ed o punished entiel" fo
%ho has onl" his !est inteests at heat& is liel"
he as a %ondeful peson and of himself as gen7
It is this set of models that ae liel" to !e most
%heeas his othe model of his mothe as hash&
to his needs and his model of himself as a lo(e7
esentful of unfai teatment tend to be discon7
ious pocessing& e(en though !ased on epeated
ce.
si(e pocesses ae paticulal" liel" to intefee
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tachment theory 445
models that are accurately based on experience
nt, open to new input and consequent adjust0
as an infant was anxious and avoidant in his
and who defends himself from demanding close0
, tends to close himself off from new experiences,r with others, that might invalidate his expecta0
is feeling of distrust of closeness.
red in the light of attachment theory
synopsis of attachment theory provides several
ich hypotheses can be drawn that may explain
children and maltreating parents. "irst, attach0
portant for individual functioning at all ages,
e of attachments changes as a consequence of
primary function of attachments is to promote
of the young, which is precisely what is at risk
Third, whereas humans are genetically predis0
tterns of behavior, an individual$s actual behav0
s determined by an interplay of environmental%
ious experience with similar situations. The pre0
ed as internal representational models of theuding the emotional flavor associated with expe0
"ourth, actual patterns of attachment behavior
ren$s developmental courses &rather than arrest0
matic stage'. "ifth, the effect of the internal rep0
nderlie anxious attachments is to change behav0
current attachments more stressful and future
e secure. "inally, attachment problems are not
ne person$s psychopathology. (ather, they areccessful a relationship is in providing sufficient
ls are freed to attend to other aspects of their
s possible to predict and understand many seem0
adoxical aspects of abuse and neglect. *n the fol0
r of hypotheses drawn from attachment theory
ith the research relevant to them. The intent is
of the theoretical perspective offered, but rather
asis for considering it seriously. The hypotheses
of individual and dyadic functioning &-' anx0
l conflict, &/' child strategies for coping with par0
coping with the environment, &5' niche0picking,
en the theory and the predicted outcomes is the
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. CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
model of relationships. To the etent that the
maltreatin$ families pro"ides a !asis for inferrin$
dels% those models &an ser"e as the !asis for pre(
relationships. Indeed% information on the nat#re
in maltreatin$ and ade)#ate families has !een
f the #nderl*in$ representational models and to
the &hild+s atta&hment to his or her mother and
,ith net,or- mem!ers and professionals Crit(
These models ,ill !e #sed in the present diss(
der set of h*potheses.
in$ mothers are epe&ted to ha"e ,or-in$ mod(
t% &ontrol% and re5e&tion. Their epe&tations of
ro#nd the idea that others ,ill attempt to domi(
ds of the other and re5e&t them ,hen the* press
et. Their model of themsel"es ,ill !e tied to the
,ill not ,illin$l* $i"e #p% needed ps*&holo$i&al
e)#entl*% &oer&ion and "i&timiation ,ill !e &en(
ons of themsel"es. The a&&ompan*in$ affe&t ,ill
epe&ted to ha"e models &enterin$ aro#nd the
he* ,ill not per&ei"e others as ha"in$% or !ein$
* need. Neither ,ill the* see themsel"es as effe&(nd s#pport of others. The affe&t a&&ompan*in$
one of emptiness and depression.
ontrast% ,ill ha"e models &entered aro#nd ideas
&it*. The* ,ill per&ei"e others as helpf#l and
i"e themsel"es as &apa!le of o!tainin$ help and
and also of pro"idin$ s#pport to others. The
e one of satisfa&tion Crittenden% /012!3.
ral h*potheses% !ased on atta&hment theor* andor-in$ models% re$ardin$ the !eha"ior of mal(
atin$ parents.
families ,ill !e epe&ted to form anio#s atta&h(
. 7or maltreated &hildren% this ,o#ld mean an(
nts3. 7or maltreatin$ ad#lts% this ,o#ld in&l#de
e ad#lts+ parents% to their partners% and to their
anio#s atta&hments ,o#ld !e distorted internal
f the self and others3. The )#alit* of pre"io#s
infl#en&e% !#t not ,holl* determine% the nat#re
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attachment theory 447
ence that relationships in abusing families are anx3
tigations using the Strange Situation procedure
to assess the $ualit% of the child&s relationship to
ren, ranging in age from Ito 4 %ears, have been
tached to their mothers ('rittenden, !"a, !"b)!") +aensbauer and armon, !"-) Schneider3
on, and 'icchetti, !"# and to show the anxious0
cular. 1onlaborator% derived evidence of anxious
ing mothers and their children comes from a stud%
n&s response to protective da%care ('rittenden,
fer $ualit% of attachment from observations of par3
s previousl% noted, maternal insensitivit% (i.e.,ponsiveness# in interaction with the child has been
xiet% in the Strange Situation (Ainsworth et aI.,
d Ta%lor, !"4) 'rittenden, !"a) Sroufe, !"#.
ence that abusing mothers are more harsh, interfer3
ative when interacting with their children (/urgess
den, !", !") 'rittenden and /onvillian, !"4)
feld, !"2) ash, 8ohnson, and 9ovit:, !"2) ob3
7!) 6asserman, +reen, and hianon, !"2#. Such
ervations of children across the full range of child3
inference that maltreated children of all ages will
ched to their parents.
e nature of adult attachments to parents, partners,
primaril% from famil% histor% data regarding the
such relationships. /ased on the inferred nature of
of relationships, it would be expected that mother3
uld be non3egalitarian (i.e., composed of a domi3
artner# and that there would be conflict over thesenerall% consistent with this h%pothesis in terms of
en marriages, and, especiall%, wife abuse (/aldwin
ohl and errenohl, !") 8ohnson and orse,
of ental ealth, !77) =err%, 6ells, and 5oran,
, !"#. oreover, following a separation, man%
another abusive partner or remain single, whereas
more liel% to remain with the children&s father or
rson, Schellenbach, and 'onger, !") >riedman,rom, !7!) 9otelchuc, !"-#. This suggests an
he abusing parents to incorporate new information
s increasing the lielihood of the repetition of pre3
:ation of the concept of maternal bonding to the
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. CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
numerous suggestons that ma!treatng mothers
ther %h!#ren &He!'er, ()*+ Hur#, ()*- "n%h
gh there s no 'orma! assessment o' the $resen%e
seems reasonab!e to assume that a mother 0ho
n'ant su''%ent!" to mantan !'e has 'orme# a$ossb!e that the nature o' that bon# s #''erent
than 'or a#e2uate mothers. One stu#" that has
orte# that mothers 0ho !ater abuse# or neg!e%te#
ther atttu#es to0ar# the $regnan%", n ther
me#ate!" 'o!!o0ng #e!ver", an# n ther behav>
# &5ra", Cut!er, Dean, an# 6em$e, ()**/. Ho0>
!ess sub7e%tve measures 'oun# no ev#en%e o'
ng mothers &Ege!an# an# aughn, ()8(/. Stu#es
''e%tveness o' nterventons to m$rove bon#ng
ts su%h that t s un%!ear 0hether or not e3ten#e#
9or home vstaton are he!$'u! &5ra" et a, ()**
Saun#ers, an# Ingram, ()8;/.
an3ous atta%hment o' an abusng $arent to her
0th the e3$e%taton o' an an3ous re!atonsh$
. Abusng $arents have re$orte# beng abuse# b"
)*; S!ver, :arton, an# Dub!n, ()+*/ or beng
oo# &6ote!%hu%1, ()8mo#a! %!ass'%atons #''ere# 'rom that
te# %h!#ren 0ho 0ere not avo#ant ten#e# to be
ra%ton 0th ther mothers, neg!e%te# %h!#renthan ether #''%u!t or %om$u!sve!" %om$!ant
%e that neg!e%tng a#u!ts 'n# t #''%u!t to !eave
hment re!atonsh$s 0th rron'am!a! $artners
then the neg!e%tng mother=s o0n mother serves
e %h!#ren, thus enab!ng the mother to avo# the
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tachment theory 449
ch individuals take on reciprocal, care"giving
that anxious attachments will be associated with
the individual that, in extreme cases such as
to behavior that would otherwise be considered
is, of course, the situation of the abused infant.
forming an attachment to his primary caregiver
ches him that this attachment figure may be ahere is evidence that anxiously attached children
gry with the parent and also seek excessive close"
children would be expected to defend and pro"
ndangers them. #ndeed, many investigations of
by the child$s unwillingness to implicate the per"
the child$s protection from parental reprisal has
bused children, especially girls, have been found
s though the parent"child roles were reversed
, *9++ -orris and ould, *9/0 Steele and 1ol"
is not dissimilar to 3owlby$s concept of compul"
way of maintaining closeness to an attachment
ing pervasive anger with the person being cared
uld be expected to show similar incompatible
n although the child is particularly sought as the
er possesses and who will love her back. #n fact,
other$s intrusiveness may be interpreted by thegger her own re!ection of him. The child$s use of
e mother and often promiscuous seeking of affil"
have similar effects the mother did not want to
but neither did she want a demonstration of her
without her or to obtain support from someone
esire to establish more satisfying and secure rela"
scents and maltreating adults would be expected
iduals who will tend to contribute to the main"tionships. -any would unwittingly carry into
wariness or suspicion of other people and exces"
from the few who were known well. hen cur"
unsatisfying, there could easily be a precipitous
ully, more rewarding attachment. owever, the
and5or previous partners would remain stressful
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CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
!" de#andin$ness% distust% and h!stilit& !uld
. *uthe% thee is a eas!na(le li+elih!!d that
pe)eive (!th the sp!use and an& )hilden as
n)e athe than as e)ipients !" nutuan)e.
e)t% the paad!, is that individuals h! despe-
supp!t !" !thes ael& see+ it ! see# )!#-
ve it. nde the stess !"a (ie" sepaati!n "!#
en esp!nd t! the need "! thei #!thes ith
!a#in$ a!und the !!# /Cittenden% 125a3
126. Ne$le)tin$ adults esp!nd t! the !pp!-
ithdaal and7! a denial !" "eelin$s !" l!ne-
n% 122a3 P!lans+&% audin% A##!ns% and
lteat#ent ill (e ass!)iated ith di""eent !$a-
elevant t! the )hilden's intea)ti!n ith the
ani8ati!ns )an (e e,pe)ted t! )han$e as a "un)-
e)t the )!#petin$ desies !" #alteated )hilden.
$es in the die)ti!n !" devel!p#ent athe than
l p!)esses at an in"antile sta$e.
ith thei #!thes% a(used in"ants have (een
than !the in"ants3 h!eve% the eviden)e su$-
ehavi! is tied t! the i##ediate intepes!nal
!" innate in"ant te#pea#ent /Cittenden% 12%
!thes' esp!nse t! su)h (ehavi! is !"ten t!
"ant% thus in)easin$ his distess. Su)h a #!the in he atte#pts t! satis"& he (a(&. I"she )ann!t
nd app!piatel& t! he )hild's (ehavi!al )ues
n t! please he% !ne !uld e,pe)t the )!n"li)t t!
"uthe endan$ein$ the in"ant.
that% t!ad the end !" the "ist &ea !"'li"e% #an&
t! a))!##!date thei #!thes% "ist% (& inhi(-
nd% late% (& leanin$ t! t!leate thei #!thes'
int and even t! )!#pl& ith he desies /Cit-and Di9alla% 1226. :& s! d!in$ the& )han$e the
!# #utual an$e t! supe"i)ial )!!peati!n and
dea(le eviden)e that #an& !lde a(used )hil-
l% vi$ilant% and )!#pliant /een% aines% and
Oppenhei#e% and 9indsa&% 1;56.
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tachment theory 451
children make the transition from resistant to
larly if there is no way for the child to predict
e parent (as in abuse$and$neglect, see below, it
for him or her to inhibit some behaviors and
please the mother. "hus, by the second year ofatterns for coping with the distress ofliving with
to have developed# a negative, resistant one and
one.
ct their children would be e!pected to foster dif$
ponse. %ike abused children, neglected children
achment figure when they are an!ious or under
sed children, they have learned that their moth$signals. "hey learn that they are ineffective at
and obtaining maternal cooperation in meeting
, most children would be e!pected to intensify
uced results, they would probably maintain a
and demanding behavior. n the other hand, if
ded to the intensified attachment behavior, they
become depressed and withdrawn or to ignore
heir pursuit of other satisfactions. 'n addition,g children and the active, disorgani)ed children
raw forth a response from their environment,
o their mothers. 'f their generally unresponsive
and angered by their intensified demands, the
ce the interpersonal conditions associated with
.
t
these styles of interpersonal behavior will be
of the children+s e!ploration of their environ$
postulate that the attachment and e!ploration
on best when balanced with each other. "hus,
nger, the attachment system is activated, result$
other and child. -hen child and mother feel
l free to e!plore the environment safely. ecause
ither protected ade/uately by pro!imity to theelief that she will be available, their ability to
y would be e!pected to be impaired.
ho were avoidant of their mothers could be
d successfully only when there were (lno indi$
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CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
on!ent and "2# no indicators of !aterna$ stress
tions the' co&$d e()ect to *e safe. When there
or !aterna$ signa$s of danger, the' +o&$d face
t. The st&dies &sing the Strange Sit&ation indi
ons so!e a*&sed chi$dren are a*$e to !aintain, +hereas others are *oth s&fficient$' an(io&s to
!other and a$so s&fficient$' angr' to *e &na*$e
$', dis)$a'ing *oth aoidance and a!*ia$ence
The aoidant chi$dren +o&$d th&s *e e()ected
e()$orator' *ehaior, +hereas the !ore dis
ght *e )reocc&)ied +ith !anaging their safet'
'. St&dies *' Crittenden "/015a#, Dietrich et a$.
! "/0# s&))ort these e()ectations in ter!s of#8 a*&sed chi$dren, as a gro&), hae $o+er D7s
$dren. When the D7 of the a*&sed chi$dren is
their tendenc' to &se the co!)&$sie-co!)$iant
*eco!es c$ear that there are i!)ortant +ithin
t a*&sed chi$dren tend to hae higher than nor
chi$dren +ho are )assie-+ithdra+n or diffic&$t
"Crittenden and Di9a$$a, /011#.
dra+n chi$dren +o&$d *e e()ected to find it dif
fro! their !others to ena*$e the! to e()$ore
esta*$ish re$ationshi)s +ith other )eo)$e8 the'
&na*$e to e()$oit the $earning )otentia$ of their
dent&ro&s neg$ected chi$dren +o&$d hae the
rience, *&t at ris to their safet' and +itho&t the
fa!i$' !e!*ers in attach!ent re$ationshi)s
t other as)ects of their socia$ eco$og', s&ch as
, and, for the chi$dren, schoo$ e()eriences. The
tterns of *ehaior +o&$d genera$i;e to inc$&de
inc$&de the )erce)tion and inter)retation of
!ode$s of rea$it' and the tendenc' to re)eat
or in ne+ sit&ations.
ed chi$dren are co!)$iant +ith ad&$ts, there is
an' are aggressie, *oth in and o&t of schoo$ or
a$ston, /0/8
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ent theory 453
ers. Such vigilance resulting from internal
e could easily lead the abused child to mis
and to respond with aggression himself. Of
his aggression will only confirm his model.
abused adolescent males and promiscuousther change in coping strategy !Silver et al.,
more mature, although eually inappro
ssociated with violence at home and reflect,
tence and control that comes from ta(ing
, the attempt to find security and acceptance
reating and adeuate mothers have been
he mothers) relationships with their infantsothers appear to have the social s(ills to
ver, those relationships are neither stable
b&. 'nstead, abusing mothers perceive their
endable and they in tum are perceived by
e. /ost abusing mothers) relationships are
nd in violent uarrels and enduring bitter
arents find it relatively easy to obtain 1obs,m any length of time. The most common
e disputes with the employer or cowor(ers.
e relation between fathers) 1ob satisfaction
ildren. lthough this finding has been inter
tatus leads to violence, it is eually possible
o manage personal relationships so as either
d personal satisfaction in the 1obs they have
perative relationships with their children.
en neglected tend either to be withdrawn
organied, active, and aggressive.
hips reflect distortions similar to those of
They have very few friendships outside of
ve tend to be seen infreuently and (nown
- audin and olans(y, "#+$- olans(y,
behavior would be predicted to be adaptive
nse of promoting their immediate survival
ongterm !ultimate& sense of personal men
rvival. The maladaptation would be based
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. CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
at defensive ode!s ip!" per#eptua! e$#!usion
on of the eanin% of soe iportant per#eived
of t&o patterns shou!d 'e #onsidered( #opu!sivetan#e. The #opu!sive!" #op!iant #hi!d in inter)
nt inhi'its responses that the parent dis!i*es and
parent prefers. This strate%" has the advanta%e of
a! vio!en#e. It is a!so !i*e!" to tea#h the #hi!d to
rpersona! 'ehavior of others+ this s*i!! a" prove
ations. In addition, the #op!iant strate%" a"
d-or nurturan#e of the parent ifthe parent desires
. Ho&ever, these out#oes are the resu!t of the
in &a"s that do not ref!e#t his fee!in%s. The an%er
ons that !ed to inhi'ition a" 'e#oe asso#iated
o a diinution of satisfa#tion in a#hieveent and
% &ith an%er and #oer#ion. Thus, a #opu!sive
% &ith a'use a" #oe to #onsist of /I0 e$#essive
attendant ris* of s"steati# isinterpretation of
10 superfi#ia! #op!ian#e in situations in &hi#h
po&erfu! /&ith the ris* of never testin% the is)
rdin% the possi'!e hosti!it" of others0, and /20s* of possi'!" e$#!udin% soe eotions fro per)
pattern is often !a'e!ed anipu!ative and a"
ponse of 'oth soe a'used #hi!dren and an"
nsistent &ith the deve!opent of representa)
as po&erfu! and hosti!e, the se!f as !ova'!e
an eotiona! overtone of an$iet" and repressed
eain overt!" an%r" and resistant fa#e different!" to e$perien#e #ontinued parenta! an%er and
" their o&n fee!in%s. Thus, their ode! of others
their ode! of these!ves #ou!d in#!ude 3ustifi)
'ehavior. Therefore, overt!" an%r" a'used #hi!)
e$#!ude inforation defensive!" or to s"steati)
ver, the #osts of su#h a deve!openta! path&a"
ed a'use and the possi'i!it" that an%er &i!! per)
!s 'ehavior, thus !eadin% to the a##urate per#ep)and, in the e$tree, to de!inuen#". The 'a!an#e
as opposed to defensive0 ode!s that #an be #on)
idua! finds a ore responsive su'stitute atta#h)
at the individua!s an%er &i!! #oe to doinate
.
tiona!e are s#ar#e, 'ut &hat !itt!e there are, are
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achment theory 455
e been abused but do not themselves abuse their
more open about their anger over their mistreat
ir decision not to follow their parents' model
". #oreover, these parents report having sup
$ther nonabusing but formerl% abused parentstant supportive relationship during childhood.
ve not onl% the immediate advantage ofhe1ping
lt eperiences, but also the longterm advantage
models to include more positive images of the
sociated feeling of satisfaction. &uch changes
the individual will be able to form other sup
future.
dence that members of abusing families do per
e differentl% from other people. Although there
hildren are constitutionall% or temperamentall%
(+rittenden, 15a- geland and &roufe, 11-
/", there is considerable evidence that their
be so (Herren)ohl and Herren)ohl, 11".
have been thought to have higher epectations
ute intentions to them inappropriatel%, the evi
ravit0 and riscoll, 12- 3osenberg and 3ep
n abusing mothers have been shown videotaped
ppear to respond more negativel% and feel more
rodi and amb, 16". *his suggests that the
epectations or attributions or with insufficient
elopment- instead, the problem seems to be tied
d emotional responses.
of abused children, there is some evidence that
ceptive of the social behavior of adults (+um
ad)e9arrow, 11" and less perceptive of theiravior (+amras, :row, and 3ibord%, 12". ur
such sensitivit% is tied to ;
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. CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
dren, the to !ri"#r$ !#ttern% to &e con%idered
e!re%%ion* #nd +ndi%ci!lined #cti(it$. Mo%t
!#rent% too +nre%!on%i(e or the" to de(elo! #
er, #% the$ de(elo! "o&ilit$, the$ the"%el(e%
n#t+re o their en(iron"ent. In !#rtic+l#r, the$i"+l#tion ro" #ll #%!ect% o their en(iron"ent.
d#!ti(e #nd d#ngero+%. It!ro(ide% the o!!ort+
orld #% ell #% contingencie% in it/ hoe(er,
o+t or the el#re o the $o+ng neglected child,
l h#r". In #ddition, the child0% %e#rch or %ti"
rg#ni1ed, relecting hi% l#c- o e'!erience ith
t thin-ing #&o+t h$!er#cti(e children %+gge%t%
er%ti"+l#ted, the$ #re +nder%ti"+l#ted to the
% #ttention )2+#$, 35*. S+ch # r#tion#le o+ld
ct+red &eh#(ior o %o"e neglected children.
#re #&le to oer little to their child &e$ond the
t#in lie. The$ neither re%!ond to their child0%
their child0% #cce%% to # %ti"+l#ting en(iron"ent.
neither le#rn %tr#tegie% or eng#ging their !#rent
oring the en(iron"ent. Their !#%%i(it$ i% # or"
e%+lt% ro" # l#c- o ##rene%% o the !otenti#l
S+ch children c#nnot &e de%cri&ed #% co!ing ith
g (icti"i1ed &$ it.
lect. The e(idence !re%ented %+gge%t% th#t the
#ltre#t"ent dier% #ccording to t$!e o "#ltre#t
!re%ent#tion i% di%torted in to #$%. Fir%t, it
re#t"ent i% o %i"il#r %e(erit$ or th#t %e(erit$ i%
cond, it #%%+"e% th#t the condition% o #&+%e #nd
%i(e. O co+r%e, neither #%%+"!tion relect% ther#tion#le #% !re%ented ith the%e di%tortion% or
to highlight the dierenti#l n#t+re o the to
the contr#r$, it i% nece%%#r$ to gr#!!le #t le#%t
%it+#tion%. D#t# on to gro+!% o children #re
#(e &een onl$ "#rgin#ll$ "#ltre#ted #nd tho%e
#nd neglected.
"#rgin#ll$ "#ltre#ted gener#ll$ %ho # !#ttern
hich i%, #% e'!ected, le%% e'tre"e th#n in "#l "ild de(elo!"ent#l del#$, gener#l coo!er#
r#ction ith their !#rent%, #nd "ildl$ #n'io+%
3, 35#, 3#, &*. Si"il#rl$, their "other%
#nce in childre#ring !r#ctice%. The !ri"#r$ di
en #!!e#r% not to &e the "#ltre#t"ent it%el &+t
Where#% their "other% #re in %o"e #$% #nd #t
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ent theory 457
ive, at others they are harsh and/or unre-
children both to determine what causes the
ior and also to develop internal models of
that are consistent and useful in predicting
, generalized anxiety and sometimes undis-children to social and academic problems.
n, in contrast, experience general unrespon-
of harshness. ften both their exploration
for attention lead to parental punitiveness.
unresponsiveness that the abused and the
an ma#e regarding their parents' behavior
ir parents and themselves. Although the sit-
d and unpleasant, children who experiencecan often learn to cope with the predictable
not true for the abused-and-neglected child.
istortions and, further, finds that his own
be expected that the coping strategies used
flagrant acting out with extreme disregard
d withdrawal, severe psychosomatic illness,
ns of deflecting the anger of the threatening
of these !%rittenden, &((a, b, c".
mpt to apply the principles of attachment
nt. In the process, a number of points have
has pervasive psychological effects* the
e+ually well to cases with or without physi-
utcomes of maltreatment are developmentalferent aspects of personal functioning at dif-
affect the direction of future development
problematic and immature stage. Third,
different ages, there is developmental coher-
nd izley, &(&, p. ". )ourth, the devel-
outcome of individual differences as well as
y, the experience of abuse is +uite different
ith regard both to parental behavior and togies.
ot intended to focus on dyadic, attachment-
t to the exclusion of organismic or societal
d to provide a means of !&" identifying a
the impact of many associated conditions
maltreatment affects so many areas of indi-
d !" identifying those individuals and fam-
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CRITTENDEN AND M. D. S. AINSWORTH
le to other sour"es o# i#lue"e a$ to su%%est
The a$vata%e o# "osi$eri% a&ious atta"h
is that it im(lies a (ro"ess throu%h whi"h its
as o((ose$ to merel* i$eti#*i% the "orrelates
e (arsimoious without !ei% trivial.theoreti"al a((roa"h is a trasa"tioal e"olo%i
eviromet asso"iate$ with maltreatmet a$
as well as o (aretal "hara"teristi"s. As i$i
il$ varia!les $o ot) i well "otrolle$ stu$ies)
$ o maltreati% #amilies. O the other ha$
ilit* to eli"it materal res(osiveess) es(e"iall*
usatis#*i% materal !ehavior. Su"h situatios
rs(e"tive o# atta"hmet theor*) as re#le"ti% theather tha as !ei% a (aret or a "hil$ "hara"ter
or* is ot ui$ire"tioal i its a((roa"h to "au
i$ivi$uals- e&(erie"es with atta"hmet #i%ures
hreatei% as well as what (atters o# "o(i% are
#lue"e) there is "osi$era!le evi$e"e that the
omi" status are also the "orrelates o# maltreat
some so"ietal "o$itios have !ee asso"iate$
altreatmet #or e&am(le) i"reases i uem
te$ with i"reases i a!use /0usti"e a$ Du"a)
1234. The ature o# the asso"iatio is ot "lear.
th a uem(lo*e$ #ather a!use their "hil$re) it
h* some #amilies) a$ ot others) are vulera!le
t o# their "hil$re. It is (ro(ose$ here that $is
i(s i the #amil* leave #amil* mem!ers vuler
situatios su"h as uem(lo*met. The (oit is
are irrelevat to the i"i$e"e o# maltreatmet.the 7ualit* o# relatioshi(s is o a "otiuum)
te&t ma* $etermie the (oit alo% the se"ure
i"h ris+ #or maltreatmet !e"omes immiet.
t o# $eleterious so"ial "o$itios ol* allows oe
"e o# maltreatmet. owi% the ature o# #am
a$ the i$ivi$uals- asso"iate$ re(resetatioal
to s(e"i#* more (re"isel* whi"h #amilies a$9or
t vulera!le to e&teral stressors.e$ to su((ort this a$ the other h*(otheses
% or o# (oor 7ualit* as a result o# (oorl* mea
servatios) et". This is es(e"iall* true i ol$er
ets. I a$$itio) ver* little o# the evi$e"e was
e&t o# testi% atta"hmet theor*. This is u#or
o# itsel#) $imiish the (otetial o# atta"hmet
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ent theory 459
testable hypotheses regarding the nature,
ment. Itis now necessary that investigators
k, 198, and !tarr, 198, to test other thee:arro, M. (191!. oung 5$%drens res4onsesa++e'$on )& o'5ers $n '5e +a#$%&. Child Development, 86, 167:
We$s+e%d, 0. E. (19!. In+an' #a%'rea'#en'< Care'a>er:$n+an'a% onse;uenes a' d$++eren' %e*e%s o+ 4aren'$ng +a$%ure. Pedi-
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ttachment in human "ehavior (44. 98:117!. Ne or>< Bas$
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$#e. Child Development, 88. 78:771.
1!. De*e%o4#en'a% se;ue%ae o+ #a%'rea'#en' $n $n+an&, New
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1!. "a$%ure o+ F)ond +or#a'$onF as a ause o+ a)use, neg%e',
Journal of (rthopsychiatry, 81,7:.
a''a5#en' $n $n+an&< Con'r$)u'$ons o+ #o'5ers re4resen'a:
and 5$%d are a''$'udes. Gn4u)%$s5ed do'ora% d$sser'a'$on,
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I. (1977!. Ro%e re*ersa% $n a)usedneg%e'ed +a#$%$es< I#4%$:
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ew of ps!hoso!ial resear!h. "n #efner and Compan
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e&le!'.
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