BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ - scert.kerala.gov.in · I Ime-Øns‚ Bcw`w apX¬ (From the Beginning of Time)...

$: BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ - scert.kerala.gov.in · I Ime-Øns‚ Bcw`w apX¬ (From the Beginning of Time) FgpØpw \Kc Pohn-Xhpw (Writing and City Life) BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ (EARLY SOCIETIES)$
IIme-Øns‚ Bcw`w apX¬

(From the Beginning of Time)

FgpØpw \Kc Pohn-Xhpw(Writing and City Life)

BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ

(EARLY SOCIETIES)

12temI-N-cn-{X-Ønse {]ta-b-ßƒ

Cu hn`m-K-Øn¬, BZy-Ime kaq-l-ß-fp-ambn _‘-s∏´ c≠p {]ta-b-ß-fmWv\mw N¿® sNøp-∂-Xv. a\p-jy-Po-hnXw Zi-e-£-°-W-°n\v h¿j-ßƒ°v apºp≈hnZqc `qX-Im-e-Øn¬ Fßs\ Bcw- n®p F∂mWv H∂mw {]ta-b-Øn-ep-≈-Xv.a\p-jy≥ B{^n-°-bn¬ BZy-ambn Fß-s\-bmWv DZbw sNbvX-sX∂pw Aÿn-I-fp-sSbpw inembp]-I-c-W-ß-fp-sSbpw Ah-in-jvS-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Cu BZy-ImeNcn-{X-L- sØ°pdn®v ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-I¿ Fßs\bmWv ]T\w \S-Øn-bsX-∂p-w \nßƒ a\- n-em-°pw.

GXp coXn-bn-ep≈ hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fn-emWv BZna P\-ßƒ hkn-®n-cp-∂-sX∂pw F{]-Im-c-amWv ktkym¬∏-∂-ßƒ tiJ-cn®pw arK-ßsf th -bm-SnbpwAh¿ `£Ww Ign-®n-cp-∂-sX∂pw Ah¿ kzbw Bhn-jvI-cn-®-sX-ß-s\-sb∂pwIs≠-Øm≥ {ian-®p-sIm≠v BZy-Ime P\-ß-fpsS PohnXßsf ]p\¿\n¿Ωn-°m≥]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-I¿ ]e {ia-ßfpw \S-Øn-bn- p-≠v. mj-bp-sSbpw Xobp-sSbpwD]-tbm-K-amWv a‰p {][m\ hnI-k-\-ß-fn¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-∂-Xv. Ah-km-\-ambn th -bm-Sepw tiJ-c-Whpw sIm≠v C∂pw D]-Po-h\w \S-Øp∂ P\-ß-fpsS Pohn-X-ß-fn¬ \n∂pw `qX-Im-esØ a\- n-em-°m≥ \ap°v Ign-bp-tam-sb∂v \nßƒIs≠Øm≥ t]mhp-I-bm-Wv.

c≠m-asØ {]tabw C∂v CdmJv F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp∂ saskms∏mt -anbbnseNne BZyIme \K-c-ßsf°pdn®v {]Xn-]m-Zn-°p-∂p. t£{X-ßƒ°v Np‰p-ambnhnImkw {]m]n® Cu \K-c-ßƒ hnZqchym]mcØns‚ tI{μ-ß-fm-bn-cp-∂p. ]pcm-hkvXp sXfn-hp-Iƒ ˛ ]gb hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fpsS Ah-in-jvS-ßƒ ˛ [mcm-f-ambne`n® enJn-X-ßƒ F∂nh D]-tbm-Kn®p sIm≠v ssIsØm-gn-ep-Im-¿, ]I¿sØ-gp-Øp-Im¿, sXmgn-em-fn-Iƒ, ]ptcm-ln-X¿, cmPm-°-∑m¿, cm⁄n-am¿ XpS-ßn AhnsShkn-®n-cp∂ hyXykvX P\-hn- m-K-ß-fpsS Pohn-XsØ ]p\¿\n¿Ωn-°p-hm≥ Ign-™n- p-≠v. Ch-bn¬ Nne \K-c-ß-fn¬ CSbP\X {][m-\-s∏´ ]¶v hln®sXßs\-sb∂pw \nßƒ a\- n-em-°pw. FgpØp-hnZy hnI-kn-®n-√m-bn-cp-s∂-¶n¬ \K-c-ßfnep-≠mb H -\-h[n {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ km[y-am-Ip-am-bn-cpt∂m F∂pw Nn¥n-t°-≠-Xp≠v.

Zi-e£°W-°n\v h¿j-ß-fmbn h\-ß-fnepw Kpl-I-fnepw AYhmXm¬°m-enI hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fnepw hkn-®n-cp∂ a\p-jy≥ Fß-s\-bmWv HSp-hn¬{Kma-ß-fnepw \K-c-ß-fnepw hkn-°phm≥ XpS-ßn-bXv F∂v \nßƒ B›-cy-s∏-t -°mw. Cu IY hfsc \o≠Xpw BZy \K-c-ß-fpsS cq]o-I-c-W-Øn\pw Ipd-™Xv 5000 h¿j-ßƒ°p-ap-ºp≈ ]e-Xcw hnIm-k-ß-fp-ambn _‘-s∏- -Xp-am-Wv.

\mtSmSn Pohn-X-Øn¬ \n∂v ÿnc-hm-k Irjn-bn-te-°p≈ am‰-am-bn-cp∂pG‰hpw {][m-\-s∏´ am‰w. CXv GI-tZiw 10000 h¿j-ßƒ°v apºv XpS-ßn-b-Xm-Wv. Irjnk{º-Zmbw kzoI-cn-°p-∂-Xn\v apºv kky-ß-fn¬ \n∂v tiJ-cn-°p∂hkvXp-°-sf-bmWv £n-®n-cp-∂Xv F∂v {]tabw H∂n¬ \nßƒ°v ImWm≥ Ign-bpw. {Ita-W, Ah¿ hyXykvX Xc-Øn-ep≈ kky-ßƒ Fhn-sS-bmWv hf-cp-∂-sX∂pw GXv Ime-ß-fn-emWv Ah-bn¬ \n∂v e-ßƒ e`n-°p-∂-sX∂pw IqSp-X¬]Tn-®p. Cu Adn-hns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ Ah¿ kky-ßsf \´p-h-f¿Øp-hm≥]Tn-®p. tKmX-ºv, _m¿en, hnhn-[-Xcw ]b-dp-h¿K-ßƒ F∂nh ]›ntajy-bn¬\´p-h-f-¿Øn. Xn\bpw s\√pam-bn-cp∂p Ing°≥, sX°p-In-g-°≥ Gjy-bn¬ Ffp-∏-Øn¬ hf-cp∂ hnf-Iƒ. Xn\ B{^n-°-bnepw Irjn-sN-bvXn-cp∂p. GI-tZiwAtX ka-bØv Xs∂, sNΩ-cn-bm-Sv, BSv, I∂p-Im-en-Iƒ, ]∂n, IgpX apX-emb

BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ(EARLY SOCIETIES)

Ime-Øns‚ Bcw`w apX¬ 13

arK-ßsf CW°n hf¿Øp∂Xv Fß-s\-sb∂v a\p-jy≥ ]Tn-®p. ]cp-Øn, NWwF∂o sNSn-I-fpsS \mcpw arK-ß-fpsS tcmahpw D]-tbm-Kn®v hkv{X-ßƒ s\øp-I-bp-≠m-bn. ]n∂oSv Ipd®v Ime-Øn\vv tijw GI-tZiw 5000 h¿j-ßƒ°v-apºv,hf¿Øp-ar-K-ß-fmb I∂p-Im-en-I-ƒ, Igp-X-Iƒ XpS-ßnbhsb Ie-∏-tbmSpw N{I-h-≠n-I-tfmSpw Iq´n-bn-W°n \new Dgp--∂-Xn\pw h≠n hen-°p-∂-Xn\pw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-hm≥ XpS-ßn.

Cu hnI-k-\-ßƒ a‰p am‰-ß-fn-te°pw \bn-®p. P\-ßƒ hnf-Iƒhf¿Ønb-t∏mƒ Ah ]mI-am-Ip-∂-Xp-hsc AtX ÿeØp Xs∂ Xma-kn-t°≠n-h∂p. AtXm-sS, ÿnchmk-w IqSp-X¬ km[m-c-W-am-bn. AtXm-sS Xma-kn-°phm\mbn a\p-jy¿ IqSp-X¬ ÿnc-\n¿Ωm-W-ßƒ \S-Øp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

Cu ka-bØpXs∂bmWv Nne P\hn`m-K-ßƒ a¨]m-{X-ßƒ Fßs\\n¿Ωn-°m-sa∂v ]Tn-®-Xv. [m\y-ßfpw a‰v D¬∏-∂-ßfpw kw -cn-°m\pw IrjnsNbvXp-≠m-°p∂ [m\y-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Xbm-dm-°p-hm≥ Ign-bp∂ hyXy-kvX-amb`£y-hn- -h-ßƒ ]mNIw sNøp-∂-Xn\pw Cu a¨]m-{X-ßƒ D]-tbm-Kn-®p. hmkvX-h-Øn¬ Blm-cw Xbm-dm-°p-tºmƒ AXns‚ cpNnbpw Zl-\-ti-jnbpw h¿[n-∏n-°p∂Xn¬ Ah¿ {]tXyIw {i≤n-®n-cp∂p.

ine-Iƒ sIm≠p≈ D]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿Ωn-°p∂ coXn-I-fnepw am‰w h∂p.BZyIme coXn-bn-ep≈ D]-I-c-W-ß-fpsS \n¿ΩmWw XpS-cth Xs∂, Nne D]-I-c-W-ßfpw Bbp-[-ßfpw Dc-k¬ {]{In-b-bn-eqsS an\p-k-s∏-Sp-Øp-Ibpw sNbvXp.Ac-I-√pw, De-°bpw Dƒs∏-sS-bp≈ ]pXnb D]-I-c-W-ßƒ [m\y-ßƒ Xbm-dm-°p-∂-Xn\pw, I√p-sIm-≠p≈ agphpw ssIt°m´pw Irjn°v th≠n-bp≈ qan Hcp-°p-∂-Xn\pw hnØp-Iƒ hnX-bv°p-∂-Xn\mbn \neØv Ipgn-Ip-Øp-∂-Xn\pw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-hm≥ XpS-ßn.

Nne {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬, sNºv, shfp-Øobw (Sn≥) XpS-ßnb teml-ß-fpsSAbn-cp-Iƒ Is≠Øphm≥ P\-ßƒ ]Tn-®p. Nne-t∏mƒ, sNºns‚ Abncv tiJ-cn-°p-Ibpw khn-tij-amb \oeIe¿∂ ]® \ndØn\mbn Ahsb D]-tbm-Kn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. Cu Adnhv ]n∂oSv B -c-W-ßƒ°pw D]-I-c-W-ßƒ°pw th≠n-bp≈ teml-ß-fpsS hym]-I-amb D]-tbm-K-Øn-te°v hgn-Im- n.

hnZqcamb {]tZ-i-ß-fnepw (IS-ep-Ifnepw) D≈ D¬∏∂-ßƒ IqSp-X¬ ]cn-Nn-X-am-bn. XSn-Iƒ, hne-]n-Sn-∏p-≈Xpw mKn-I-ambn hne-]n-Sn-∏p≈Xpamb I√pIƒ,teml-ßƒ, Nn∏n-Iƒ, Dd® A·n-]¿hX emh-Iƒ F∂nh CXn-¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-∂p.D¬∏∂-ßfpw Bi-b-ßfpw hln-®psIm≠v P\-ßƒ Hcp ÿeØp \n∂pw as‰mcpÿe-tØ°v k©-cn-®psh∂v CXn¬ \n∂pw hy‡-am-Wv.

hym]mcw h¿[n-®-tXm-sS, \K-c-ßfpw {Kma-ßfpw hf¿∂-tXmsS, P\-ß-fpsS k©m-chpw h¿[n-®p. BZy-Ime P\-ß-fpsS sNdnb kaql-ß-fpsS ÿm\ØvsNdnb cmjv{S-ßƒ hf¿∂ph∂p. kmh-[m-\-Øn¬ Bbn-c-°-W-°n\v h¿j-ß-fn-eqsSbmWv Cu am‰-ßƒ \S-∂Xv. F∂m¬ BZy-\-K-c-ß-fpsS hf¿®-tbmSp IqSnAXns‚ thKX h¿[n-®p. IqSmsX Cu am‰-ßƒ Zqc-hym-]-I-amb e-ßƒ D≠m-°n. Nne ]fin-X-∑m¿ CXns\ Hcp hnπ-h-am-bn- mWv hnti-jn-∏n-°p-∂-Xv, ImcWwP\-Po-hnXw Xncn-®-dn-bm-\m-ImØ hn[ap≈ am‰-Øn\p hnt[-b-am-bn. BZy-Ime Ncn-{X-Øns‚ ]c-kv]chncp-≤-ß-fmb Cu c≠v {]ta-b-ßƒ ]Tn-°p-∂-Xn-t\m-sSm∏wAXns‚ XpS¿®-tbbpw am‰-ß-tfbpw IqSn Is≠-Øp-I.

BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßfpsS Nne DZm-l-c-W-ßƒ am{X-amWv hni-Z-amb ]T-\-Øn-\p-th≠n Rßƒ Xnc-s™-Sp-Øn- p-≈Xv F∂pw \nßƒ Hm¿Øn-cn-t°-≠-Xp-≠v. Im¿jnI kap-Zm-b-ßfpw CS-b-∑m-cmb P\-ßfpw Dƒs∏-sS-bp≈ a‰p-X-c-Øn-ep≈ BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßfpw AhnsS D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. Xnc-s™-Sp-°-s∏´ DZm-l-c-W-ßƒ°p ]pdsa th -bmSn £WtiJ-cWw \S-Øp∂ a‰p-P-\hn`mK-ßfpw \K-c-hm-kn-Ifpw AhnsS D≠m-bn-cp-∂p.

BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ


a\pjys‚ Bhn¿`mhsØbpw

kkyßfpsSbpw arKßfpsSbpw CW°n

hf¿Øens\bpw tI{μoIcn®p≈XmWv Cu

ImetcJ. XobpsS D]tbmKw, temlßƒ,

Ie∏ D]tbm-Kn-®p≈ Irjn, N{Iw apXemb

Nne {][m\ kmt¶-XnI hnZy-I-fpsS

I≠p]nSnØßƒ°v CXv Du∂¬ \¬Ip∂p.

\KcßfpsS DZbw, FgpØphnZybpsS

D]tbmKw apXemb {]{InbIfpw Dƒs∏Sp-

Ønbn´p≠v. G‰hpw BZysØ Nne

km{amPyßsf°pdn®p≈ ]cma¿ißfpw

\nßƒ°nhnsS ImWmw. c≠mw

ImetcJbn¬ B {]ta-bw IqSpX¬

hnIkn∏n°s∏Spw.

ImetcJIƒ ]Tnt°≠-sX-ßs\

[How to Read Timelines]

ASpØ Xmfn¬ tN¿Øncn°p∂Xpt]mse-bp≈ Hmtcm ImetcJ Cu ]pkvXI-Øns‚Hmtcm hn`mKØnepw \nßƒ ImWpw.Chtbmtcm∂pw temINcn{XØnse Nne{][m\ {]{InbIsfbpw kw`hßsfbpwkqNn∏n-°p∂p.Cu ImetcJIƒ ]Tn°ptºmƒ C\n∏d-bp∂ Imcyßƒ a\ n¬ kq£n-°Ww˛

$ cmPm°∑m¿ XΩnep≠mb bp≤ßfpsSImew tcJs∏SpØp∂Xnt\°mƒ hfsc_p≤nap´mWv km[mcW kv{XoIfpw ]pcp-j-∑mcpw Ncn{XsØ cq]oIcn® {]{Inb-IfpsS ImeKW\.

$ Nnet∏mƒ Hcp {]{Inb XpSßnb Ime-amImw kqNn∏n®ncn°p∂Xv. a‰p Nnet∏mƒAXns‚ ]q¿ØoIcW Imeambncn°pwkqNn∏n®ncn°p∂Xv.

$ ]pXnb sXfnhpIfpsStbm ]gb hnhc-ßsf ]pXnb coXnbn¬ hnebncp-Øp∂Xn-s‚tbm ASnÿm-\Øn¬ Ncn{X-Im-c∑m¿\nc¥cambn ImeKW\ ]pXp°mdp≠v.

$ kuIcyØn\pth≠n Rßƒ ImetcJ-Isf `qanimkv{Xm-Snÿm-\Øn¬ hn`Pn-®n´ps≠¶nepw bYm¿Y Ncn{X-Øns‚hnImkw Cu hn`P\ßsf Ihn™p \n¬-°p∂XmWv.

$ IqSmsX Ncn{X{]{InbIƒ \S°p∂ImeL´ßƒ ]ckv]cw Ihn™p InS°p-∂hbmWv.

$ am\h Ncn{XØns‚ GXm\pw Nne \mgn-I°√pIƒ am{XamWv ChnsS kqNn∏n®n´p-≈Xv. Hmtcm {]tabØnepw kqNn∏n®n´p-≈ {]{InbIfmWv AXns‚ Bcw`ØnseImetcJ hy‡-am°p∂Xv. {]tabØn¬Dƒs∏´ {]{Inb-Iƒ°v {]tXyI ImetcJ-Iƒ thsd tN¿Øn-´p≠v.

$ \£{XNn”w (*) ImWp∂ CSßfnse√mwBibw hniZoIcn°p∂Hcp Nn{XoIc-Ww \nßƒ°p ImWmw.

$ ImetcJbnse iq\yÿeßƒ A°me-bfhn¬ H∂pw kw`hn®n´n√ F∂√kqNn-∏n°p∂Xv. Nnet∏mƒ AXp kqNn-∏n -°p∂Xv A°mebfhnse kw`h-hnImk-ßƒ C\nbpw \ap°v Adnhm-bn´n√ F∂mWv.

$ Z£ntWjy≥ Ncn{XsØ°pdn®v s]mXp-hmbpw C¥ymNcn{XsØ°pdn®v {]tXyI-ambpw \nßƒ ASpØ h¿jw ]Tn°pw.Z£ntWjybpsS ImetcJ-Ifn¬ kqNn∏n-®n´p≈ ImeL´ßƒ D]`qJfiØnse

Nne kw`h hnImk-ßsf am{Xw kqNn∏n-

°p∂hbmWv.

ImetcJ I(Timeline I)

6 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v apX¬

_n.kn.C 1 hsc (6 MYA TO 1 BCE)


Ime-b-fhv

6 Fw.ssh.F-500,000 _n.]n

500,000-150,000 _n.]n

150,000-50,000 _n.]n

50,000-30,00030,000-10,000

8000-7000 _n.kn.C.

7000-60006000-50005000-40004000-3000

3000-2000

2000-1900

1900-18001800-17001700-16001600-15001500-14001400-13001300-12001200-11001100-10001000-900900-800

800-700700-600600-500

500-400

400-300

300-200200-100100-1 _n.kn.C.

B{^n° bqtdm∏v

Bkvt{Stem-]n-tØ-°-kns‚ t^mknep-Iƒ (5.6 Fw.ssh.F),

Xobp-sS D]-tbm-K-Øns‚ sXfn-hv (1.4 Fw.ssh.F)

tlmtam km∏n-b≥kns‚ t^m-knepIƒ (195,000 _n.]n)

Kpl-Iƒ/inem \n¿ΩnX hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fnse Nn{Xßƒ

(27,500)

I∂pIm-en-I-sfbpw \mbv°sf-bpw CW°n hf¿Ø¬

IgpXsb CW°n hf¿Ø¬, Xn\°rjn, sNºns‚

D]-tbmKw

DgpXv Irjn-, BZy-cm-Py-ßƒ, \K-c-ßƒ, ]nc-an-Up-Iƒ,

Ie-≠¿, ssltdm-•n- nIv en]n*, t]∏n-d-kn¬ Fgp-Xp-∂p.

(CuPn-]vXv)

kv SnI Ip∏n-I-fpsS D]-tbmKw (CuPn-]vXv)

]›ntajy-bn¬ \n∂p≈ ^n\o-jy-°m¿ hS-°≥ B{^n-°-

bn¬ Im¿-tØPv \Kcw ÿm]n-°p∂p. saUn-‰-td-\n-b\p

Np‰p-ambn hym]mcw hfcp∂p.

Ccp-ºns‚ D]-tbmKw (kpUm≥)

Ccpºns‚ D]-tbmKw (CuPn-]vXv)

CuPn-]vXn¬ Ae-Ivkm¨{UnbbpsS ÿm]\w. (332

_n.kn.C.), CXv Hcp {][m\ ]T\hn⁄m\ tI{μ-am-bn-

amdp∂p.

XobpsS D]-tbm-K-Øns‚ sX-fnhv (400,000 _n.]n)

tlmtam- km-∏n-b≥kns‚ t^m-knep-Iƒ (40,000)

Kpl-Iƒ/inem \n¿ΩnX hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fnse Nn{Xßƒ

({]tXy-In®pw {^m≥kv, kvs]-bn≥)

tKmXºv, _m¿en F∂n-h-bpsS Irjn ({Kokv)

sNºns‚ D]-tbmKw ({Io‰v)

IpXncIsf CW°n hf¿Ø¬ (Ing-°≥ bqtdm-∏v)

\Kcßƒ, sIm´m-c-ßƒ, sh-¶eØns‚ D]-tbm-Kw, Ipi-hs‚

N{Iw, hym]mc ]ptcm-KXn ({Io‰v)

en]n-bpsS hnImkw ({Io‰v)*

Ccp-ºns‚ D]-tbmKw

BZysØ Hfn-ºnIv sKbn-ap-Iƒ ({Kokv 776 _n.kn.C.)

\mW-b-ß-fpsS D]-tbm-Kw* ({Kokv), tdma≥ dn∏-ªn°ns‚

ÿm]-\w. (510 _n.kn.C.)

GY≥kn¬ "P\m-[n-]Xyw' ÿm-]n-°s∏-Sp∂p. ({Kokv)

amkn-tUm-Wn-bbnse Ae-Ivkm-≠¿ CuPn]vXpw ]›ntajy-

bpsS `mK-ßfpw ]nSn-®-S-°p∂p. (336˛323 _n.-kn.C.)

ImetcJ 1

t]¿jy-°m¿ CuPn]vXv B{I-an-°p∂p.


Ime-b-fhv

6Fw.ssh.F-500,000 _n.]n

500,000-150,000_n.]n

150,000-50,000 _n.]n

50,000-30,000 _n.]n

30,000-10,000 _n.]n

8000-7000 _n.kn.C.

7000-6000

6000-5000

5000-4000

4000-3000

3000-2000

2000-19001900-18001800-17001700-1600

1600-15001500-14001400-13001300-1200

1200-11001100-10001000-900900-800800-700700-600

600-500

500-400

400-300

300-200

200-100100-1 _n.kn.C.

Gjy Z£n-tWjy

XobpsS D]-tbmKw (700,000 _n.]n, ssN\)

tlmtam km∏n-b≥kns‚ t^m-knepIƒ (100,000 _n.]n,

]›ntajy

\mbsb CW°n hf¿Ø¬ (]›n-tajy (14,000)

BSn-s\bpw sNΩ-cn-bm-Sn-s\bpw CW°n hf¿Ø¬.

tKmX-ºv, _m¿en Irjn (]›n-tajy)

]∂n-sbbpw I∂p-Im-enIsf-bpw CW-°n- h-f¿Ø¬

(]›na- ]q¿thjy)

tImgn-Isf hf¿Ø¬, tN\, Xn\ F∂nhbpsS Irjn

(]q¿thjy)

]cp-Øn-°rjn (Z£ntWjy), sN-ºns‚ D]-tbmKw (]›nta-jy)

Ipi-hs‚ N{Iw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p, KXm-K-X-Øn\v N{Iw D]-

tbm-Kn-°p-∂p. (3600 _n.kn.C.) FgpØvhnZy (3200

_n.kn.C., saskm-s∏m-t -an-b), sh¶-e-Øns‚ D]-tbmKw

DgpXv Irjn, \K-c-ßƒ (sa-skm-s∏m-t -an-b); ]´p \n¿-Ωm-

Ww (ssN\), IpXn-c-Isf CW°n hf¿Ø¬ (at[y-jy), s\√v

Irjn sNøp-∂p. (Z£n-W- -]q¿tΔjy)

t]mØns\ CW°n hf¿Ø¬ (]q¿tΔjy)

\K-c-ßƒ, Fgp-Øp-hn-Zy, cmPy-ßƒ (jmwMv cmP-hw-iw),

sh¶-eØns‚ D]-tbmKw (ssN\)*.

Ccp-ºns‚ D]-tbmKw (]›ntajy)

H‰ apg-bp≈ H -IsØ CW°n hf¿Ø¬ (Atd-_y)

\mW-b-ß-fpsS D]-tbmKw (Xp¿°n), s]gvknt]mfnkv

Xe-ÿm-\-amb t]¿-jy≥ km{amPyw (546 _n.kn.C. );

ssN-\okv XXz-Nn-¥-I-\mb I¨-^yq-jykv (kn.551 _n.kn.C.)

ssN\-bn¬ Hcp km{amPyw ÿm-]n°p∂p. (221 _n.kn.C.)

h≥-aXn-ens‚ \n¿Ωm-W-Øns‚ Bcw- w

dnhm- nse inem-bpKÿew (1,900,000 _n.]n., ]mIn-ÿm≥)

`nw-t_-Uv°-bnse Kplm-Nn{Xßƒ (a[y-{]-tZ-iv). tlmtam km∏n-

b≥-kns‚ t^mkn-ep-Iƒ (25,500 _n.]n, {ioe¶)

BZy-Ime Im¿jnI ÿnc-hmk tI{μßƒ (_eqNnÿm≥)

sNºns‚ D]-tbmKw

lmc-∏≥ kwkvIm-c-Ønse \K-c-ßƒ, en]n-bpsS* D]-tbmKw

(kn 2700 _n.kn.C.)

EtKz-Zw cq]w sIm≈p-∂p.

Ccp-ºns‚ D]-tbm-Kw, alm-ine-Iƒ (U°m-\nepw Z£n-tW-

¥y-bnepw)

]e {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ cmjv{S-ß-fpw \K-c-ßfpw, BZyIme -\m-W-

b-ßƒ, ssP\-a-X-Øn-s‚bpw _p≤-a-X-Øns‚bpw hym]-\w

aucy-km-{amPyw ÿm]n°p∂p. (kn. 321 _n.kn.C.)


Ime-b-fhv

6 Fw.ssh.F -500,000 _n.]n

500,000-150,000 _n.]n

150,000-50,000 _n.]n

50,000-30,000 _n.]n

30,000-10,000 _n.]n

8000-7000 _n.kn.C.

7000-6000

6000-5000

5000-4000

4000-3000

3000-2000

2000-1900

1900-1800

1800-1700

1700-1600

1600-1500

1500-1400

1400-1300

1300-1200

1200-1100

1100-1000

1000-900

900-800

800-700

700-600

600-500

500-400

400-300

300-200

200-100

100-1 _n.kn.C.

Ata-cn-°-Iƒ Bkvt{X-enb/]k- nIvZzo]p-Iƒ

{]h¿Ø\w

\¬In-bn- p≈ Bdv

tImf-ß-fn¬ GsX-

¶nepw Hcp Ime-b-f-

hnse Hmtcm {]tZ-

iØpw Xma-kn-®n-cp∂

kv{Xobp-sSbpw ]pcp-

j-s‚bpw {]h¿Ø-\-

ß-fp-sStbm kw -h-ß-

fp-sStbm {]m[m-\y-sØ-

°p-dn®v N¿® sNøp-I.

tlmtam- km-∏n-b≥kns‚ t^mknepIƒ (12,000 _n.]n)

Ipºfw Irjn (Squash)

AacbpsS Irjn

]cp-Øn-°rjn, Npc-°-°rjn

Kn\nb ]∂n, S¿°n F∂n-hsb CW°n hf¿Ø¬,

tNmfØns‚ Irjn.

Dcp-f-°n-g-ßv, apfIv, I∏, I∏-e≠n F∂n-h-bpsS Irjn.

Cema*, A¬]m° F∂o arK-ßsf CW°n hf¿Øp-∂p.

saIvknt°m Dƒ°-S-en\p Np‰pw Hmƒsa°p-I-fpsS ÿnc-

hm-kw, BZy-Ime t£{Xßfpw inev]-ßfpw

ssltdm-•n- nIv en]n-bpsS hnImkw

tlmtam -km-∏n-b≥kns‚ t^m-kn-ep-Iƒ, kap-{Z-bm-{X-bpsS

BZy-kq-N-\-Iƒ 45000 _n.]n.

t]mfnt\jy-bnepw ssatIm-t\-jy-bnepw P\-ß-fpsS ÿnc-

hmkw

Nn{X-ßƒ (20,000 _n.]n.)

ImetcJ 1


1a\pjys‚ D¤-h-sØ-°p-dn-®mWv Cu A[ymbw At\z-jn-°p-∂-Xv. a\p-jy-k-Zr-

iy-cmb Poh-Pm-e-ßƒ qan-bpsS D]-cn-X-e-Øn¬ BZyw {]Xy-£-s∏- Xv 5.6 Zi-e£w

h¿j-ßƒ°v apºm-bn-cp-∂p. AXn-\p-tijw a\p-jy-t\mSv kmZr-iy-ap≈ \nc-h[n -

cq-]-ßƒ Bhn-¿- -hn-°p-Ibpw hwi-\miw kw -hn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. \tΩmSv kmay-

ap≈ a\p-jy¿ ("B[p-\nI a\p-jy¿') cq]w sIm≠Xv GI-tZiw 160,000 h¿j-

ßƒ°v apºm-bn-cp-∂p. a\p-jys‚ Cu Zo¿L-N-cn-{X-Øn-ep-S-\ofw arK-ßsf th -

bm-Snbpw NØ arK-ßsf £n®pw, ImbvI\n-Iƒ tiJ-cn-®p-amWv a\p-jy¿ Ign-

™-Xv. AtXm-sSm∏w inem-bp-[-ßƒ Fßs\ \n¿an-°-W-sa∂pw a‰p-≈-h-cp-ambn

Fßs\ Bi-b-hn-\n-abw \S-Ø-W-sa∂pw Ah¿ a\- n-em-°nbncp-∂p.

`£Ww t\Sm-\p≈ ]pXnb am¿K-ßƒ ]n∂oSv kzoI-cn-°-s∏-s -¶nepw

th -bm-Sepw tiJ-cWhpw XpS¿∂p. C∂pw temI-Øns‚ Nne mK-ß-fn¬ th -

bm-S¬ ˛ tiJ-cW kaq-l-ßƒ (hunter - gatherer societies) \ne-\n¬°p-∂p-≠v.

h¿Ø-am-\-Im-esØ Cu th´bmS¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-Øns‚ Pohn-X-coXn qX-

Im-esØ Ipdn®v ]e- hn-h-c-ßfpw \¬Ip-∂p F∂p-≈Xv \sΩ A¬`p-X-s∏-Sp-

Øp-∂- H∂mWv.

a\pjyt^mkn-ep-Iƒ, inem-bp[-ßƒ, Kplm-Nn-{X-ßƒ F∂n-h-bpsS

I≠p-]n-SnØw BZna a\p-jys‚ Ncn-{X-sØ-°p-dn®v a\- n-em-°m≥ \sΩ klm-

bn-°p-∂p. Cu Hmtcm I≠p]nSn-Ø-Øn\pw AXn-s‚-Xmb Ncn-{X-ap-≠v. Ch BZy-

ambn Is≠-Øn-b-t∏mƒ an°-hmdpw ]fin-X-cpw Cu t^mkn-ep-Isf BZna a\p-

jy-cpsS Ah-in-jvS-ß-fmbn AwKo-I-cn-°m≥ Xbm-dm-bn-√. Ah¿ in-em-bp-[-ßƒ

\n¿an-°m\pw Nn{X-ßƒ hc-bv°m-\p-ap≈ BZn-a-a-\p-jys‚ Ign-hnepw kwibw

{]I-Sn-∏n-®p. ]n∂oSv Hcp Ime-L- -Øn\v tijw am{X-amWv Ch-bpsS bYm¿Y

{]m[m\yw AwKo-I-cn-°-s∏- -Xv.

hwi-\miw kw`-hn® a\pjy Pohn-h¿K-Øns‚ t^mkn-ep-I-fn¬

\n∂pamWv a\p-jy-]-cn-Wm-a-Øns‚ sXfn-hp-Iƒ e`n-°p-∂-Xv. t^mkn-ep-Isf

t\cn v cmk-hn-i-I-e\w sNøp∂ {]Xy£ coXn-bntem t^mkn¬ AS°w sNø-

s∏- n-cn-°p∂ Ah-in-jvS-ß-fpsS Ime-∏-g°w Is≠-Øn-s°m-≠p≈ ]tcm-£-co-

Xn-bntem t^mkn-ep-I-fpsS Ime-∏-g°w \n¿W-bn-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. Hcn-°¬ t^mkn-

ep-I-fpsS Ime-∏-g°w \n¿W-bn®v Ign-™m¬ a\pjy ]cn-Wm-a-Øns‚ Hcp ]c-

º-c Xs∂ Is≠-Øm-hp-∂-Xm-Wv.

GI-tZiw 200 h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v Cu I≠p-]n-Sn-Ø-ßƒ BZy-ambn

\S-Øn-b-t∏mƒ an°-hmdpw ]fin-Xcpw t^mkn-ep-Iƒ°pw inem-bp-[-ßƒ°pw

Nn{X-ßƒ°pw a\p-jys‚ BZna cq]-ß-fp-ambn _‘-ap-s≠∂v AwKo-I-cn-°m≥

Xbm-dm-bn-√. Ah-cpsS Cu ssha-\-kyw -ss_-_n-fnse ]gb \nb-a-Øn-ep≈

hnizm-k-Øns‚ e-am-bn-cp-∂p. B hnizmk {]Imcw a\p-jys‚ D¬`hw ssZh-

Øns‚ krjvSn-bm-Wv.

ine-bm-bnØo¿∂

]pcm-X\ kkyw,

arKw, a\p-jy≥ F∂n-

h-bpsS tijn-∏p-Itfm

ap{Z-Itfm BWv

t^mkn-ep-Iƒ. an°-

hmdpw ]md-I-fn¬ ]Xn-

™n-cn-°p∂ Ch Zi-

e-£-°-W-°n\v h¿j-

ß-fmbn kwc-£n-°-

s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂p.

{]Xyp-¬∏m-Z-\-ti-jn-

bp≈ A\-¥c Xe-ap-

dsb krjvSn-°p-∂-Xn-

\mbn {]P-\\w \S-

Øp∂ PohPm-e-ß-

fpsS Iq´-amWv Hcp

h¿Kw (species). Hcp

h¿K-Ønse AwK-

ßƒ°v ASp-Ø-X-e-ap-

dsb krjvSn-°m-\mbn

as‰mcp h¿K-Ønse

AwK-ß-fp-ambn CW-

tN-cm≥ Ign-bn-√.

{]tabw

Ime-Øns‚ Bcw`w apX¬

(FROM THE BEGINNING OF TIME)


DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v 1856 BK-Ãn¬ P¿Ω≥ \K-c-amb U ¬tUm¿^n\v kao-

]-ap≈ ae-bn-Sp-°mb \nbm-≠¿ Xmgvhc-bn¬ (t]Pv 18, q]Sw 2 ImWp-I) NpÆm-

ºpI-√p-Iƒ°v th≠n J\\w \S-Øn-s°m-≠n-cp∂ sXmgn-em-fn-Iƒ Hcp Xe-tbm-

ńbpw Ipd®v Aÿn-IqSmh-in-jvS-ßfpw Is≠-Øn. Ch {]IrXn Ncn-{X-Im-c\pw

{]mtZ-inI kvIqƒ A[ym-]-I-\p-am-bn-cp∂ Imƒ^pƒtdm v F∂-bmƒ°v ssIamdn.

At±lw B Ah-in-jvS-ßƒ B[p-\nI a\p-jy-t‚-X-s√∂v Xncn-®-dn-™p. At±lw

\nbm-≠¿Xm¬ a\p-jys‚ Xe-tbm- n. CXns‚ ]ucm-Wn-

IX X≈n-°-f-™-h¿ CXns\ arK-Øn-s‚tbm shdpw

hnUvVn-bpsStbm ('Pathological idiot') Xe-tbmń F∂p

Icp-Xn.

{]h¿Ø\w 1

an°-hmdpw aX-ßƒ-

°pw a\p-jy-kr-

jvSnsb kw_-‘n®

hnh-c-W-ß-fp-≠v.

Ah an°-t∏mgpw

imkv{Xob I≠p ]nSn-

Ø-ß-fp-ambn s]mcp-

Ø-s∏-Sm-dn-√. AØ-c-

Øn-ep≈ Nne hnh-c-

W-ßƒ Is≠Øn

Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬

N¿® sNøp∂ a\pjy

]cn-Wm-a-Øns‚

Ncn{X-hp-ambn Xmc-

Xayw sNøp-I.

B Xe-tbm- n-bpsS Hcp IpΩmbamXr-I Xbm-dm°n t_m¨ k¿h-I-em-

im-e-bnse ico-c-imkv{X s{]m -k-dmb sl¿a≥ j vXmk\v Ab®p sImSp-

Øp. ASpØ h¿jw Ah¿ kwbp‡ambn Hcp Kth-jW {]_‘w {]kn-≤o-I-

cn-®p. B Xe-tbmń hwi-\miw kw -hn® Hcp a\pjy hn`m-K-Øn-t‚-Xm-sW∂v

Ah¿ AXn-eqsS Ah-Im-i-s∏- p. F∂m¬ At∏mƒ B hmZw AwKo-I-cn-°m≥

]fin-X-¿ Xbm-dm-bn-√. adn®v B Xe-tbmń kao-]-Ime a\p-jy-t‚-Xm-sW∂v Ah¿

{]Jym-]n-®p.

1859 \hw-_¿ 24 \v Nmƒkv Um¿hn≥ "Hm¨ Z Hdn-Pn≥ Hm v kv]ojokv'

F∂ -Xs‚ ]pkvXIw {]kn-≤o-I-cn-®p. AXv ]cn-Wma Ncn{X ]T-\-Ønse Hcp

\mgn-I-°-√m-bn-cp-∂p. BZyw A®-Sn® 1250 tIm∏n-Ifpw {]kn-≤o-I-cn® At∂

Znhkw Xs∂ hn‰p-t]m-bn. a\p-jy¿ Zo¿L-Imew apºv arK-ß-fn¬ \n∂v cq]-s∏ v

h∂-Xm-sW∂v CXn-eqsS Um¿hn≥ hmZn-®p.

hkvXp-°sf Is≠Ønb ÿm\w tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xn\v D]-tbm-Kn°p∂ D]-

I-c-WsØ ImWn-°p-∂p. ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-Is‚ CS-Xp- m-K-Øp≈ NXp-c-

N- -°qSv 10 sk‚o-ao-‰-dns‚ NXp-c-ß-fmbn Xncn® Hcp {KnUm-Wv. hkvXp-hns\

Is≠-Ønb ÿe-Øn\v apI-fn¬ CXv ÿm]n-°p-∂-Xn-eqsS hkvXp-hns‚

Xnc-›o-\-ÿm\w tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øm≥ Ign-bp-∂p. he-Xp-h-iØp ImWp∂ {XntIm-

Wm-Ir-Xn-bmb D]-I-cWw hkvXp-hns‚ ew_-amb ÿm\w tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øm\pw

klm-bn-°p-∂p.

Np‰p-ap≈ I√n¬ \n∂v Fß-s\-bmWv Hcp

t^mkn-ens‚ `mKw th¿-Xn-cn-°p-∂Xv F∂v

Nn{X-Øn¬ ImWmw. ChnsS Hcp Xcw NpÆm-

ºp-I-√n¬ \n∂mWv t^mkn¬ th¿Xn-cn-°p-

∂-Xv. hfsc sshZ-Kv[yhpw £abpw Bh-

iy-ap≈ tPmen-bmWv CsX∂p \nßƒ°p

ImWmw.

t^mkn-ep-Isf hos≠Sp-°p∂p (RECOVERING FOSSILS){ia-I-c-amb Hcp {]{In-b. Ime-K-W-\-b°v hkvXp-°ƒ Is≠-Ønb ÿe-Øns‚ IrXy-amb ÿm\w {][m-\-s∏- -

XmWv.


a\pjy ]cn-Wm-a-Øns‚ IY

(The Story of Human Evolution)(F) B[p-\nI a\p-jy-cpsS ap≥Km-an-Iƒ

(a) (The Precursors of Modern Human Beings)

Cu \mev Xe-tbm- n-Iƒ {i≤n-°p-I.

A Hcp Ipcßn-t‚-Xv.

B Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°kv F∂- Pohn-h¿K-Øn¬s∏ -Xv.

C tlmtam Cd-IvSkv F∂ hwi-Øn¬s∏- -h-bp-tSXvv. ("\nh¿∂p \n¬°p∂

a\p-jy≥' F∂mWv t]cns‚ A¿Yw)

D C∂sØ F√m a\p-jyscbpw Dƒs°m-≈p∂ tlmtam-km-∏n-b≥kv

F∂- hwi-Øn¬s∏- Xvv. ("Nn¥m tijn-bp≈/_p≤n-bp≈ a\p-jy≥'

F∂mWv hm°ns‚ A¿Yw).

Ch-bpsS Xe-t®m-dns‚ hep∏w, XmSn-sb-√v, ]√v F∂nh {i≤m-]q¿hw t\m°n

\nßƒ Is≠-Ønb kmay-ßfpw hyXym-k-ßfpw ]´n-I-s∏-Sp-Øp-I.

X∂n- p≈ Xe-tbm- n-I-fpsS Nn{Xo-I-c-W-ß-fn¬ \nßƒ Is≠-Ønb hyXym-

k-ß-fn¬ ]eXpw a\p-jy-]-cn-Wm-a-Øns‚ `mK-ambn D≠m-b-Xm-Wv. a\pjy

]cn-Wm-a-Øns‚ IY Zo¿Lhpw Ipd-s®ms° k¶o¿W-hp-amWv. DØcw In´m-

Ø- \n-c-h[n tNmZy-ßƒ Ct∏mgpw Ah-ti-jn-°p-∂p. ]pXnb hnh-c-ß-fpsS

Is≠-Ø-ep-Iƒ ap≥[m-c-W-Isf am‰n-a-dn-°p-Itbm ]cn-jvI-cn-°p-Itbm sNøp-

∂p. C\n Nne kw -h-hn-Im-k-ßfpw Ah-bpsS A\-¥-c- -e-ß-fpw IqSp-X¬

ASp-Ø-dn-bmw.

]cn-Wm-a-Øns‚ `mK-am-bp≈ am‰-ßƒ Xnc°n 36 apX¬ 24 hsc

Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ (Million of years) ]nt∂m v t]mIm≥ Ign-bpw. F∂m¬

]e-t∏mgpw A{Xbpw Zo¿L-am-sbmcp Ime-sØ a\- n-em-°pI F∂Xv A{X

Ffp-∏-a-√. \nß-fpsS ]pkvX-I-Ønse Hcp t]Pv 10000 h¿j-ßƒ°v Xpey-am-

bn-Im-Wp-I. Aßs\sb¶n¬ 10 t]Pp-Iƒ tNcp-tºmƒ 1 e£w h¿j-ß-fm-

Ipw. 100 t]Pp-Iƒ Hcp Zie£w h¿j-ßsf {]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn-°pw. Aß-s\-

sb-¶n¬ 36 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßsf {]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn-°m≥ 3600 t]Pp≈

]pkvXIw thWw. A{Xbpw h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]mWv kkvX-\n-I-fn¬ Hcp hn`m-

K-amb ss{]ta-‰p-Iƒ Gjy-bnepw B{^n-°-bnepw cq]w sIm≠-Xv. ]n∂oSv

24 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v ss{]ta-‰p-I-fnse D]-hn- m-K-amb slman-t\m-bn-Up-Iƒ \ne-hn¬h-∂p. Ch-bn¬ Bƒ°p-c-ßp-Ifpw Dƒs∏´n-cp-∂p. Hcp]mSvIme-ßƒ°v tijw GI-tZiw 5.6 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]mWvBZysØ slman-\n-Up-Isf Ipdn-®p≈ sXfn-hp-Iƒ e`n-°p-∂-Xv.

slman-\n-Up-Iƒ slman-t\m-bn-Up-I-fn¬ \n∂v cq]-s∏-´v h∂-Xp-sIm≠p Xs∂ Ahbv°v Nne s]mXp khn-ti-j-X-Ifpw F∂m¬ hyXym-k-ßfpw D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. slman-t\m-bn-Up-Iƒ°v slman-\nUpI-tf-°mƒ sNdnbXe-t®m-dmWv D≠m-bn-cp-∂-Xv. Ah¿ \mev Imep-I-fn-emWv \S-∂n-cp-∂-Xv.F∂m¬ ap≥Im-ep-Iƒ Ab-hp-≈-Xm-bn-cp-∂p. t\tc adn®v slman-\n-Up-Iƒ\nh¿∂v \n¬°p-Ibpw Ccp-Im-ep-I-fn¬ \S-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. ssIIƒsIm≠vAh¿ D]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿an-°p-Ibpw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXn-cp-∂p. AØ-c-Øn¬ \n¿an-°-s∏´ D]-I-c-W-ßsfbpw Ah-bpsS {]m[m-\y-sØbpw Ipdn®v\Ωƒ ]n∂oSv IqSp-X¬ ]cn-tim-[n-°pw.

A

B

C

D

Hcp henb hn`mKw

kkvX-\n-I-fpsS Hcp

D]-hn-`m-K-sØ-bmWv

{]nta-‰p-Iƒ F∂p

hnfn-°p-∂-Xv. Ah-

bn¬ Ipc-ßp-Iƒ,

Bƒ°p-c-ßp-Iƒ, a\p-

jy¿ F∂nh Dƒs∏-Sp-

∂p. Ah-cpsS ico-c-

Øn¬ tcma-ß-fp-

≠mbncp∂p. IqSmsX

Xmc-X-tay\ Zo¿L-amb

K¿`-Im-ew, kvX\-{K-

Ÿn, hyXykvX Xcw

]√p-Iƒ, ico-tcm-

jvamhv ÿnc-ambn

\ne-\n¿Øm-\p≈

tijn F∂n-hbpw

Ah-bv°p-≠m-bn-cp-∂p.


A

C

B

slman-\n-Up-Iƒ B{^n-°-bn¬ cq]-s∏-´p-sh-∂-Xn\v c≠v sXfn-hp-Iƒ D≠v. B{^n-°-bnse Bƒ°p-cßv hn`m-K-ßƒ°v slman-\n-Up-I-tfmSvASp-Ø _-‘-ap≠v F∂-XmWv AXn¬ BZy-tØ-Xv. c≠m-a-Xm-bn, GI-tZiw5.6 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v Ingt° B{^n-°-bn¬ \n∂v Bkv{Sm-te-m]n-tØ-°kv hn`m-K-Øn¬s∏´ BZy-Ime slman-\n-Up-I-fpsS t^mkn-ep-Iƒ e`n-®p. am{X-a√ B{^n-°bv°v ]pdØv \n∂pw Is≠-Øn-bn- p≈ t^mkn-ep-Iƒ°v 1.8 Zi-e£w h¿j-Øn¬ IqSp-X¬ ]g-°-hp-an-√.

ssII-fpsS ]cn-Wmaw (THE EVOLUTION OF THE HAND)

A Nnº≥kn-bpsS apdp°n∏nSn-ØsØ ImWn-°p-∂p.

B slman-\n-Uns‚ ssIbpsS _ew ]nSn-Ø-sØ-Im-Wn-°p-∂p.

C a\p-jys‚ apdp°n∏nSn-ØsØ ImWn-°p-∂p.

an°-hmdpw _ew ]nSp-ØsØ XpS¿∂m-bn-cn-°Ww apdp°n∏nSnØw hnI-kn-®-Xv. Nnº≥kn-bpsS apdp°n∏nSn--ØsØ a\p-jys‚ ssIbpsS apdp°n ]nSn-Ø-hp-ambn Xmc-Xayw sNøp-I. hnc-ens‚ A{Kw-sIm≠v apdp-sI-∏n-Sn-®v (precision grip) \nßƒ sNøp∂Imcy-ß-fpsS Hcp ]ńI Xbm-dm-°p-I.ssIsIm≠v Np‰n∏nSn®v (power grip) \nßƒ sNøp∂ Imcy-ßƒ Fs¥m-s°-bmWv?

tlman-\nsU F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp∂ IpSpw-_-Øn¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-∂-XmWvslman-\n-Up-Iƒ. G√m cq]-Øn-ep≈ a\p-jycpw Cu IpSpw-_-Øn¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-∂p. hep-∏-ap≈ Xe-t®m-dv, \nh¿∂v \n¬°¬, Ccp-Im-ep-I-fnse \S-Øw,ssII-fpsS khn-ti-j-amb D]-tbmKw F∂n-h-sb√mw slman-\n-Up-I-fpsS{]tXy-I-X-I-fm-Wv.

slman-\n-Up-Isf Po\kv F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp∂ imJ-I-fmbn Xncn-®n-cn-°p-∂p. Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°-kv, tlmtam F∂n-h-bmWv Cu imJ-I-fn¬{][m-\-s∏- -h. Ch-tbm-tcm∂pw \nc-h[n Pohn hwi-ßsf Dƒs°m-≈p-∂p.Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°kpw tlmtambpw XΩn-ep≈ {][m-\-hy-Xymkw Xe-t®m-dns‚ hep∏w, XmSn-sb-√v, ]√v F∂nhbpambn _‘-s∏-ń-cn-°p-∂p.Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°kn\v tlmtam-tb-°mƒ hep∏w Ipd™ Xe-t®mdpwhenb XmSnsb√pw \ofw IqSnb ]√p-I-fp-amWv D≈-Xv.

imkv{X-⁄-∑m¿ F√m Pohn hwi-ßƒ°pw \¬Inbn-´p≈ t]cp-Iƒ em‰n≥, {Ko°v hm°p-I-fn¬ \n∂v D¤-hn-®-h-bm-Wv. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v

slmant\mbn-Up-Iƒ

]e-X-c-Øn¬ Ipc-

ß≥am-cn¬ \n∂v

hyXym-k-s∏-ń-cn-°p-

∂p. Ahbv°v \of-

ap≈ ico-c-am-Wp-≈-Xv.

hmen-√. IqSmsX

slman-\n-Up-I-fpsS

ssiih hnIm-k-Øn-

s‚bpw B{in-X-Xz-Øn-

s‚bpw Ime-b-fhv

\o≠-Xm-Wv.

Ing-°-\m-{^n-°-bn-ep≈

dn^v‰v Xmgvhc-bnse HmƒUp-

hmbn ae-bn-Sp°ns‚

(Olduvai Gorge) Hcp Zriy-am-

Wn-Xv. BZna a\p-jy-N-cn-{X-

Øns‚ sXfn-hp-Iƒ

Is≠Ønb ÿe-ß-fn-sem-

∂m-Wn-Xv. (`q]Sw 1b, t]Pv

14 ImWp-I.) Nn{X-Øns‚

\Sp°v ImWp∂ `qan-bpsS

hyXykvX X´p-Iƒ {i≤n-°p-

I. Ah-tbm-tcm∂pw Hmtcm

hyXy-kvX ùa-L- sØ

{]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn-°p-∂p.


"Bkv{S¬' (Z£n-Ww) F∂ eØo≥ hm°n¬ \n∂pw "]ntØ-°kv'(Bƒ°p-c-ßv) F∂ {Ko°v hm°n¬ \n∂p-am-Wv Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°kvF∂ t]cp-≠m-b-Xv. Cu {Kq∏n¬s∏´ BZy Ime a\p-jy¿ Ct∏mgpw Bƒ°p-c-ßp-I-fpsS Nne khn-ti-j-Iƒ \ne-\n¿Øp-∂-Xp-sIm≠mWv Chbv°v Cut]cv e`n-®-Xv. tlmtam-tbmSv Xmc-Xayw sNøp-tºmƒ Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°-kn\v hep∏w Ipd™ Xe-t®mdpw \ofw IqSnb ]√p-I-fp-am-Wp-≈-Xv. am{X-a√ Ah-bpsS ssII-fpsS Ne-\-Øn\v ]cn-an-Xn-bp-≠v. Ah IqSp-X¬ t\chpwac-ß-fn¬ sNehn´-Xn-\m¬ \nh¿∂p≈ \S-Ø-Øn\v _p≤n-ap´v t\cn-´p.Ah \ne-\n¿Ønb imco-cnI khn-ti-j-X-I-fmb \ofw IqSnb ap≥Im-ep-Iƒ, hf™ ssIIƒ, Im¬∏m-Z-Ønse F√p-Iƒ F∂nh ac-Øn\v apI-fn-ep≈ PohnX-Øn\v A\p-tbm-Py-am-bn-cp-∂p. Imem-¥-c-Øn¬ D]-I-cW \n¿am-Whpw Zo¿L-Zpc \S-Øhpw h¿[n-®-tXmsS [mcmfw a\pjykz`mh khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°-kn¬ cq]-s∏- p.

Bkv{Stem ]ntØ-°-kns‚ I≠p ]nSn-Øw, HmƒUp-hmbn ae-bn-Sp-°v,

1959 Pqsse 17 (The Discovery of Australopithecus, Olduvai Gorge, 17 July 1959)Nn{Xie -ßsf tiJ-cn-°p∂ Hcp P¿a≥Imc-\mWv Ccp-]Xmw \q‰m-≠ns‚ Bcw- -Øn¬ HmƒUphmbnae-bn-Sp°v BZy-ambn Is≠-Øn-bXv. F∂m¬ ChnsS \m¬∏-Xn-e-[nIw h¿j-ßƒ {]h¿Øn® tacn,eqbn ent° F∂n-h-cp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØnbmWv HmƒUp-hmbn Adn-b-s∏-Sp∂Xv. HmƒUp-hm-bn, esb-t‰mfn F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn¬ ]pcm-hkvXp J\\ßƒ°v t\XrXzw \¬Inb tacn eot° -Nne B›cyP\-

I-amb I≠p]nSn-Ø-ßƒ \S-Øp-I-bp-≠m-bn. eqbn-eot° Xß-fpsS G‰hpw {it≤-amb I≠p]nSn-Ø-ß-fn-sem-∂ns\°pdn-s®-gp-Xp-∂p.

"A∂p cmhnse Rm≥ Dd-°-sa-Wo-‰-Xv Xe-th-Z-\bpw sNdnb]\n-bp-am-bn-´mbncp∂p. ssha-\-ky-tØmsS At∂-Zn-hkwIymºn¬Øs∂ sNe-hn-Sm≥ Rm≥ Xocp-am-\n-®p. Rß-fpsSA\n-›n-X-Xz-am¿∂ Ggm-gvN-°mew AXn-thKw Xo¿∂p sIm≠n-cns° Hcmƒ {]hrØn-bn-e-√m-ØXv at‰-bmƒ tPmen XpS-tc-≠Xns\ IqSp-X¬ A\n-hmcy-am-°n-Øo¿Øp. AXn-\m¬ tacnD¬J-\-\-Øn-\mbn kmen, SqSvkv (A-h-cpsS c≠v \mb-Iƒ)F∂n-h-tcm-sSm∏w Hcp em≥Uv-- tdmh-dn¬ (Po-∏v t]m-ep≈ hml-\w) t]mhp-Ibpw Rm≥ A[zm\-an-√mØ Hcp hn{iaZn-\-Øn-te°v {]th-in-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp.

Ipd®v kabw Ign-™-t∏mƒ ˛ Rms\m∂v ab-ßn-sb-∂v

tXm∂p∂p ˛ em≥Uv tdm-h¿ thK-Øn¬ Iymºn-te°v hcp∂

i_vZw tI´p. tacnsb \ΩpsS \qdpI-W-°n\v tXfp-I-fn¬ H∂v

IpØp-Itbm \mb-IfpsS ]nSn-bn¬ \n∂pw c£-s∏´ ]mºp-I-

fn¬ H∂v ISn-°p-Itbm sNbvXn- p-s≠∂ ss\an-jn-Iamb Hcp

tXm∂¬ F∂n-ep≠mbn.

em≥Uv tdm-h¿ Hcp- i-_vZ-tØmsS \n∂p. ""F\n-°-hs\ Inń, F\n-°-h-s\-In- n, F\n-°-hs\°nń''

F∂ Bh¿Øn-®p≈ tacn-bpsS hnfn- tI- p. Xe-th-Z-\-bpsS Be-ky-Øn-em-bn-cp∂ Rm≥ Ah-tfmSv

tNmZn-®p. ""F¥p-Inń? \n\°v ]cn°v ]‰ntbm?'' ""Ah-s\, B a\p-jys\! \ΩpsS a\p-jys\'' tacn-

]-d-™p. ""\Ωƒ 23 h¿j-ß-fmbn Xnc-bp-I-bm-bn-cp∂ a\p-jy≥. s]´∂v hm, Ahs‚ ]√v Rm≥

Is≠-SpØp!'' '

F¬.Fkv._n. eot°-bpsS ""ss^≥UnwKv Z thƒUvkv G¿en-b-Ãv am≥'' F∂-{K-Ÿ-Øn¬ \n∂v,

\mj-W¬ tPym{Km- nIv, 118 (sk-]vXw-_¿ ˛ 1960)


BZna a\p-jys‚ Ah-in-jvS-ßsf hyXykvX Pohn-h¿K-ß-fmbnth¿Xn-cn-®n-´p-≠v. F√p-I-fpsS LS-\-bpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Øn-emWv Ch-tbm-tcm∂pw a‰p-≈-h-bn¬ \n∂pw hyXym-k-s∏- n-cn-°p-∂-Xv. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v BZy-Ime a\pjy Pohnh¿Kw Xe-tbm-ń-bp-sSbpw XmSn-sb-√n-s‚bpw hep∏wsIm≠v hyXym-k-s∏- n-cn-°p-∂p. (t]Pv 20 se Nn{Xw ImWp-I) Cu khn-ti-j-X-I-sf√mw cq]-s∏- Xv t]mkn-‰ohv ôUv_m°v sa°m-\n-k-Øn-eq-sS-bmWv.

DZml-c-W-Øn-\v, Ccp-Im-ense \SØw Ip™p-ß-sfbpw hkvXp-°-sfbpw FSp-°m≥ ssIIsf kzX-{¥-am-°p-∂p. Xncn®v ssII-fpsS IqSp-X-emb D]-tbmKw \nh¿∂p≈ \S-ØsØ IqSp-X¬ Imcy-£-a-am-°p-∂p.At∏mƒ ssIIƒ hyXykvX Bh-iy-ßƒ°v kzX-{¥-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°m-sa∂ kuI-cy-Øn\v ]pdsa \mev Imen-ep≈ \S-Ø-tØ-°mƒ Du¿Pw Ipd®vam{Xw aXnbmhp-Ibpw sNbvXp. F∂m¬ \S-Ø-Øn\v ]Icw HmSp-tºmƒ[mcmfw Du¿Pw Bh-iy-ambn hcp-∂p. GI-tZiw 3.6 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°vap≥]v c≠v -Im-en-ep≈ \S-Ø-Øn\v ]tcm£ sXfn-hp-Iƒ e`n-®n- p-≠v. Sm≥km-\n-b-bnse esb-t‰m-fn-bn¬ \n∂v e`n® slman-\n-Up-I-fpsS t^mkn¬ ]mZap{ZCXn\v sXfn-hm-Wv. FtXym-]y-bnse lUm-dn¬ \n∂pw e`n® F√p-Iƒ Ccp-

Im-en-ep≈ \S-Øbv°v IqSp-X¬ {]Xy-£-amb sXfn-hm-Wv.

GI-tZiw 2.5 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v lna-bp-K-Øns‚ IS-∂p-h-c-thmsS `qan-bpsS `qcn- m-Khpw a™v sIm≠v aqS-s∏-Sp-Ibpw Imem-h-ÿ-bnepw kky-e-Xm-Zn-I-fnepw {it≤-b-amb am‰-ßƒ D≠m-hp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

Xe-t®m-dns‚ hep-∏-Ønepw tijn-bn-ep-ap≈ hnImkw

D]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿an -

°m\pw Ip™p-ß-sfbpw

hkvXp-°-sfbpw FSp-°m-

\p-ambn ssIIƒ kzX-{¥-

am-Ip-∂p.

D]-I-cW \n¿ΩmWw

Cc-tX-S-en\pw th´-bv°p-

ambn Zo¿L-Zqcw \S-°p-

tºmƒ ImgvNbpsS ]cn[n

IqSp-∂p\nh¿∂p≈ \SØw

t]mkn-‰ohv ôUv_m°v sa°m-\nkw

(THE POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM)

ico-c-Øns‚ Hmtcm {]tXyI `mK-Øn-s‚bpw hf¿®sb kzm[o-\n® LS-

Ißsf kqNn-∏n-°p∂ t_mIvkn-te-°mWv Aº-S-bm-fßƒ hnc¬Nq-≠p-

∂-Xv.

Hcp t_mIvkn¬ \n∂pw Zqtcbv°p t]mIp∂ Aº-S-bm-f-ßƒ B t_mIvkn¬

]d-bp∂ am‰-ßƒ a‰v {]h¿Ø-\-ßsf Fßs\ kzm[o-\n-°p∂p F∂v kqNn-∏n-°p∂p.


Dujvam-hnepw ag-bn-ep-ap-≠mb Ipdhv aqew, h\-ßƒ Ipd-bp-Ibpw Ahn-Sß-fn¬ ]p¬ta-Sp-Iƒ hf-cp-Ibpw sNbvXp. X¬ -e-ambn h\-ß-tfmSv CgpIn°gn-™n-cp∂ Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°-kns‚ BZn-a-cq-]-ßƒ°v hwi-\miw kw`-hn-®p. Ah-bpsS ÿm\Øv hc≠ Imem-h-ÿ-tbmSv IqSp-X¬ CW-ßnbPohnh¿K-ßƒ Bhn-¿ -hn-®p. Ch-bn¬ {][m-\-s∏- -Xm-bn-cp∂p tlmtam F∂Poh-Pm-Xn-bpsS BZn-a-cq-]-ßƒ.

kv{XoI-fp-ap-s≠-¶nepw "]pcp-j≥' F∂mWv "tlmtam' F∂ eØo≥hm°ns‚ b¿Yw. imkv{X⁄∑m¿ tlmtamsb ]e-Xm-bn-Xn-cn-°p-∂p. Ah-bvt°m-tcm-∂n\pw \¬In-bn- p≈ t]cp-Iƒ Ah-bpsS X\-Xmb kz`mhkhn-ti-j-X-I-fn¬ \n∂v cq]-s∏- p-h-∂-Xm-Wv. AXn-\m¬ tlmtam-bpsS t^mkn-ep-Isf tlmtam-l-_n-enkv (D]-I-cW \n¿am-Xm-hv) tlmtam Cd-IvSkv(\nh¿∂ a\p-jy≥), tlmtam km∏n-b≥kv (hnth-Inbmb/Nn¥n-°p∂ a\p-jy≥) F∂n-ßs\ th¿Xn-cn-®ncn°p-∂p.

tlmtam l_n-en-kns‚ t^mkn-ep-Iƒ FtXym-]y-bnse Htam,Sm≥km-\n-b-bnse HmƒUp-hmbn aebnSp°v F∂o ÿeßfn¬ \n∂pw Is≠-Sp-Øn- p-≠v. tlmtam Cd-IvS-kns‚ BZy t^mkn-ep-Iƒ B{^n-°-bn¬ \n∂pw

`q]Sw 1 (F) : B{^n°

`q]Sw 1 (_n) Ing-°-\m-{^n-

°≥ dn v‰v Xmgvhc


temIsØ P\-hym-]-\w (PEOPLING OF THE WORLD)

Ft∏mƒ FhnsS Bcv

5 ˛ 1 Zie£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥] v k_v ˛ klm-d≥ B{^n-° Bkvt{S-tem-]n-tØ-°-kv, BZn-a-

tlm-tam, tlmtam- C-d-IvSkv

1 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v B{^n-°, a[y A£mw-i-Ønse tlmtam Cd-IvS-kv, {]mNo\

apX¬ 40,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v Gjybpw bqtdm∏pw tlmtam- km-∏n-b≥kv, \nbm-

hsc ≠¿Xm-fp-Iƒ, tlmtam km∏n-

b≥kv km∏n-b≥kv / B[p-\nI

a\p-jy≥

45,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v Bkvt{S-enb B[p-\nI a\p-jy≥

40,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v apX¬ Db¿∂ A£mw-i-ß-fnse bqtdm-˛ ]n¬°me \nbm-≠¿Xmfp-Iƒ,

Ct∏mƒ hsc Gjy-˛-]-k-^nIv Zzo]p-Iƒ. B[p-\nI a\p-jy≥

DØ-c, Z£nW Ata-cn-°≥

acp-{]-tZ-i-ßƒ, ag-°m-Sp-Iƒ

Gjy-bn¬ \n∂pw (Iq_n- t^m-d, ]›na Xp¿°m-\, sI\n-b, tamUvtPm-sI¿sØm, kwKn-cw, Pmh) e`n-®n- p-≠v. Gjybn¬ \n∂pw In´nb Ah-in-jvS-ßƒ°v B{^n-°-bn¬ \n∂v e`n-®-Xn-t\-°mƒ Ime-∏-g°w Ipd-hm-Wv.F¥p-sIm-s≠-∂m¬ slman-\n-Up-Iƒ Ingt° B{^n-°-bn¬ \n∂pw Z£n-W, DØc B{^n-°≥ `mK-ß-fn-te°pw sX°≥ Gjy-bn-te-°pw, hS°pIng-°≥ Gjy-bn-te-°pw, Hcp ]t£ bqtdm-∏n-te°pw GI-tZiw 2 apX¬1.5 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°n-S-bn-ep≈ ImeØv IpSn-tb-dn-b-hcmWv. Cu Pohn-h¿Kw GI-tZiw Hcp Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ AXn-Po-hn®v \n∂p.

t^mkn-ep-Iƒ BZy-ambn Is≠-Ønb ÿe-hp-ambn _‘-s∏´pwt^mkn-ep-Iƒ°v t]cv \¬In-bn- p-≠v. P¿a-\n-bnse sslU¬_¿Kv F∂ÿeØv \n∂pw Is≠-Ønb t^mkn-ep -Isf tlmtam sslU¬_¿P≥knkv F∂v hnfn-°p-∂p. \nbm-≠¿ Xmgvhc-bn¬ \n∂pw Is≠-Ønbhsb tlmtam-\n-bm-≠¿Xme≥knkv F∂- K-W-Ønepws]Sp-Øp-∂p.

bptdm-∏n¬ \n∂pw e`n® BZy-Ime t^mkn-ep-Iƒ tlmtam-ssl-U≥_¿P≥kn-knt‚Xpw tlmtam -\n-bm-≠¿Xm-e≥kn-knt‚Xpw Bbn-cp-∂p. Ch c≠pw ]g-b- tlm-tam -km-∏n-b≥kv Pohn-h¿K-Øn¬s∏--´-Xm-Wv.tlmtam -ssl-U≥_¿P≥kn-kns‚ t^mkn-ep-Iƒ (0.8 apX¬ 0.1 hsc Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v) B{^n-°, Gjy, bqtdm∏v F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn¬ \n∂pwhym]-I-ambn e`n-®n- p-≠v. 1,30,000 h¿jw ap≥]v apX¬ 35,000 h¿jw ap≥]v

hsc-bp≈ Ime-L- -Øn-\n-S-bn-emWv \nbm-≠¿Xmep-Iƒ bqtdm-∏v, ]›n-ta-

jy, at[yjy F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn¬ B[n-]Xyw ÿm]n-®-Xv. 35,000 h¿j-ßƒ°v

ap≥]v Ah- s]m-Sp-∂s\ ]›na bqtdm-∏n¬ \n∂pw A{]-Xy-£-ambn.

Bkvt{Stem]ntØ-°-kp-ambn Xmc-Xayw sNøp-tºmƒ tlmtambv°v

s]mXpsh henb Xe-t®mdpw ]pd-tØ°v ]cn-an-X-ambn am{Xw D¥nb XmSn-

sb√pw sNdnb ]√p-I-fp-am-Wp-≈Xv. (t]Pv 20 se Nn{X-ßƒ ImWp-I) Xe-

t®m-dns‚ hep-∏-Øn-ep-≈ -h¿[-\hv _p≤n-bpsS h¿[-\-hn-s\bpw sa®-s∏´

Hm¿a-i-‡n-tbbpw kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p. XmSn-sb-√nepw ]√n-ep-ap-≠mb am‰-ßƒ°v

`£W coXn-bn-ep-≠mb am‰-ß-fp-ambn _‘ap≠m-bn-cn-°mw.


FhnsS Ft∏mƒ(h¿jßƒ

ap≥]v)

FtXym]y 195,000 - 160,000Htam -In-_njv

Z£n-Wm-{^n° 120,000 - 50,000t_m¿U¿ Kpl,

Uo sI¬tZ¿kv,

t¢knkv \Zo apJw

samtdmt°m 70,000 - 50,000Um¿ Fkv tkm¬Ø≥

C{k-tb¬ 100,000 - 80,000Jm vsk kvJpƒ

Bkvt{S-enb 45,000 - 35,000ap≥tKm XSmIw

t_m¿Wntbm 40,000\nbm Kpl

{^m≥kv 35,000s{Im am-·≥,

sekv sFkokn\v kao]w

B[p-\nI a\p-jys‚ BZy-Ime t^mkn-ep-Iƒ

(THE EARLIEST FOSSILS OF MODERN HUMANS)

{]h¿Ø\w 2

temI-Øns‚ cq]-tc-J-bn¬ apI-fnse Nm¿ń¬ kqNn-∏n-®n- p≈ am‰-ßƒ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp-I. \mev Ime-L- -ßƒ tcJ-

s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xn\v hyXykvX h¿W-ßƒ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-I. ]ń-I-s∏-Sp-Øp∂ h≥I-c-I-fn¬ (a) bv°v Hcp h¿Whpw (b)bv°v c≠v h¿W-ßfpw (c) bv°v c≠n¬ IqSp-X¬ h¿W-ßfpw \¬Ip-I.

(a) Hcp \ndw am{Xw ImW-s∏-Sp∂ `pJ-WvU-ßƒ (b) c≠p \ndw ImW-s∏-Sp-∂h (c) c≠n-tesd \nd-ßƒ ImW-s∏-

Sp∂ `qJWvUßƒ F∂n-h-bpsS ]ńI Xbm-dm-°p-I.

a\pjy ]cn-Wm-a-Øns‚ IY

(The Story of Human Evolution)

(_n) B[p-\nI a\p-jy¿ (Modern Human Beings)Cu Nm¿ń-te°v t\m°p-tºmƒ tlmtam-km-∏n-b≥kns‚Nne BZy-Im-e-sX-fn-hp-Iƒ e`n-®Xv B{^n-°-bpsS hnhn[`mK-ß-fn¬ \n∂m-sW-∂v \nßƒ°v a\- n-emIpw. CXva\ptjym¬`-h-Øns‚ tI{μsØ kw_-‘n® tNmZywDb¿Øp-∂p. a\p-jy≥ D¬ -hn-®Xv GI tI{μ-Øn-emtWmAtXm hnhn[ tI{μ-ß-fn-em-bmtWm F∂-XmWv BtNmZyw.

B[p-\nI a\p-jys‚ D¬`hÿesØ kw_-‘n®{]iv\w [mcmfw N¿® sNbvX-Xm-Wv. c≠v hyXy-kvXm-`n-{]m-b-ßƒ AXn¬ Db¿∂p h∂n-´p-≠v. H∂v {]mtZ-inIXpS¿®m amXr-Ibv°v (Regional Continuity Model - D¬`hwhnhn[ ÿe-ß-fn-em-Wv) th≠n hmZn-°p-tºmƒ as‰m∂v]Icwhbv°¬ amXr-Ibv°v (Replacement Model - D¬`hwB{^n-°-bn-em-Wv) th≠nbpw \ne-sIm-≈p-∂p.

{]mtZ-inI XpS¿®m amXr-I-b-\p-k-cn®v ]pcm-X\tlmtam-km-∏n-b≥kv hnhn[ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ {ItaW cq]w

sIm≈p-Ibpw hyXy-kvX- Im-e-ß-fn¬ B[p-\nI a\p-jy-

cmbn amdp-Ibpw sNbvXp. Cu hyXykvXX aqe-amWv B[p-

\nI a\p-jys‚ BZysØ {]Xy-£-s∏-S-en\v temI-Øns‚

hnhn[ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ hyXymkap≠m-b-Xv. Hmtcm {]tZ-i-sØbpw C∂sØ

a\p-jy-cpsS khn-ti-j-X-I-fn-ep≈ hyXy-kvX-X-I-fmWv Cu hmZ-Øns‚ ASn-

ÿm-\w. Cu ImgvN-∏m-Sn\v th≠n hmZn-°p-∂-h-cpsS A`n-{]m-b-Øn-¬ Cu

sshPm-Xy-ßƒ cq]-s∏-´Xv tlmtam- km-∏n-b≥kn\v apºv Cu {]tZ-i-ß-

fn¬ \ne-\n∂ tlmtam Cd-IvSkpw tlmtam sslU¬_¿P≥knkpw XΩn-

ep≈ hyXymkw aqe-amWv.

]I-cw-h-bv°¬ amXr-Ibpw {]mtZ-inI XpS¿®m amXr-Ibpw

(The Replacement and Regional Continuity Models)

]Icwhbv°¬ amXrI apt∂m´p hbv°p-∂-Xv F√m-bn-SØpw F√m ]gbcq]-Øn-ep≈ a\p-jy-scbpw ]q¿Æ-ambpw am‰n B[p-\nI a\p-jy¿ ]I-cw-h-bv°-s∏´p F∂ ImgvN-∏m-Sm-Wv. B[p-\nI a\p-jys‚ P\n-XIhpw


ico-c-im-kv{X-]-c-hp-amb GIm-fl-IXbpw Cu ImgvN-∏m-Sn\p≈ sXfnhpw]n¥pWbpam-Wv. Cu hmZsØ ]n¥m-ßp-∂-h-cpsS A`n-{]m-b-Øn¬, B[p-\nI a\p-jy¿°n-S-bn-ep≈ ]cn-[n-bn-√mØ kmay-ßƒ B{^n° F∂ Hcp{]tZ-iØv Pohn-®n-cp∂ P\-X-bn¬ \n∂v B[p-\nI a\p-jy≥ D¤-hn-®Xvaqew D≠m-b-Xm-Wv. B[p-\nI a\p-jys‚ BZy-Ime t^mkn-ep-Ifpw (FtXym-]y-bnse Htam-bn¬ \n∂v e`n-®-Xv) Cu A`n-{]m-bsØ km[q-I-cn-°p-∂p.Cu ImgvN-∏mSv Db¿Øn∏nSn-°p∂ ]fin-X-∑m-cpsS A`n-{]m-b-Øn¬ B[p-\nI a\p-jy¿°nS-bn¬ ImWm≥ Ign-bp∂ imco-cnIamb hyXym-k-ßƒC∂v Ah¿ A[n-h-kn-°p∂ {]tZ-i-ß-fn-te°v IpSn-tb-dnb tijw Ahn-

SsØ ]cn-X-ÿn-Xn-°-\p-k-cn®v Ah-cn¬ am‰-ßƒ (Bbn-c-°-W-°n\v h¿j-

ßƒsIm-≠p≈ am‰-ßƒ) D≠m-b-Xns‚ ê-am-Wv.

bqtdm∏

v

B{^

n°

Gj

y

]Icwhbv°¬ amXrI {]mtZ-inI XpS¿®m amXrI

bqtdm∏

v

B{^

n°B

{^n°

Gj

y

BZna a\p-jy¿ : `£W kºm-Z\ coXn-Iƒ

(Early Humans : Ways of Obtaining Food)

Aÿn-IqS Ah-in-jvS-ß-fmb sXfn-hp-I-sfbpw Ah D]-tbm-Kn®v h≥I-c-I-fn-eq-sS-bp≈ P\-ß-fpsS bm{X-bpsS Ncn-{XsØbpw Fßs\ ]p\-kr-jvSn°mw F∂-XmWv CXp-hsc \ΩpsS ]cn-K-W-\-bn-ep-≠m-bn-cp-∂-Xv. ]t£,Ahbv°v ]pdsa a\p-jy-cpsS ssZ\wZn\ Pohn-X-Øns‚ a‰v Nne-L-S-I-ßƒIqSn-bp-≠v. Ahsb Fßs\ ]T\ hnt[-b-am°mw F∂v t\m°mw.

`£y-ti-Jc-Ww, th -bm-S¬, amwkm-h-in-jvS-ßƒ `£n-°¬, a’y-_-‘\w XpS-ßnb am¿K-ß-fn-eq-sS-bm-bn-cp∂p BZy-Ime a\p-jy¿ `£Wwkºm-Zn®n-cp-∂-Xv. hnØp-Iƒ, Ipcp-°ƒ, ]g-ßƒ, Ing-ßp-Iƒ F∂n-h-bmWvkkym-lm-c-ß-fmbn tiJ-cn-®n-cp-∂-Xv. `£y-ti-J-cWw \ne-\n-∂n-cp∂p F∂-Xn\v {]Xy-£-amb sXfn-hp-Iƒ ]cn-anXamb-Xn-\m¬ AXv ]q¿W-ambpwÿm]n-°-s∏-ń-ń-√. adn®v Nne Dul-ß-fmWv AXp-ambn _‘-s∏´v \ne-\n¬°p-∂-Xv. t^mkn¬ F√p-Iƒ [mcm-f-ambn e`n-°p-tºmƒØs∂ t^mkn-emb kkym-h-in-jvS-ßƒ Xmc-X-tay\ Ipd-hm-Wv. kky-ßsf `£n-®n-cp-∂-Xns\ Ipdn®v hnhcw e`n-°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ Htc-sbmcp am¿Kw GsX-¶nepw kkym-h-in-jvS-ßƒ°v bmZr-›n-I-ambn Xo]n-Sn-°pI F∂-Xm-Wv. CXv Im¿_WoIc-W-Øn\v Imc-W-am-Ip-∂p. IØn-°-cn™ cq]-Øn¬ ssPh hkvXp-°sf Zo¿L-Imew kwc-£n-°m≥ Ign-bpw. ]t£, CXp-h-scbpw ]pcm-h-kvXp-im-kv{X-


⁄¿ BZn-a-Im-esØ Im¿_-Wo-I-cn-°-s∏- -hn-Øp-Iƒ°v Gsd-sbm∂pwsXfn-hp-Iƒ Is≠-Øn-bn-´n-√.

kao-]-Im-eØv th -bm-S-ens\ kw_-‘n®pw Nne N¿®-Iƒ ]fin-X-∑m¿ Db¿Øp-∂p-≠v. BZy-Ime slman-\n-Up-Iƒ amwkm-h-in-jvS-ßƒ £n-°p-I-tbm, kzm`m-hnIambn NØtXm As√-¶n¬ a‰v lnw{k-P-¥p-°ƒsIm∂tXm Bb arKß-fpsS ih-Øn¬ \n∂v amwkhpw a÷bpw At\z-jn®v Is≠Øn `£n-°p-Itbm sNbvXn-cn°mw F∂mWv Ah¿ A`n-{]m-b-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv. AXp-t]mse Fensbt∏mep≈ sNdnb kkvX-\n-Iƒ, ]£n-Iƒ (Ah-bpsS ap´-Iƒ), Cg-P-¥p-°ƒ, NnX-en-s\-t∏m-ep≈ sNdp-{]m-Wn-Iƒ F∂n-h-tbbpw BZy-Ime slman-\n-Up-Iƒ `£n-®n-cn-°mw.

th´-bm-S¬ Bcw-`n-®Xv GI-tZiw 500,000 h¿jßƒ°v ap≥]m-Wv.t_m[-]q¿hhpw Bkq-{Xn-X-hp-amb a\p-jys‚ th´bv°pw henb kkvX-\n-I-sf- I-im∏v sNbvX-Xn\pap≈ BZy-Ime sXfn-hp-Iƒ e`n-°p-∂Xv Z£nWCw•≠nse t_mIvkvt{Kmhv (500,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v), P¿a-\n-bnsekvtIm\n≥P≥ (400,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v) F∂o c≠v tI{μ-ß-fn¬ \n∂mWv(`q]Sw 2 ImWp-I). hyXykvX ÿe-ß-fn¬ \n∂pw a’y-Øns‚ ap≈p-Iƒ

e`n-®n- p-≠v. CXn¬ \n∂pw a’y-_-‘-\-Øn\v {]m[m-\y-ap-≠m-bn-cp∂p F∂v

a\- n-em-°mw.

`q]Sw 2 : bqtdm∏v

GI-tZiw 35,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v Bkq-{Xn-X-amb th -bm-S¬ \S-

∂-Xn-\p≈ sXfn-hp-Iƒ Nne bqtdm-]y≥ tI{μ-ß-fn¬ \n∂pw e`n-®n- p-≠v.

Hcp \Zn-bpsS XocØv ÿnXn sNøp∂ tUmƒ\n- sh-tÃm-Wnkv (sN°v

dn-∏-ªn-°n¬) t]mep≈ Nne ÿe-ßƒ t_m[-]q¿Δw BZna a\p-jy¿ Xnc-

s™-SpØXmbn a\- n-em-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv. {[ph taJ-e-bnse Ie-am≥, IpXnc

XpS-ßnb arK-ßƒ Iq´tØmsS ic-Xv, hk¥ Ime-ß-fn¬ Cu \Zn apdn®v

IS-°p-Ibpw h≥tXm-Xn¬ sIm√-s∏-Sp-Ibpw sNbvXn- p-≠v. CØcw ÿe-ß-


fpsS Xnc-s™-Sp-°¬ kqNn-∏n-°p-∂Xv CXp-h-gn-bp≈ arK-ß-fpsS ]em-b-\-

sØ-°p-dn®v BZna a\p-jy¿°v Adn-bm-am-bn-cp∂p F∂mWv. am{X-a√ {ZpX-K-

Xn-bn¬ h≥tXmXn¬ arK-ßsf sIm√m-\p≈ am¿Khpw Ah¿°-dn-bm-am-bn-

cp-∂p.

`£y-ti-J-c-Ww, amwkm-h-in-jvS-ßƒ `£n-°¬, th -bm-S¬, a’y-

_-‘\w F∂n-h-bn-se√mw kv{Xo°pw ]pcp-j\pw hyXy-kvX -]-¶mtWm D≠m-

bn-cp-∂Xv? \ap-°Xv IrXy-ambn Adn-™p-Iq-Sm. C∂v th -bm-S¬, `£y-ti-J-

cWw F∂nh \ne-\n¬°p∂ kaq-l-ß-fn¬ kv{Xobpw ]pcp-j\pw hyXykvX

{]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ Gs‰-Sp-°p-∂p. ]t£, AXns\ `qX-Im-e-tØmSv kmay-s∏-

Sp-Øm≥ Ft∏mgpw Ign-bn-√m-sb∂v \Ωƒ Cu A[ym-b-Øns‚ Ah-km\w

a\- n-em-°pw.

BZna a\p-jy¿ (Early Humans)ac-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Kpl-I-fn-te°v, ]n∂oSv Xpd∂ ÿe-ß-fn-te°v

(From Trees, to Caves and Open-air Sites)hmkÿe-Øns‚ coXnsb kw_-‘n® sXfn-hp-Iƒ ]p\-kr-jvSn-°m≥Ign-bp-sa-∂p≈ Imcy-Øn¬ \ap°v Dd-∏p-≠v. AXn-\p≈ Hcp hgn BZnaa\p-jy-cpsS hnhn[ ÿe-ß-fnse tij-n∏p-Iƒ Is≠-Sp-°pI F∂-XmWv.DZm-l-c-W-Øn-\v, Bbn-c-°-W-°n\v I¬∏mfn D]-I-c-W-ßfpw ssIt°m-Sm-en-Ifpw, Insemws_, Htem¿sK-ssken (sI\n-b) F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn¬\n∂v Is≠-Sp-Øn-´p-≠v. CØ-c-Øn¬ Is≠-Sp-°-s∏-´-hbv°v 700,000 apX¬

500,000 hsc h¿j-ß-fpsS ]g-°-ap-≠v.

CSXp`mKØv : Htem¿Kn-

ssk-ensb F∂ ÿew.

\nco-£-I¿°p-]-tbm-Kn-°p-

∂-Xn-\mbn AhnsS

D¬J\\w \S-Ønb

tacnbpw eqbn- eo-t°bpw

B ssk‰n\p Np‰pw Hcp

CSp-ßnb \S-∏mX \n¿an-

®n-cp-∂p.

he-Xp- m-KØv : Cu

ssk‰n¬ Is≠-Ønb

ssIagp AS-°-ap≈ D]-I-

c-W-ß-fpsS Nn{Xw.

Cu D]-I-c-W-ß-sf√mw Hcp ÿeØv Fßs\bmWv tI{μn-I-cn-°-

s∏- Xv? `£y hn -h-ßƒ btYjvSw e`n-°p∂ Nne ÿe-ß-fn-emWv a\p-

jy¿ Bh¿Øn®v kμ¿in-®n-´p-≠m-hp-I. AØcw ÿe-ß-fn¬ P\-ßƒ

Ah-cpsS km∂n-[y-Øn-s‚bpw {]h¿Ø-\-ß-fp-sSbpw sXfn-hp-Iƒ Ah-ti-

jn-∏n-®n-´p-≠m-bn-cn-°pw. `qan-bn¬ \nt£-]n-°-s∏´ AØcw hkvXp-°ƒ

(artefacts) `qan-bpsS D]-cn-X-e-Øn¬ Xp≠p-Iƒ t]mse {]Xy-£-s∏-Spw. a\p-

jy¿ Xmc-X-tay\ Ipd®v kμ¿in® ÿe-ß-fn¬ hf-sc-°p-d®v hkvXp-°ƒ

am{Xta D]-cn-X-e-Øn¬ NnXdn°nS-∏p-≈q.

a\pjy \n¿Ωn-X-amb

]pcm-h-kvXp-°-sf-

bmWv B¿Sn-^mIvSvkv

(Artefacts) F∂p

hnfn-°p-∂X.v D]-I-c-W-

ßƒ, Nn{X-ßƒ,

inev]-ßƒ, ap{Z-Wß

ƒ apX-emb A\-h[n

cq]-ß-fn¬ Ch

ImWmw.


Htc ÿe-ßƒ Xs∂ slman-\n-Up-Iƒ°pw, a‰v {]nta-‰p-Iƒ°pw, amwk- p-

°p-Iƒ°pw ]¶p-h-bv°m≥ Ign-™n-cp∂p F∂Xpw {]m[m-\y-tØmsS Hm¿t°-

≠-Xm-Wv. CsX-ß-s\-bmWv {]h¿Øn-®-sX-∂-dn-bm≥ Xmsg-Ø-∂n- p≈ Nn{Xw

t\m°p-I.

sSdm Aam-‰-bnse Hcp

IpSn-ens‚ ]p\¿\n¿an-Xn-bm-

Wn-Xv. IpSn-ens‚ hi-ßsf

Xmßn-\n¿Øp-∂Xv henb

I¬∏m-fn-I-fm-Wv. Bfp-Iƒ

I√p-]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿Ωn-®n-S-

ß-fn-emWv sNdnb I√ns‚

Ah-in-jvS-ßƒ NnX-dn-°n-S-

°p-∂-Xv. Aº-S-bmfw ImWn-

®n-cn-°p∂ IdpØ _nμp-hn¬

s\cn-t∏mSv D≠m-bn-cp-∂p.

ac-ß-fn¬ Pohn-®n-cp∂

slman-\n-Up-I-fp-tS-Xn¬ \n∂v

Ch-cpsS PohnXw Fßs\

hyXym-k-s∏- n-cp∂p F∂mWv

\nßƒ Icp-Xp-∂Xv?

tlmtam l_n-en-kp-Iƒ an°-hmdpw Cc-bpsS knwl- mKhpw AXns\ ]nSn-®nSØp-h®p Xs∂ `£n-

°p-Ibpw, hyXykvX CS-ß-fn¬ Dd-ßp-Ibpw Gdnbkabhpw ac-ß-fn¬ sNe-h-gn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp

F∂v ]pcm-hkvXp imkv{X-⁄¿ ]d-bp-∂p. Aÿn-Iƒ Cu ÿe-tØ°v Fßs\ FØn-t®¿∂p?

I√p-Iƒ Fßs\ Chn-sS-sbØn? Aÿn-Iƒ am‰w IqSmsX Ah-ti-jn-®n- p-≠m-Iptam?

400,000 h¿jßƒ°v ap≥]v apX¬ 125,000h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v hsc Kpl-Ifpw Xpd-∂-ÿ-e-ßfpw D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ XpS-ßn. CXn-\p≈ sXfn-hp-Iƒ bqtdm-∏nse D¬J-\\ÿe-ß-fn¬ \n∂mWv e`n-°p-∂-Xv. Z£n-W-{^m≥-knse ekm-c‰v Kpl-bn¬ Kplm-`n-Øn°v FXn-cmbn 12 x 4 ao‰¿ hep-∏-ap≈ Hcqhmk-ÿew \n¿Ωn°-s∏-ń-cp-∂p. AXn-\p-≈n¬ \n∂v c≠v s\cn-t∏m-Sp-Ifpw ]g-ßƒ,]®-°-dn-Iƒ, hnØp-Iƒ, Ipcp-°ƒ, ]£n-I-

fpsS ap´-Iƒ, ip≤Pe a’y-ßƒ F∂o

`£W km[-\-ß-fpsS Ah-injvS sXfn-hp-Ifpw e`n-®n- p-≠v. Z£nW {^m≥kn¬ --kap-{Z-- Xo-csØ as‰mcp tI{μ-ambsSdm Aam-‰bn¬ ]p√pIfpw XSn-bpw sIm≠p-≠m--°nb ta¬°qcIfp≈ _e-lo-\-amb hmkÿ-e-ßƒ ImWm≥ Ign-bpw. Ch {lkz-ImetØ°p-≈XpwHcp {]tXyI kok-Wn¬ kμ¿in-°m-\p-≈Xpambncp∂p.

Np´ Ifn-a-Æn-s‚bpw sh¥ F√n-s‚bpw Ij-W-ßƒ 1.4 apX¬ 1Zi-e£w hsc h¿j-ßƒ ]g-°-ap≈ inem-bp-[-ß-tfm-sSm∏w Z£-nWm-{^n-°-bnse kz¿Xv{Im≥kv, sI\n-b-bnse sNtkm-hmRvP F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn¬

{]nta-‰

p-I-f-√

mØ s

lman-\n-U

p-Iƒ

hk

vXp-°

ƒ \

o°p∂

p

hr£-Ønse slman-\n-Up-Iƒ

Ipńsb t]m‰p∂]pen

hr£-Ønse a‰p ss{]ta-‰p-Iƒ

aqß

amwk-t`m-Pn-Iƒ hln-°p∂p

Aÿn-Iƒ

Aÿn-Iƒ

D≈n-te°v

ihw-Xo-\n-Iƒ am‰p∂p

Aÿn-Iƒ

I√p-Ifpw AÿnIfpw

-]pd-tØ

°pw

slman-\n-Up-Iƒ am‰p∂p

km[

-\-ß

ƒ I

gpI

nA

I-tØ

°pw

sh≈-s∏m°ap≠m-Ip-tºmƒ apX-e-Iƒ

Blmcw Ign-°p∂p

sh≈-s∏m°w

]pd-tØ°v

s]mń-°p∂p

apdn-°p∂p

ine

-Iƒ

slman-\n-Up-Iƒhln-°p∂p

Nh-bv°p∂p

`£n-°p∂p


\n∂pw Is≠-Øn-bn´p-≠v. Ch-sbms° Im´p-Xo-bp-sStbm A·n]¿hXkvt^mS-\-Øn-s‚tbm ^e-amtWm? AtXm Ch t_m[-]q¿hhpw \nb-{¥n-X-hp-amb XobpsS D]-tbm-K-Øn-eqsS D¬∏m-Zn-∏n-°-s∏- -XmtWm F∂p \ap-°-dn-™p-Iq-S.

s\cn-t∏m-Sp-Iƒ t\tc adn®v \nb-{¥nXamb XobpsS D]-tbm-K-Øn-\p≈ kqN-\-bmWv. CXn\v \nc-h[n t\ -ß-fp-≠v. Xo Kpl-bv°p-≈n¬ NqSpwshfn-®hpw \¬In. ]mN-I-Øn\pw Xo D]-tbm-Kn-°mw. am{X-a√, Ip¥-Øns‚ap\ Iq´m≥ F∂t]mse X-Sn-bpsS I´n-Iq- m\pw Xo D]-tbm-Kn-®ncp-∂p. NqSvD]-tbm-Kn®v D]-I-c-W-ßƒ sa®-s∏-Sp-Øp-Ibpw sNømw. A]-I-S-Im-cn-I-fmbarK-ßsf `b-s∏-Sp-Øn-tbm-Sn-°m\pw Xo D]-tbm-Kn-°m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv.

BZna a\p-jy¿: D]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿Ωn-°p∂p

(Early Humans : Making Tools)

D]-I-c-W-ß-fpsS \n¿Ωm-Whpw D]-tbm-Khpw a\p-jy-cpsS CS-bn¬ am{X-

a√ HXp-ßn-\n∂Xv F∂-Imcyw Hm¿Ω-bn-en-cn-°p-∂Xv \∂m-bn-cn-°pw. ]£n-

Iƒ°v `£Ww tXSm\pw ipNn-Xz-Øn\pw G‰p-ap- -ep-Iƒ°v klm-bn-°p∂

D]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿Ωn-°m-\-pw Adn-bm-am-bn-cp-∂p. `£Ww tXSn \S-°p-

tºmƒ Nnº≥kn-Iƒ Ah¿ \n¿Ωn® D]-I-c-W-ßƒ D]-tbm-Kn-®n-cp-∂p.

F∂n-cp-∂mepw a\p-jy-cpsS D]-I-cW \n¿Ωm-W-Øns‚

Nne khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ Bƒ°p-c-ßp-Iƒ°v Adn-™p-Iq-Sm-bn-cp-

∂p. \Ωƒ t\ctØ I≠-Xp-t]mse ico-c-im-kv{X-]-chpw \mUo-

hyql kw_-‘n-bp-ambn ]cn-X-ÿn-Xn-°-\p-tbm-Py-am-bp-≠mb

Nne am‰-ßƒ ssII-fpsS hnZ-Kv[-amb D]-tbm-K-Øn\v Imc-W-

ambn. a\pjyPohn-X-Øn¬ D]-I-c-W-ß-fpsS D]-tbm-K-Øn-\p≈

henb ]¶mWv CXn-te°v \bn-®-Xv. am{X-a√ a\p-jy¿ D]-I-c-W-

ßƒ \n¿Ωn-°p-Ibpw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-Ibpw sNøp∂ coXn°v h≥tXmXn¬

Hm¿Ωi-‡nbpw k¶o¿W-amb kwLm-S\ sshZ-Kv[yhpw Bh-iy-am-Wv. Ch

c≠pw Bƒ°p-c-ßp-I-fn-en√.

ine-sIm≠p≈ D]-I-c-W-ß-fpsS \n¿Ωm-W-Øn\pw D]-tbm-K-Øn-

\pap≈ BZy-Im-e-sX-fn-hp-Iƒ e`n-°p-∂Xv sI\n-b, FtXym]y F∂n-hn-S-

ß-fnse D¬J-\\ ÿe-ß-fn¬ \n∂m-Wv (`q]Sw 1 ImWp-I). BZysØ

inembp-]-I-cW \n¿Ωm-Xm-°ƒ Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°kv Bbn-cp-∂p.

a‰v {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ t]mse Xs∂ D]-I-c-W-ß-fpsS \n¿Ωm-Whpw

\S-Øn-bXv ]pcp-j∑mcmtWm AtXm kv{XoIfmtWm AtXm c≠p t]cpw

tN¿∂mtWm F∂v \ap-°-dn-bn-√. ine-sIm≠p≈ D]-I-c-W-ßƒ kv{XoIfpw

]pcp-j-∑mcpw tN¿∂v \n¿an-®n-cn-°m-\mWv km[y-X. Xßƒ°v `£Ww

t\Sm\pw ape-IpSn amdnb Ip™p-ßƒ°p≈ `£Ww tXSm-\p-ap≈ D]-I-c-

W-ß-fm-bn-cn°mw kv{XoIƒ \n¿an-®n- p-≠m-hp-I.

Nne BZna D]-I-c-W-ßƒ.

HƒUp-hm-bn-bn-emWv Cu D]-

I-c-W-ßƒ Is≠-Øn-b-Xv. apI-

fn¬ ImWp-∂Xv sh´m≥ D]-

tbm-Kn-°p∂ I√p-]-I-c-W-amWv

(Chopper). Hcp henb I√n¬

\n∂v Ipd-®p- mKw AS¿Øn-°-

f™v aq¿®-bp≈ A{Kw cq]o-

I-cn-®mWv CXv \n¿Ωn-°p-∂-Xv.

Xmsg ImWp-∂Xv Hcp ssIa-gp-

hm-Wv. Cu D]-I-c-W-ßƒ

F¥v Bh-iy-Øn\v D]-tbm-Kn-

®n-cn°mw F∂v Duln-°mtam?


GI-tZiw 35,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v arK-ßsf sIm√p∂ X{¥-ß-fn¬

sa®-s∏-Sp-Ø-ep-I-fp-≠m-bn. Ip¥w, Aºv, hn√v F∂o \qX-\m-bp-[-ßƒ CXv

hy‡-am-°p-∂p. A{]Imcw e`n-°p∂ amwk-sØ F√v am‰nbpw DW-°nbpw

]pI-tb-¬∏n®pw kw`-cn-°p-∂p. Aßs\

`£-WsØ ]n∂o-Sp≈ D]-tbm-K-Øn-\mbn

kq£n-°m≥ Ign-™p.

a‰v Nne am‰-ßfpw Cu Ime-Øp-≠m-

bn. tcma-ß-fp≈ arK-ßsf sIWn-bn¬ hogvØ¬ (hkv{X \n¿am-W-Øn\v

tcmaw D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥), Xp∂¬ kqNn-bpsS I≠p]nSnØw F∂n-h-bm-bn-

cp∂p Ah. Xp∂nb hkv{X-sØ°p-dn®v e`n® BZysØ sXfnhv GI-tZiw

21,000 h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]p≈ Ime-tØ-Xm-Wv. sNdnb Dfn-t]m-ep≈ D]-I-

c-W-ß-fpsS \n¿am-W-Øn-\mbn I√v IpØnØpf-bv°p∂ kmt¶-XnIhnZy

IS∂p h∂-tXmsS F√p-Iƒ, am≥sIm-ºv, B\-s°m-ºv, XSn F∂n-h-bn¬

sImØp-]-Wn-Iƒ sNøm≥ Ign-™p.

(a) Hcp Np‰n-I-°-√p-]-tbm-Kn®v hen-sbmcp Dcp-f≥I-√ns‚ ta¬`mKw X´n-°-f-bp-∂p.

(b) At∏mƒ AhnsS kvss{S°nßv πm‰vt^mw F∂p hnfn-°-s∏-Sp∂ Hcp ]c∂ {]Xew cq]-s∏-Sp-∂p.

(c) XpS¿∂v Aÿntbm am≥sImtºm sIm≠p \n¿an® Hcp Np‰n-I-bpw Dfnbpw D]-tbm-Kn®v AXns‚ Acn-Ip-

Iƒ X´n-°-f-bp-∂p.

(d) Aßs\ IØn-bmbn D]-tbm-Kn-°m-hp∂ tªUp-Iƒ cq]w sIm≈p-∂p. XSn, B\-s°mºv, am≥sImºv

F∂nhbn¬ sImØp-∂-Xn-\p≈ I√p-fn-Itfm sImØp-fn-Itfm Bbn Chsb am‰m-hp-∂-Xm-Wv.

(e) F√n¬ sImØp-]Wn \S-Øp-∂-Xns‚ HcpZml-c-Ww. AXn¬ arK-ß-fpsS Nn{X-ßƒ sImØn-bn-cn-°p-

∂Xp {i≤n-°p-I.

]©v tªUv kmt¶-XnI coXn(THE PUNCH BLADE TECHNIQUE)

B

A C

D

E

Hcp kv]nb¿ t{Xmh¿

(Ip¥w ˛ Fdn-bp-∂-Xn-\p≈

eLp D]-I-c-Ww).

kv]nb¿ t{Xmh-dns‚ ]nSn-

bnse sImØp-]Wn {i≤n-

°p. IqSpX¬ Zqc-Ønepw

i‡n-bnepw Ip¥w ]mbn-

°m≥ Cu D]-I-cWw th -

°msc klm-bn-®p. CØcw

D ] - I - c W ß f p s S

D]-tbmKw aqe-ap≈ t\´-

ßƒ Is≠-Ømtam?


hS-°≥ kvs]bn-\nse

Aƒ´m-an-d-bn¬ ImWp∂

Hcp Im´p-t]m-Øns‚

Nn{Xw.

Bi-b-hn-\n-a-b- coXn-Iƒ : `mjbpw Iebpw

(Modes of Communication : Language and Art)

Poh-Pm-e-ß-fpsS CS-bn¬ a\p-jy\v am{X-amWv Hcp kwkmc`mj-bp-≈-Xv.

`mj-bpsS hnI-k-\sØ kw_‘n®v \nc-h[n ImgvN-∏m-Sp-Iƒ \ne-\n¬°p-

∂p-≠v: (1) tlman-\nUv `mj-bn¬ BwKy-ßfpw ssI®e-\-ßfpw Dƒs∏- n-cp-

∂p: (2) kwkm-c- m-jbv°v ap≥]mbn hm°p-I-fn-√mØ Bem-]\w t]msebpw

lΩnwKv t]mse-bp-ap≈ i_vZ `mj \ne-\n-∂n-cp-∂p: (3) ss{]ta-‰p-Iƒ ]pd-

s∏-Sp-hn-®n-cp∂ i_vZ-ß-fn¬ \n∂pamImw a\p-jy- mj D¤-hn-®-Xv. BZy-L-

-Øn¬ a\p-jy¿ Iqd®v kwkmc i_vZ-ßƒ hi-Øm-°n-bn-cp-∂n´p≠m-Imw.

AXmWv {ItaW `m-j-bmbn hnI-kn-®n´p-≠m-hp-I.

kwkmc `mj Ft∏mgmWv Bhn¿ -hn-®Xv? tlmtam l_n-en-kns‚

Xe-t®m-dn\p≠mbn-cp∂ Nne khn-ti-j-X-IfmImw kwkmcw km[y-am-

°nbXv. Aßs\ GI-tZiw 2 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v `mj Bhn¿ -

hn-®n´p-≠mImw. kz\-t]-S-I-Øns‚ (Vocal tract) ]cn-Wm-ahpw Xpey{]m[m-\y-

ap≈ Imcy-am-Wv. AXv GI-tZiw 200,000 h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]mWv kw -hn-

®Xv. AXv IqSp-Xepw B[p-\nI a\p-jy-\p-ambn _‘-s∏- n-cn-°p-∂p.

GI-tZiw 40,000 - 35,000 h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v Ie -hn-I-kn® AtX Ime-

L- -Øn¬ `mj hnI-kn®psh∂-XmWv aq∂m-asØ \n¿tZ-iw. kwkm-c- m-j-

bpsS hf¿®bv°v Ie-bp-ambn ASpØ _‘-ap-≠v. ImcWw c≠pw Bibhn\n-

a-b-Øn\v D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ am[y-a-ß-fm-Wv.

Aƒ´m-an-d-bnse Kplm-Nn-{X-ßƒ (Cave Paintings at Altamira)kvs]bn-\nse Hcp Kpl-bmWv Aƒ´m-an-d. 1879 \hw-_-dn¬ Hcp {]mtZ-inI

`qhpS-abpw Aa-®z¿ ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-I-\p-amb am¿sk-ens\m km≥kv Un

kuXpHmf-bpsS aIƒ acnbbmWv Kpl-bpsS ta¬°qc-bnse Nn{X-ßƒ BZy-

ambn am¿sk-en-t\m-bpsS Xs∂ {i≤-bn¬ sIm≠p-h-∂-Xv. Xs‚ ]nXmhv Kpl-

bpsS Xd-bn¬ D¬J-\\w \S-Øp-tºmƒ

Kplm-ap-JØv HmSn-°-fn-°p-I-bm-bn-cp∂p B

s]¨Ip-´n. s]s´∂v Ah-fpsS {i≤ -

ta¬°qcbnse Nn{X-Øn¬ ]Xn-™p. "]∏m

t\m°q Imf-Iƒ!' BZyw Ah-fpsS ]nXmhv

Nncn-s®-¶nepw s]bn‚n\v ]Icw Ft¥m

Ipgºv Nn{Xo-I-c-W-Øn\p]tbm-Kn-®n-´p≈-

Xmbn Bt±lw a\- n-em-°n. s]s´∂p≈

D√m-k-Øm¬ Bt±-l-Øn\v Ipd®v t\c-

tØ°v H∂pw kwkm-cn-°m≥ Ign-™n-√.

ASp-Ø-h¿jw At±lw Hcp _p°vse‰v

{]kn-≤o-I-cn-®p. ]s£ ASpØ c≠v ]Xn-

‰m-t≠mfw At±-l-Øns‚ I≠p]nSn-Ø-

ßsf bqtdm-]y≥ ]pcm-hkvXp imkv{X-

⁄¿ AwKo-I-cn-®n-√. B Nn{X-ßƒ ]pcm-X-\-am-Im≥ km[y-X-bn√mØ-hn[w

anI-®-h-bmWv F∂m-W-h¿ Icp-Xn-b-Xv.


\qdv IW-°n\v arK-ß-fpsS Nn{X-ßƒ (30,000 apX¬ 12,000 hsc

h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v hc-®-Xv) {^m≥knse ekvtIm (Lascaux), tjmsh (Chauvet)Kpl-I-fn¬ \n∂pw kvs]bn-\nse Bƒ´m-and (Altamira) Kpl-bn¬ \n∂pw

Is≠-Sp-Øn- p-≠v. Im´p-t]m-Øv, IpXn-c-Iƒ, ae-bm-Sv, am≥, ama-Øp-Iƒ, Im≠m-

ar-Kw, knwl-ßƒ, Ic-Sn, ]p≈n-∏p-en, Igp-X-∏p-en, aqß F∂n-h-bpsS Nn{X-

ß-fmWv Chbnepƒs∏-´n-´p-≈-Xv.

Cu Nn{X-ßsf kw_-‘n®v DØ-c-ß-tf-°mƒ IqSp-X¬ tNmZy-ß-

fmWv Db¿∂p h∂n- p-≈-Xv. DZm-l-c-W-Øn-\v, F¥p-sIm-≠mWv Kpl-I-fpsS

Nne `mK-ß-fn¬ am{Xw Nn{X-ßƒ hc-bv°p-Ibpw a‰v `mK-ß-fn¬ hc-bv°m-

Xn-cn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXXv? F¥p sIm≠mWv Nne arK-ßsf am{Xw hc-bv°p-

Ibpw a‰p-≈-hsb hc-bv°m-Xn-cn-°p-Ibpw sNbvX-Xv? F¥p-sIm-≠mWv ]pcp-

j-∑msc H‰bv°pw kwL-ß-fmbpw Nn{Xo-I-cn-®Xv? AtX kabw kv{XoIsf

kwL-ß-fmbn am{X-am-Wt√m Nn{Xo-I-cn-®n-´p-≈Xv? F¥p-sIm-≠mWv ]pcp-

j-∑msc am{Xw arK-ß-fpsS kao-]-Ømbn Nn{Xo-I-cn-®Xpw kv{XoIsf Aßs\

Nn{Xo-I-cn-°m-ØXpw? Kpl-I-fn¬ i_vZw \∂mbn IS∂p hcp∂ ÿe-ß-

fn¬ am{Xw arK-ß-fpsS kwL-ßsf hc-®-sX-¥p-sIm≠v?

Chbv°v \nc-h[n hni-Zo-I-c-W-ßƒ \¬I-s∏- n- p-≠v. th -bv°p-≠m-

bn-cp∂ {]m[m\yw aqew arK-ß-fpsS Nn{X-ßsf A\p-jvTm-\-ßfpw am{¥n-I-

X-bp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn Nn{Xo-I-cn®p F∂-XmWv Hcp hni-Zo-I-c-Ww. hnP-

b-I-c-amb Hcp th´sb Dd-∏m-°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ A\p-jvTm\-am-bn-cp-∂n-cn°mw

Nne-t∏mƒ Nn{Xw hc-bv°¬. Cu Kpl-Iƒ sNdp kwL-ß-fpsS IqSn-°mgvNm

tI{μtam kwL-{]-h¿Ø-\-ß-fpsS tI{μtam Bbn-cp∂ncn-°mw F∂-XmWv

as‰mcp hni-Zo-I-c-Ww. Cu kwL-ßƒ th -bpsS X{¥-ßfpw Adnhpw ]¶p-

h-®n-cp-∂n-cn-°mw. Hcp Xe-ap-d-bn¬ \n∂v as‰m-cp Xeapd-bn-te°v Adn-hp-

Ifpw X{¥-ßfpw ssIam-dm-\p≈ am[y-a-ambn Cu Nn{X-ßfpw sImØp ]Wn-

Ifpw amdpI-bp-≠m-bn.

BZna kaq-l-sØ-°p-dn®v apI-fn¬ \¬Inb hnhcß-sf√mw ]pcm-

hkvXp sXfn-hp-I-fpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Øn-ep-≈-XmWv. ]s£ hen-sbm-c-f-thmfw

Imcy-ßƒ \ap-°n-t∏mgpw hy‡-ambn Adn-™p-Iq-Sm. Cu A[ym-b-Øns‚

BZyw ]cm-a¿in-®Xpt]mse th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-ßƒ C∂pw \ne-

\n¬°p-∂p. C∂sØ th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-Øn¬ \n∂pw Hcmƒ°v

`qX-Im-e-sØ-°p-dn®v ]T-n°m≥ Ign-bptam? Cu tNmZy-amWv ASpØ `mKØv

\Ωƒ N¿® sNøp-∂-Xv.

B{^n-°-bnse th´-bm -S¬˛tiJ-cW P\Xbpam -bp≈

BZy-Ime G‰p-ap-´-ep-Iƒ

(Early Encounters with Hunter-Gatherers in Africa)Ie-lmcn acp-`q-an-bn¬ Pohn-®n-cp∂ IpMvkm≥ F∂ Hcp th´-bm-S¬ ˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-hp-ambn 1870 ¬ X\n-°p-≠m-bn-cp∂ _‘-sØ-Ip-dn®vHcp B{^n-°≥ CSb kwL-Ønse AwKw \¬Ip∂ hnh-c-W-amWv X∂n-´p-≈Xv.


Cu {]tZ-iØv BZy-ambn hcp-tºmƒ, Rßƒ Chn-sS -I-≠Xv aW-

ense A]-cn-Nn-X-amb Im¬∏m-Sp-Iƒ am{X-am-bn-cp-∂p. CXv F¥v Xcw

Bfp-I-fm-sW∂v \Ωƒ A¤p-X-s∏- p-t]m-bn. \Ω-sf-°≠v b∂ Ah¿

Hfn-®n-cn-°p-I-bm-bn-cn-°mw. \Ωƒ Ah-cpsS {Kma-ßƒ Is≠-Øn-sb-

¶nepw Ah- iq-\y-am-bn-cp∂p. F¥p-sIm-s≠-∂m¬ Nne A]-cn-Nn-X¿

IS-∂p-h-cp-∂Xv I≠-tXmsS Ah¿ NnX-dn-t∏m-hp-Ibpw Ip‰ns®Sn-I-fpsS

CS-bn¬ ad-bp-I-bpw sNbvXn-cn-°mw. At∏mƒ \Ωƒ ]d™p: "Hm,

CXv sIm≈mw; Ch¿ \Ω-sf-I≠v `b-∂n-cn-°p-∂p. Ah¿ Zp¿_-e-

cmWv AXn-\m¬ \ap°v Ffp-∏-Øn¬ Ahsc `cn-°m≥ Ign-bpw.

Aßs\ \Ωƒ Ahsc `cn-®p. bp≤tam sIme-]m-X-I-ßtfm

H∂pap≠m-bn-√.

th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-hp-am-bp≈ G‰pap -ep-I-sf-Ip-dn®v F v,

H≥]Xv {]ta-b-ß-fn¬ \nßƒ IqSp-X¬ a\- n-em-°pw.

lUvk (The Hadza)"{`wi Xmgvhc-bnse D∏pXSm-I-amb Fbm-kn-bpsS kao-]Øv Pohn-®n-cp∂ th -bm-S¬ ˛ tiJ-cW kaq-l-am-bn-cp∂p lUvk F∂ sNdnb P\-hn- m-Kw. Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-sØ lUvk-I-fpsS cmPyw, hc-≠ ]md-Ifpw ]p¬ta-Sp-I-fp-ap-≈,ap≈p≈ Ip‰n-s®-Sn-I-fpw At°jy ac-ß-fpw \nd-™... h\ hn -h-ß-fm¬ kº-∂-amb {]tZ-i-am-bn-cp-∂p. Cu \q‰m-≠ns‚ Bcw- -Øn¬ ChnsS arK-ßƒGsd km[m-c-Whpw hfsc A[n-I-hp-am-bn-cp-∂p. B\, Im≠m-ar-Kw, Imf, Pndm-

v, ko{_, am≥, sNdp-am≥, ]∂n, Ipc-ßv, knwlw,-]p-≈n-∏p-en, Igp-X-∏pen XpS-ßn-b-hbpw sNdp apK-ß-fmb ap≈≥]-∂n, apb¬, Ipdp-°≥ Ba XpS-ßn-b-hbpw km[m-cWambn-cp-∂p. Cu arK-ß-fn¬ B\ HgnsI F√m-Øn-s\bpwlUvk -P\hn`mKw th -bm-Sp-Ibpw `£n-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. `£y-tbm-Ky-ambarK-ß-fpsS `mhnsb A]-I-S-s∏-Sp-ØmsX Znh-tk\ Xn∂m-hp∂ amwk-Øns‚e`yX temIsØ at‰Xp`mK-tØ-°mfpw ChnsS IqSp-X-em-bn-cp-∂p.

kky `jWw ˛ thcp-Iƒ, s_dn-∏-g-ßƒ, _shm-_m_v ac-Øns‚]g-ßƒ apX-em-bh ˛ km[m-cW \nco-£-I\v an-°-t∏mgpw hy‡-ambn ImWm-≥ Ign-bn-s√-¶nepw th\¬°m-e-Ønse G‰hpw hc-≠-k-a-b-Øp-t]mepw [mcm-f-ambn e`n-®ncp-∂p. hc-≠-Im-etØXn¬ \n∂v hyXy-kvX-ambn kky- £yhn -h-ß-fmWv Bdv amk-°m-esØ Cu¿∏-ap≈ ka-bØv e`n-®Xv. Ah-bpsSe`y-X-°p-d-hp-≈- Imew D≠m-bn-cp-∂n-√. Im´nse Fgp-Xcw tX\o® h¿K-ß-fpsS tX\pw tX\o-®bpw Ah¿ `£n-®n-cp-∂p. F∂m¬ Ch-bpsS e`yX Hmtcm-Im-e-L- -Ønepw Hmtcm h¿j-Ønepw hyXym-k-s∏- n-cp-∂p.

cmPy-Øp-S-\o-fw ag-°m-eØv Pe-Øns‚ t{kmX-kp-Iƒ cq]w sIm≠n-cp∂p. F∂m¬ th\¬°meØv Ah hfsc Ipd-bpIbpw sNbvXncp-∂p. Pew-ti-J-cn®v sIm≠phcm-\p≈ ]c-am-h[n Zqc-ambn 5 apX¬ 6 Intem-ao-‰¿ hscZqcsØbmWv lUvk-Iƒ ]cn-K-Wn-®n-cp-∂Xv. Pe-t{km-X-kns‚ Hcp Intem-ao-‰¿ Zqc-]-cn[n°p≈n-emWv km[m-c-W-bmbn Ah¿ hm-k-ÿ-e-ßƒ ÿm]n-®n-cp-∂-Xv.

cmPy-Øns‚ Hcp `mKØv Xpd∂ ]p¬ta-Sp-Iƒ D≠m-bn-cp-s∂-¶nepwlUvk-Iƒ AhnsS Xmhfßƒ ÿm]n-®n-cp-∂n-√. Ah¿ s]mXpsh Xß-fpsS Xmhfßƒ ÿm]n-®Xv ac-ßƒ°nS-bntem ]md-Iƒ°nS-bntem As√-¶n¬ Ahbv°v c≠n\pw CS-bntem Bbn-cp-∂p.

a\pjy ]cn-Wm-a-hp-ambn

_‘-s∏´ hwi-ß-tfbpw

a\pjy kwkvIm-c-

tØbpw Ipdn®v ]Tn-

°p∂ hn⁄m\ imJ-

bmWv \c-hwi imkv{Xw.

(Anthropology)

{]h¿Ø\w 3

`qan-bp-sSbpw hn -h-

ß-fp-sSbpw ta¬

lUvk-P\hn`mKw

Ah-Imiw ÿm]n-

°m-Xn-cp∂sX-¥p--

sIm≠v? hmk-ÿ-e-

ß-fpsS hep-∏hpw

ÿm-\-hpw Imem-Im-

e-ß-fn¬

amdns°m≠n-cp-∂-sX-

¥p-sIm≠v? th\¬-

°m-eØv t]m-epw

`£W km[-\ß-ƒ--

°v Zu¿e`yw t\cn-Sm-

Xn-cp-∂-sX-¥p-

sIm≠v? CXp-t]m-e-

sØ GsX-¶nepw

th --bm-S¬ tiJ-

cW k-aq--l--Øns‚-

t]cv C∂-sØ- C¥y-

bn¬ \nß-

ƒ°vNq≠n°mWn--

°m≥ Ign-bptam?


Ing-°≥ {]tZ-isØ lUvk-Iƒ `qan-bpsStbm hn -h-ß-fp-sStbm ta¬Hc-h-Im-ihpw ÿm]n-®n-cp-∂n-√. Ah-cpsS cmPyØv GsXm-cmƒ°pw CjvS-ap-≈n-SØv Xma-kn-°m\pw CjvS-ap≈ arK-ßsf th -bm-Sm\pw ]g-ß-fpw, Ingßp-Ifpw tX\pw sh≈hpw tiJ-cn-°m\pw \nb-{¥-W-ß-fn-√m-bn-cp-∂p...

Xß-fpsS {]tZ-iØv [mcmfw £ytbmKyarK-ßƒ D≠m-bn-cp-s∂-¶nepwlUvk-Iƒ `£-W-Øn\v Im´nse kky- £y hn -h-ß-sf-bmWv {][m-\-ambpwB{i-bn-®n-cp-∂-Xv. Ah-cpsS `£-W-Øns‚ 80 iX-am-\hpw ]®-°-dn-bm-bn-cp-∂p. _m°n 20 iX-am\w amwkhpw tX\p-am-bn-cp-∂p.

ag-°m-eØv lUvk-I-fpsS Xmhfßƒ sNdpXpw hnhn-[-bn-S-ß-fn¬ NnX-dn-°n-S-°p-∂-Xp-am-bn-cp-∂p. F∂m¬ th\¬°meØv Npcp°w Nne Pe-t{km-X- p-I-fpsS kao-]Øv am{X-am-Wv Ah¿ Xß-fpsS Xmhfßƒ ÿm]n-®n-cp-∂-Xv. At∏mƒ Cu Xmhfßƒ Xmc-X-tay\ hep-Xm-bn-cn-°pw.

th\¬°meØv t]mepw Ah¿s°m-cn-°epw `£-W-Øns‚ Zu¿e`yw D≠m-bn-cp-∂n√'.

- \c-hwi imkv{X-⁄-\mb sPbnwkv hpUv_¨ 1960 ¬ Fgp-Xn-b-Xv

th´-bm-S¬ ˛ tiJcW kaq-l-ßƒ (Hunter-Gatherer Societes)h¿Ø-am\ImeØv \n∂v `qX-Im-e-Øn-te°v (From the Present tothe Past)

\c-hwi imkv{X-⁄-∑m-cpsS ]T-\-Øn-eqsS C∂sØ th´-bm-S¬˛tiJ-

cW kaq-l-sØ-°p-dn-®p≈ \ΩpsS Adnhv h¿[n-®-tXm-sS, C∂v Pohn-®n-cn-

°p∂ th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-lsØ°pdn-®p≈ Cu Adnhv Ign-™-Ime

kaq-l-ß-sf°p-dn®v a\- n-em-°p-∂-Xn\v D]-tbm-Kn-°mtam F∂ tNmZyw

Db¿∂p hcp-∂p-≠v. Cu {]iv\sØ kw_-‘n®v \ne-hn¬ c≠v hyXykvX

A`n-{]m-b-ßƒ \ne\n¬°p-∂p-≠v.

C∂sØ th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-Øns‚ Nne {]tXyI hnh-c-

W-ßƒ Ign™ ImesØ ]pcm-hkvXp tijn-∏p-I-fpsS hymJym-\-Øn\v

t\cn v D]-tbm-Kn® ]fin-X--cmWv Hcp hiØv \n¬°p-∂-Xv. DZm-l-c-W-Øn-

\v, Nne ]pcm-hkvXp imkv{X-⁄--¿ A`n-{]m-b-s∏Sp-∂Xv Xp¿°m\ XSm-I-°-

c-bn¬ 2 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v slman-\n-Up-Iƒ A[n-h-kn-®n-cp∂

ÿe-ßƒ BZna a\p-jys‚ hc-≠ Imem-hÿ°mesØ A[n-hmk tI{μ-

am-bn-cp-∂n-cn-°mw F∂mWv. F¥p-sIm-s≠-∂m¬ AØcw {]h-WX lUvk,

IpMvkm≥ P\-hn- m-K-ßƒ°nS-bn¬ \ne-\n-∂n-cp-∂Xmbn ImWp∂p.

AtX-k-abw as‰mcp hn`mKw ]fin-X--cpsS A`n-{]m-bw hwio-b-hn-

h-c-ßƒ `qX-Ime kaq-l-ß-sf-Ip-dn®v a\- n-em-°p-∂-Xn\v D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥

]mSn-√ F∂m-Wv. F¥psIms≠-∂m¬ c≠v kaq-l-ßfpw ]q¿W-ambpw hyXy-

kvX-ß-fm-Wv. DZm-l-c-W-Øn-\v, C∂sØ th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-ßƒ

th -bm-S-en\pw tiJ-c-W-Øn\pw ]pdsa a‰-t\Iw kmº-ØnI {]h¿Ø-\-

ß-fnepw G¿s∏-Sp-∂p-≠v. h\-hn- -h-ß-fpsS ssIam-‰w, I®-h-Sw, kao-]sØ

I¿j-I-cpsS Irjn- q-an-bn¬ iº-f-Øn-\mbn ]Wn-sb-Sp-°¬ F∂nh CØcw

kmº-ØnI {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ°v DZm -l-c -W-ß-fm -Wv. am{X-a√ Cu

kaImenI hwiob

kwL-ßsf Ipdn-®p≈

]T-\-amWv hwiob

imkv{Xw (Ethnography).

CXn¬ Ah-cpsS D]-Po-

h\ amXr-Iƒ, kmt¶-Xn-

I-hn-Zy, kv{XoI-fp-

tSbpw ]pcp-j-∑m-cp-

tSbpw ]¶v, A\p-

jvTm\ßƒ, cmjv{Sob

ÿm]-\-ßƒ, kmaq-ln-

Im-Nm-c-ßƒ F∂n-h-

bpsS ]cn-tim-[\

Dƒs∏-Sp-∂p.


kaq-l-ßƒ F√m A¿Y-Ønepw ]q¿W-ambpw qanimkv{X-]-c-ambpw cmjv{So-

b-ambpw kmaq-ln-I-ambpw˛]m¿iz-h¬°-cn-°-s∏- -h-cm-Wv. Ah¿ Pohn-°p∂

kml-Ncyw BZna a\p-jy-t‚-Xn¬ \n∂v ]q¿W-ambpw hyXy-kvX-amWv.

as‰mcp {]iv\w C∂sØ th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-ßƒ°nS-bn-

ep-≠m-Ip∂ {ZpX-K-Xn-bn-ep≈ am‰-ß-fm-Wv. AXp-t]mse th -bm-S-en\pw tiJ-

c-W-Øn\pw \¬In-bn-cp∂ Bt]-£nI {]m[m-\yw, kwL-ß-fpsS hep∏w,

Hcp ÿeØv \n∂pw as‰mcp ÿe-tØ-°p≈ k©mcw F∂n-hsb kw_-

‘n-®- hn-h-c-ß-fn¬ Hcp]mSv sshcp-[y-ßƒ \ne-\n¬°p-∂p-≠v.

AXp-t]mse `£W tiJ-c-W-Ønse A[zm\ hn -P-\-sØ-°p-dn®v

A`n-{]mb sFIy-an-√. C∂v s]mXpsh kv{XoIƒ tiJ-cn-°p-Ibpw ]pcp-j-

∑m¿ th´bmSp-I-bp-amWv sNøp-∂-Xv. F∂m¬ kv{XoIfpw ]pcp-j-∑mcpw th -

bm-Sp-I-bpw, tiJ-cn-°p-Ibpw D]-I-c-W-ß-fp-≠m-°p-Ibpw sNbvXn-cp∂ kaq-

l-ß-fp-ap-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. F∂n-cp-∂mepw AØcw kaq-l-ß-fn¬ `£W tiJ-

cWØn¬ kv{XoIƒ \¬Inb kw`m-h-\-Isf X≈n-°-f-bm≥ Ign-bn-√. Cu

L-S-I-amWv Hcp ]s£ C∂sØ th -bm-S¬˛tiJ-cW kaq-l-Øn¬, Nne

hyXym-k-ßƒ Ds≠-¶n-epw, kv{XoIƒ°pw ]pcp-j-∑m¿°pw Xpey-]¶v Dd-

∏m-°p-∂-Xv. C∂sØ kml-Ncyw CXm-bn-cns° `qX-Im-esØ Ipdn®v [mc-

W-Iƒ cq]-s∏-Sp-ØpI A{X Ffp-∏-ap≈ Imcy-a-√.

D]-kw-lmcw (Epilogue)At\I Zi-e£w h¿j-ß-fmbn a\p-jy¿ Pohn-®Xv h\y-ar-K-ßsf th -bm-

Snbpw h\-k-ky-ßƒ tiJ-cn-®p-am-Wv. ]n∂oSv 10,000 h¿jßƒ°v ap≥]v

apX¬ 4500 h¿jßƒ°v ap≥]v hsc temI-Øns‚ hnhn[ `mK-ß-fnse

P\-ßƒ Nne kky-ß-sfbpw arKß-sfbpw CW°n hf¿Øm≥ ]Tn-®p.

CXv Imen-hf¿Øepw Irjnbpw Hcp Pohn-X-co-Xn-bmbn hf¿∂phcp-∂-Xn\v

Imc-W-am-bn. `£y tiJ-c-W-Øn¬ \n∂pw Irjn-bn-te-°p≈ am‰w a\p-jy-

N-cn-{X-Ønse \n¿Wm-bI hgn-Øn-cn-hm-bn-cp-∂p. F¥p-sIm-≠mWv B

{]tXyI ka-bØv AØcw Hcp am‰-ap-≠m-bXv?

HSp-hnesØ lna-bpKw 13,000 h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]mWv Ah-km-\n-

°p-∂Xv. At∏mƒ Dujvam-hS-ßnb Cu¿∏-ap≈ Imem-hÿ AhnsS \ne-

\n-∂p. X¬ -e-ambn _m¿en, tKmXºv (wild wheat and wild barley) F∂n-h-

bpsS hf¿®bv°v A\p-Iqe-amb kml-Ncyw cq]-s∏- p. AtXkabw Xpd∂

h\-ßfpw ]p¬ta-Sp-Ifpw IqSp-X¬ hym]-I-am-bn. sNΩ-cn-bm-Sv, tImem-Sv, ]∂n,

IgpX F∂o h\yPo-hn-I-fpsS FÆw h¿[n®p. XpS¿∂v ]p¬ta-Sp-Ifpw arK-

ßfpw [mcm-f-ap≈ ÿe-ßƒ a\pjykaqlw CjvS-s∏-Sm≥ XpS-ßn. h≥tXm-

Xn-e-s√-¶n¬t∏mepw ÿncXma-k-°m-cmb kaq-l-ßƒ CØ-cw- ÿ-e-ßƒ

h¿j-Øns‚ `qcn- m-Khpw ssIb-S-°m≥ XpS-ßn. Nne ÿe-ßsf a\p-jy¿

IqSp-X-embn CjvS-s∏-Sm\pw Xnc-s™-Sp-°m\pw XpS-ßnbtXmsS AhnsS

`£W e`yX h¿[n-∏n-t°-≠-Xns‚ kΩ¿Zw cq]-s∏´p. CXv Nne kky-ß-

sfbpw arK-ß-sfbpw ]cn-]m-en-°p∂ {]{Inbbv°v B°w Iq´n. Imem-hÿm

am‰w, P\-kwJym kΩ¿Zw, Nne kky-h¿K-ß-sfbpw (tKmX-ºv, _m¿en,

{]h¿Ø\w 4

BZna a\p-jys‚

PohnXw ]p\-kr-jvSn-

°m≥ hwiob imkv{X-

Øns‚ hnh-c-W-ßƒ

D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂Xv

sIm≠p≈ KpW-ß-

sfbpw tZmj-ß-sfbpw

Ipdn-®p≈ \nß-fpsS

Nn¥-Iƒ ]¶p-h-bv°p-I.


s\√v, tNmfw) Pohn-h¿K-ß-sfbpw (]∂n, sNΩ-cn-bm-Sv, tImem-Sv, Imen-Iƒ,

Igp-X) Ipdn-®p≈ Adnhv, Ah-bpsS taep≈ IqSp-X¬ B{i-b-Xzw XpS-

ßnb LS-I-ß-fpsS HØp tN¿∂p≈ {]h¿Ø\w Cu am‰-Øn¬ {][m-\-

]¶vhln-®p.

GI-tZiw 10,000 h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v CØ-c-Øn¬ Irjnbpw Imen

hf¿Øepw Bcw- n® {]tZ-i-am-bn-cp∂p saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ kap-{Z-Xocw apX¬

Cdm-\nse kmt{Kmkv ]¿h-X-ßƒ hsc hym]n-®n-cp∂ "^e-`p-bn-jvS-amb

N{μ-°e' (Fertile Crescent) F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp∂ {]tZiw. Irjn-bpsS IS∂p

hc-thmsS P\-ßƒ Htc ÿeØpXs∂ ap≥]-tØ-°mƒ IqSp-X¬ kabw

ÿncambn Xmakn°m≥ XpS-ßn. Aßs\ sNfn-sIm≠pw sNfn°´sIm≠pw

I√p-Iƒ sIm≠pw D≈ \in-°mØ hoSp-Iƒ \n¿Ωn-°m≥ XpS-ßn. ]pcm-

hkvXp imkv{X-⁄¿ Is≠-Ønb BZy-Ime {Kma-ß-fn¬ NneXv CXm-bn-

cp-∂p.

[m\y-ßfpw a‰p-¬∏-∂-ßfpw kw -cn-°m\pw `£Ww ]mIw sNøm-

\p-ap≈ a¨]m{X-ß-fpsS \n¿ΩmWw t]mep≈ \nc-h[n am‰-ßƒ°v

Irjnbpw Imen-h-f¿Øepw hgn-sX-fn-®p. IqSmsX ]pXn-b-Xcw inem-bp-[-

ßfpw D]-tbm-KØn¬ h∂p. Ie∏ t]mep≈ ]pXnb D]-I-c-W-ßfpw

Irjn°v D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ XpS-ßn. {ItaW P\-ßƒ sNºv, XIcw XpS-

ßnb teml-ß-fp-ambn ]cn-N-b-Øn-em-bn. a¨]m{X \n¿Ωm-W-Øn\pw KXm-

K-X-Øn-\p-ap≈ N{I-ßfpw D]-tbm-K-Øn¬ h∂p.

GI-tZiw 5000 h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v h≥tXm-Xn¬ P\-ßƒ \K-c-

ß-fn¬ HØp tN¿∂v Pohn-°m≥ XpS-ßn. AsX-ßs\bmWv kw -hn-®Xv?

\K-c-ßfpw a‰v A[n-hmk tI{μ-ßfpw XΩn-ep≈ hyXymkw Fs¥m-s°-

bmWv? Ch-bpsS DØ-c-ßƒ°pw a‰v tNmZy-ßƒ°p-ambn c≠m-asØ {]tabw

t\m°p-I.


Ime-tcJ I (Z-i-e£w h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v) (TIMELINE I (mya))

ss{]ta-‰p-Iƒ; Gjybnsebpw B{^n-°-bn-sebpw Ipc-ß-∑m¿

slman-t\m-bn-Up-Iƒ; hmen√m°pc-ß≥, Gjy≥ HdmMvKp´\pw B{^n-°≥

Bƒ°p-cßpw (K-dn-√, Nnºm≥kn, s_ms\ms_m AYhm "]n‹n', Nnºm≥kn)

slman-t\m-bn-Up-Ifpw slman-\n-Up-Ifpw c≠v imJ-I-fm-Ip-∂p

Bkv{Stem]ntØ-°kv

BZy-Im-esØ inembp]-I-c-W-ßƒ

B{^n-°-bn¬ XWp∏pw hc≠ Imem-hÿbpw hym]-I-am-hp-∂p. h\-ßƒ Ipd-

bp-Ibpw ]p¬ta-Sp-Iƒ h¿[n-°p-Ibpw sNøp-∂p

tlmtam

tlmtam l_n-enkv

tlmtam Cd-IvSkv

Bkv{S-tem-]n-tØ-°-kns‚ hwi-\m-iw

{]mNo\ km∏n-b≥kv, tlmtam -ssl-U¬_¿P≥knkv

tlmtam -km-∏n-b≥kv km∏n-b≥kv (B-[p-\nI a\p-jy¿)

36- 24 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v

24 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v

6.4 Zi e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v

5.6 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v

2.6 ˛ 2.5

2.5 ˛ 2.0

2.5 ˛ 2.0 Zi-e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v

ap≥]v


1.8 Zi e£w h¿j-ßƒ°v ap≥]v



0.19 ˛ 0.16 Zie£w h¿j-ßƒ

ap≥]v

Ime-tcJ II (h¿j-ßƒ ap≥]v) (TIMELINE II (years ago))

ih-a-S-°ns‚ BZy-Ime sXfnhp-Iƒ

tlmtam CdIvSkns‚ hwi-\miw

i_vZ-t]-S-I-Øns‚ hnImkw

{]mNo\ tlmtam km∏n-b≥kns‚ Xe-tbm´n C¥y-bnse \¿ΩZ Xmgvhc-bn¬

B[p-\nI a\p-jys‚ Bhn¿`mhw

\nbm-≠m¿Xmfp-I-fpsS Bhn¿`mhw

s\cn-t∏m-Sp-I-fpsS BZy-Ime sXfn-hp-Iƒ

\nbm-≠¿Xm-fp-I-fpsS hwi-\miw

Nps -SpØ IfnaÆn¬ \n¿Ωn® cq]-ß-fpsS BZy-Ime sXfn-hp-Iƒ

Xp∂¬ kqNn-I-fpsS I≠p-]n-SnØw

300,000

200,000

200,000

200,000 - 130,000

195,000 - 160,000

130,000

125,000

35,000

27,000

21,000


dn^v‰v Xmgvhc, Ing-°-\m-{^n°

A`ymkßƒ (Exercises)Npcp°n DØcw Fgp-Xp-I (ANSWER IN BRIEF)1. t]Pv 13 ¬ X∂n- p≈ t]mkn-‰ohv ôUv_m°v sa°m-\n-ksØ ImWn-

°p∂ Nn{Xw t\m°p-I. D]-I-cW \n¿Ωm-W-Øn\v hgn-sX-fn® LS-I-

ßsf ]ń-I-s∏-Sp-Ømtam? D]-I-cW \n¿Ωm-W-Øn-eqsS im‡o-I-cn-

°-s∏´ {]{In-b-Iƒ GsX-√m-amWv?

2. s]cp-am-‰-Ønepw icoc imkv{X-Ønepw a\p-jy\pw Ipc-ßv, Bƒ°p-

cßv XpS-ßnb kkvX-\n-Ifpw XΩn¬ Nne kmay-ßƒ D≠v. a\p-jy≥

Bƒ°p-c-ßn¬ \n∂pw cq]-s∏- n-cn-°m-\p≈ km[y-X-bmWv CXv kqNn-

∏n-°p-∂-Xv. s]cp-am‰w, ico-c-imkv{Xw F∂n-ß-s\- c≠v Xe-s°- p-Iƒ°v

Iogn-embn Cu kmay-ßƒ ]ń-I-s∏-Sp-Øp-I. Ch¿°n-S-bn-ep-≈ Fs¥-

¶nepw hyXymkw \nßfpsS {i≤-bn¬s∏Sp-∂pt≠m?

3. a\p-jys‚ D¤-hsØ kw_-‘n® {]mtZ-inI XpS¿®m-am-Xr-Ibv°v A\p-

Iq-e-amb hmZ-K-Xn-Iƒ N¿® sNøp-I. ]pcm-hkvXp imkv{X-Øns‚ Is≠-

Ø-ep-Isf Cu kn≤m¥w ê-{]-Z-ambn hni-Zo-I-cn-°p∂psh∂v \nßƒ

Icp-Xp-∂pt≠m? F¥p-sIm≠v?

4. Nph-sS-X-∂n- p-≈-Xn¬ ]pcm-hkvXp imkv{XØn¬ G‰hpw \∂mbn tcJ-

s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-´p-≈-tXXv?

(F) `£y-ti-J-c-Ww (_n) D]-I-cW \n¿Ωm-Ww

(kn) XobpsS D]-tbm-Kw.

eLp- D-]-\ym-kw F-gp-Xp-I (ANSWER IN A SHORT ESSAY)

(5) `mj-bpsS D]-tbmKw th´-bm-S-en\pw hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fpsS \n¿Ωm-W-

Øn\pw F{X am{Xw klm-bIambn- p-≠mIpw F∂v N¿® sNøp-I. Cu

{]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ°v at‰-sX√mw Bibhn\n-ab coXn-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥

Ignbpw?

(6) A[ym-b-Øns‚ Ah-km\w \¬In-bn- p≈ c≠v Ime-tcJI-fn¬ Hmtcm-

∂n¬ \n∂pw Cuc≠v kw -h hnIm-k-ßƒ Xnc-s™-Sp-°p-I. Ah F¥p-

sIm≠v {]m[m-\y-a¿ln-°p∂p F∂v kqNn-∏n-°p-I.

C∂sØ CdmJv dn∏-ªn-°ns‚ mK-amb bq{ - o-kv, ssS{Knkv \Zn-Iƒ°nS-

bnse `q{]tZ-i-amb saskm-s∏m-tánb*bnemWv \Kc PohnXw Bcw-`n-®-Xv.

kº¬kar-≤n, \K-c-Po-hn-Xw, _rl-Øpw- k-º-∂-hp-amb kmln-Xyw, KWn-X-im-

kv{Xw, tPymXn-»mkv{Xw F∂nh-bpsS t]cn¬ saskm-s∏m-t -an-b≥ \mK-cn-IX {]i-

kvX-amWv. saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-bpsS Fgp-Øp-hn-Zybpw kmln-Xyhpw Ing-°≥ saUn-

‰-td-\n-b≥ {]tZi-ßƒ, DØ-c-kn-dn-b, Xp¿°n F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn-te°v _n.kn.C. 2000

\v tijw hym]n-®p. X¬ -eambn, B {]-tZ-isØ cmPy-ß-sf√mw ]c-kv]-chpw,

CuPn-]vXnse ^dthm-bpambpw saskm-s∏mt-´-anbbnse `mjbpw en]nbpw D]-

tbm-Kn®v _‘-s∏ń-cp-∂p. Chn-sS- \-Ωƒ Is≠-Øm≥ {ian-°p-∂Xv \K-c-Po-hn-

Xhpw FgpØpw XΩn-ep≈ _‘-am-Wv. AXn-\p-ti-jw, AhnsS ]cn-t]m-jn-∏n-°-

s∏´ ]mc-ºcy Fgp-Øp-hn-Zy-bpsS t\ -ßfpw N¿® sNøm-hp-∂-Xm-Wv.

Fgp-X-s∏´ Ncn-{X-Øns‚ Bcw- -Im-e-Øn¬, Cu q-{]--tZiw, {][m-\-ambpw

\K-c-h-¬I-cn-°-s∏´ sX°≥ {]tZ-iw, (Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p∂ N¿®-Iƒ ImWp-

I) kpta¿, A°mUv F∂o t]cp-I-fn-em-W-dn-b-s∏- -Xv. _n.kn.C. 2000 \v tijw

_m_n-tem¨ Hcp {][m\ \K-c-ambn amdn-b-tXmsS Z£nW`mK-Øn\v _m_n-tem-

Wnb F∂ ]Zw D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ XpS-ßn. GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 1100 ¬ Cu mKØv

A o-dn-b-∑m¿ Xß-fpsS cmPyw -ÿm-]n-®-tXmsS ChnSw A o-dnb F∂-dn-b-s∏-

Sm≥ XpS-ßn. Cu {]tZ-isØ BZysØ Adn-b-s∏-Sp∂ mj kpta-dn-b≥ Bbn-

cp-∂p. _n.kn.C. 2400 HmsS A°m-Un-b≥ mj kwkm-cn-°p∂hcpsS IS∂p hc-

thmsS {ItaW kpta-dn-b\v ]Icw A°m-Un-b≥ `mj ÿm]n-°-s∏-´p.

AeIvkm≠-dpsS Ime-L´w (336 ˛ 323 _n.kn.-C.) hsc Cu `mj ]pjvSn-s∏-Sp-

Ibpw AXn¬ {]mtZ-in-I-amb Nne am‰-ßƒ D≠mhpIbpw sNbvXp. _n.kn.C.

1400 apX¬ Adamb `mjbpw kmh-[m\w IS-∂p-h-∂p. lo{_p `mjbv°v (He-brew) kam-\-amb Cu `mj _n.kn.C. 1000 \vtijw hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°-

s∏- p. Cdm-Jns‚ Nne mK-ß-fn¬ Cu mj Ct∏mgpw P\-ßƒ kwkm-cn-°p-∂p≠v.

1840 Ifn-emWv saskm-s∏m-t -anbbn¬ ]pcm-hkvXp imkv{X-]-T\w Bcw-

`n-°p-∂Xv. Ht∂m -ct≠m \K-c-ß-fn¬ (Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬ N¿®-sN-øp∂ Ddp-°v,

amcn Dƒs∏-sS) ]Xn-‰m-≠pItfmfw D¬J-\\w XpS¿∂p. (C¥y-bnse Hcp

ÿeØpw C{Xbpw Zo¿L-amb ]≤-Xn-Iƒ ImWm≥ Ign-bn-√.) saskm-s∏mt- -an-

b-bn¬ \qdp-I-W-°n\v sIń-S-ßƒ, {]Xn-a-Iƒ, B -c-W-ßƒ, ih-°-√-d-Iƒ, D]-

I-c-W-ßƒ, ap{Z-Iƒ F∂nh am{X-a√ ]T-\-Øn-\p≈ t{kmX- p-I-fmbn D≈Xv,

adn®v Bbn-c-°-W-°n\v Fgp-X-s∏´ tcJ-I-fp-ap-≠v.

ss__n-fns‚ BZy-`m-K-amb ]gb \nba-Øn¬ (Old Testament) ]cm-a¿i-

ap-≈XpsIm≠p- bqtdm-]y≥am¿°v hfsc {][m-\-s∏- -\m-Sm-bn-cp∂p saskm-s∏m-

t -anb F∂v a\- n-em°mw. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v ]gb \nba-Ønse D¬∏-Øn ]pkvX-

2{]tabw

FgpØpw \K-c-Po-hn-Xhpw

(WRITING AND CITY LIFE)

*a[y-Øn-ep-≈Xv F∂¿Yw

hcp∂ "saskm-kv, \Zn

F∂¿Yw hcp∂

"s]m´m-akv' F∂o {Ko°v

]Z-ß-fn¬ \n∂mWv

saskm-s∏m-t´-anb F∂

t]cv D¬`-hn-®-Xv.


I-Øn¬ aÏ-´-sIm≠v \n¿Ωn® \K-c-ß-fpsS \mSmb "jnam¿' s\ Ipdn®v ]cm-

a¿in-°p-∂p. CXns‚ A¿Yw "kpta¿' F∂m-Wv. bqtdm-∏nse k©m-cn-Ifpw ]fin-

X-∑mcpw saskm-s∏m- m-anbsb t\m°n°≠Xv Hcp Xcw ss]XrI`qan-bm-bn- m-Wv.

Cu {]tZ-iØv ]pcm-hkvXp D¬J-\\w Bcw-`n-®-t∏mƒ ]gb \nba-Øn¬ ]cm-

a¿in-®n-´p≈ Imcy-ßƒ A£-cm¿Y-Øn¬ kXy-am-sW∂v sXfn-bn-°m-\p≈ {i-

ahpw D≠m-bn.

]sØm≥]Xmw \q‰m-≠ns‚ a[y-Imew apX¬ saskm-s∏mt´-an-b-bpsS

{]mNo\ ImesØ Ipdn-®p≈ ]cy-th-£W-ßƒ D’m-l-]q¿hw \S-∂p. 1873 ¬

Hcp {_nójv h¿Ø-am\ ]{Xw ss__n-fnse {]f-b-I-Ysb°pdn®v hnh-cn-°p∂

êIw At\z-jn®v ]cy-th-£Ww \S-Øm≥ {_nójv ayqkn-b-Øn\v kmº-Øn-I-

k-lmbw \¬Ip-I-bp-≠m-bn.

]gb \nb-a-Ønse IY-Iƒ A£-cm¿Y-Øn¬ FSp-t°-≠-h-b-s√∂pw, Ncn-

{X-Ønse kp{]-[m\ am‰-ßsf kw_-‘n® Hm¿a-I-fpsS {]Im-i-\-am¿K-ambncp∂n-

cn°mw Ah-sb∂pw 1960 ItfmsS hy‡-am-bn. {ItaW ]pcm-hkvXpX{¥-ßƒ IqSp-

X¬ ]cn-jvI-cn-°-s∏-Sp-Ibpw ip≤o-I-cn-°-s∏-Sp-Ibpw sNbvXp. ]n∂oSv km[m-cW

P\-ß-fpsS Pohn-XsØ ]p\-kr-jvSn-°p-∂-X-S-°-ap≈ hyXykvX {]iv\-ß-fn-te°v

{i≤-Xn-cn-™p. ss__n-fnse hnh-c-W-ßsf A£-cm¿Y-Øn¬ sXfn-bn-°pI F∂

Imcyw ]›m-Ø-e-Øn-te°v ]n∑m-dn. Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬ \Ωƒ N¿®-sN-øp∂ an°-

Imcy-ßfpw Cu ]n¬°me ]T-\-ß-fpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Ønep≈-Xm-Wv.

ss__n-f-\p-k-cn-®v, `qan-

bnse F√m Poh\pw

\in-∏n-°m-\p-≈-Xm-bn-

cp∂p {]fbw. F∂ncp-

∂mepw {]f-b-Øn\v

tijhpw Pohs‚

XpS¿® Dd-∏m-°p-∂-Xn-

\mbn ssZhw t\ml F∂

a\p-jys\ Xncs™-Sp-

Øp. t\ml Hcp henb

s]Íw \n¿Ωn®p. kIe

]£n-I-fpsSbpw arK-

ßfpsS-bpw h¿K-ß-fn¬

\n∂p Hmtcm tPmUn-Isf

hoXw B s]´-I-Øn¬

Ib-‰pIbpw {]f-bsØ

AXn-Po-hn-°p-Ibpw

sNbvXp. CXn\v XnI®pw

kam-\-amb Hcp IY

saskm-s∏mt-´-an-b≥ ]mc-

º-cy-Øn-ep-ap-≠v.

AXnse {][m\ IYm-

]m{Xw knbpkp{Z

As√-¶n¬ DXv\m-]n-jvSnw

F∂m-W-dn-b-s∏-´-Xv.

`q]Sw 1 : ]›n-tajy

{]h¿Ø\w 1

\nc-h[n kaq-l-ß-fn¬

{]f-bsØ kw_-‘n®v

sFXn-ly-ßƒ \ne-

\n¬°p-∂p-≠v. Ah

an°-hmdpw Ncn-{X-

Ønse kp{]-[m-\-amb

am‰-ßƒ kw_-‘n®

Hm¿Ω-I-fpsS kwc-£-

W-Øn-s‚bpw shfn-hm-

°-en-s‚bpw am¿K-ß-fm-

Wv. {]f-b-Øn\v

apºpw tijhpw

a\pjy PohnXw Fß-

s\-bm-bn-cp∂p F∂v

]cn-tim-[n®v CsX-°p-

dn®v IqSp-X¬ Is≠-

Øep-Iƒ \S-ØpI.

saskm-s∏mt-´-an-bbpw AXns‚ qan-im-kv{Xhpw

(Mesopotamia and its Geography)hyXy-kvX- `q{]-Ir-Xn-I-fpsS \mSmWv CdmJv. hS°p ˛ Ing°v \navt\m-

∂Xßfmb lcnX ka-e-X-ß-fm-Wv. Db-c-ß-fn¬ hr£-\n-_n-U-amb ]¿ΔX\n-c-

FgpØpw \K-c-Po-hn-Xhpw 43

Ifpw sXfn™ XSm-I-ßfpw Im´p-]q-°fpw D≈ Cu {]tZiØv hnf-I-fpsS

D¬∏m-Z-\-Øn\v Bh-iym-\p-k-cWw ag e`n-°p---∂p. _n.kn.C. 7000 \pw _n.kn.C.

6000 \pw CSbnep≈ Ime-L- -Øn¬ ChnsS Irjn Bcw`n-®p. hS°v sÃ∏n F∂p

hnfn-°p∂ Db¿∂ ]p¬ta-Sp-I-fm-Wp-≈-Xv. ChnsS Irjnsb°mƒ IqSp-X¬ a\p-

jys‚ ssZ\wZn\ Pohn-X-Øn\v klm-b-I-am-bXv arK]cn-]m-e-\-am-Wv. ssiXy-Im-

e-Ønse agbv°v tijw sNΩ-cn-bm-Sp-Ifpw BSp-Ifpw ChnsS hf-cp∂ ]p√pw Ip‰n-

s®-Sn-Ifpw `£n-°p-∂p. Ing°v ssS{Knkv \Zn-bpsS t]mj-I-\-Zn-Iƒ Cdm-\nse

]¿h-X-\n-c-I-fn-te°v KXm-K-X-sam-cp-°p∂p. sX°≥ {]tZiw acp- q-an-bm-Wv. Chn-

sS-bmWv BZy \K-c-ßfpw FgpØphnZybpw Bhn¿`-hn-®-Xv. (XmgsØ Nn{Xw

ImWpI) hS-°≥ ]¿hX \nc-I-fn¬ \n∂p¤-hn®v F°¬ aÆp-ambn Xmtg-s°mgp-

Ip∂ bq{ - o-kv, ssS{Knkv \Zn-Iƒ acp- q-an-bnse \K-c-ßƒ°v klm-b-ta-Ip-∂p.

Cu \Zn-I-fn¬ sh≈-s∏m-°-ap-≠m-Ip-tºmtgm Ahbnse sh≈w ]mS-ß-fn-te°v

Hgp-°p-tºmtgm Ahn-S-ß-fn¬ e- q-bn-jvS-amb F°¬ aÆv \nt£-]n-°-s∏-Sp-∂p.

`q]Sw 2 : saskm-s∏m-t´-anb :

]¿hX-ßƒ, ]p¬ta-Sv, acp-`q-an,

sX°≥ Pe-tk-N\ taJ-e.

acp- q-an-bn-te°v IS-∂-tijw bq{ - okv \Zn-bnse sh≈w sNdp ssIh-gn-

I-fmbn HgpIp∂p. Cu ssIh-gn-Iƒ Ah-bpsS Xoc-ßƒ°v sh≈-ta-Ip-∂p. {]mNo\

Ime-ß-fn¬ Ch Pe-tk-N\-I-\m-ep-I-fmbn {]h¿Øn-®n-cp-∂p. Ah tKmX-ºv,

_m¿en, ]b¿, Xphc-∏-cn∏v XpSßn-bhbpsS Irjnÿe-tØ°v Bh-iy-ap-≈-t∏mƒ

shffw \¬In. tdmam km{am-Py-Øn-te-X-S-°-ap≈ ({]tabw 3) {]mNo\ Im¿jnI

k{º-Zm-b-ß-fn¬ G‰hpw D¬∏m-Z-\-£-a-am-bXv Z£nW samskm-s∏m-t -an-b-bn-te-

Xm-bn-cp-∂p. F∂m¬ hnf-Iƒ°v hf-cm-\-mh-iy-amb ag Cu {]tZ-iØv e`y-am-bn-

cp∂Xpan-√.

Irjn°p ]pd-ta, saskm-s∏m-t´-an-b≥ P\X ]p¬ta-Sp-I-fnepw hS°p ˛

Ing-°≥ ka-X-e-Ønepw ae-©-cn-hp-I-fnepw BSp-I-sf -ta-bv°p-Ibpw amwkw, ]m¬,


Iºnfn F∂nh [mcm-f-ambn D¬∏m-Zn-∏n-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. (AXm-bXv \Zn-I-ƒ°v

sh≈-s∏m-°ØneqsS ê`qbn-jvS-am-°m≥ Ign-bmØ Db¿∂ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬).

CXn\p ]pdta \Zn-I-fn¬ \n∂v a’y-ßƒ e`n-®p. th\¬°meØv Cu¥-∏-\-Iƒ

]g-ßƒ \¬In. F∂m¬ \K-c-ßƒ hf¿∂p-h-∂Xv {Kma-ß-fpsS kº¬kar-≤n-

sIm-≠v am{XamsW∂v Icp-X-cp-Xv. a‰v LS-Ißƒ Hs∂m-∂mbn N¿® sNøp-∂-Xn\v

ap≥]v \ap°v kK-c-Po-hn-XsØ°pdn®v hy‡-amb [mc-W- t\-Smw.

\K-c-Po-hn-X-Øns‚ {]m[m\yw (The Significance of Urbanism)\K-c-ßfpw ] -W-ßfpw h≥tXm-Xn¬ P\-ßƒ A[n-h-kn-°p∂ ÿe-ßƒ

am{Xa√. kºZvhyhÿ-bn¬ t£ym-¬∏m-Z-\-Øn\p ]pdtabp≈ taJ-e-Iƒ hnI-

kn-°p-tºmƒ P\-ßƒ°v ] -W-ß-fn¬ tNt°-dp-∂Xv IqSp-X¬ KpW-I-c-am-bn-Øo-

cp-∂p. t£ym¬∏m-Z-\-Øn\v ]pdta \Kc kº-ZvL-S-\-bn¬ hym]m-cw, D¬∏m-Z\w,

tkh-\-ßƒ F∂n-hbpw Dƒs∏-Sp-∂p. \K-c-hm-kn-Iƒ kzbw]cym-]vX-c-√m-Xmbn-Xo-

cp-Ibpw Ah¿ km[-\-ßƒ°pw tkh-\-ßƒ°pw a‰v P\-ßsf (\K-c-Øn-setbm

{Kma-Øn-se-tbm) B{i-bn-°pIbpw sNøp-∂p. Ah¿°n-S-bn¬ \nc-¥-c-amb ]ckv-

]c CS-s]-S-ep-Iƒ \S-°p-∂p-≠v. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v ine-bn¬ ap{Z-Iƒ sImØn-bp-

≠m-°p∂ hy‡n°v X\n-°m-h-iy-ap≈ sh¶e D]-I-c-W-ßƒ \n¿Ωn-°m≥ Ign-

bn-√. AXp-t]mse h¿Wm-`-amb ine-Iƒ Fhn-sS-\n∂v In´p-sa∂pw Abmƒ°dn-

bn-√. ImcWw Abmƒ hym-]m-c-Øn-e√ adn®v sImØp ]Wn-bn-emWv sshZKv[yw

t\Sn-bn´p≈Xv. sh¶e D]-I-cW \n¿Ωm-Xmhv sNºv, Cubw, XpS-ßnb teml-

ßƒ t\Sp-∂-Xn-\mbn ]pd-tØ°v t]mIp-∂-Xp-an-√. AXn\p ]pdta Abmƒ°v C‘-

\-ambn ac-°cn ÿnc-ambn Bh-iy-amWv. sXmgn¬ hn -P\w \Kc Pohn-X-Øns‚

Hcp apJ-ap-{Z-bm-Wv.

sask-s∏m-t´m-an-b-bnse

BZy \K-c-ßfpsS

Imew GI-tZiw

_n.kn.C. 3000 Øn¬

sh¶e bpK-Øn-emWv.

sNºv, shfpØobw

F∂n-h-bpsS an{in-X-

amWv sh¶-ew. sh¶ew

D]-tbm-Kn-°pI F∂v

]d-™m¬ hnZq-cØv

\n∂pw Cu teml-ßƒ

tiJ-cn®v sIm≠p-h-cpI

F∂mW¿Yw. IrXy-

Xbm¿∂ XSn-∏-Wn,

apØp-I-fn¬ Zzmc-an-S¬,

inem-ap-{Z-I-fn¬ sImØp-

]Wn sNø¬,

ho´p]IcWßfpsS

Ae¶mc∏WnIƒ°mbn

Nn∏nIƒ apdns®Sp°¬

XpS-ßn-b-h-bvs°√mw

teml-Ønse D]-I-c-W-

ßƒ Bh-iy-am-Wv.

saskm-s∏mt-´-an-b≥ P\-

X-bpsS Bbp-[-ßfpw

sh¶-e-Øn-ep-≈-Xm-bn-cp-

∂p. t]Pv 38 se Nn{X-

Ønse Ip¥-Øns‚

ap\ DZm-l-c-W-am-Wv.

{]h¿Ø\w 2

teml-ß-fpsS D]-

tbm-K-an-√msX \K-c-

Po-hnXw km[y-am-

Ipambncpt∂m F∂v

N¿® sNøp-I.

hm¿°-bpsS Xe

(The Warka Head)_n.kn.C 3000 \ v ap≥]v Ddp -°v\KcØn¬ shfpØ am¿_n -fn¬sImØn-sbSpØ Hcp kv{XobpsS Xe-bpsS cq]am-Wn-Xv. AXns‚ IÆp-Ifpw]pcn-I-ßfpw bYm-{Iaw em∏nkv ekqen(\oew), Nn∏n (sh≈), I≥aZw (Idp-∏v)F∂nh D]tbmKn®v Xbm-dm-°n-b-Xmbn-cn-°mw. Xe-bv°v apI-fn-eq-sS-bp≈ NmevHcp ]t£, B`-c-WaWn-bp-hm\m-bn-cn-°mw. Hcp kv{XobpsS hmb, IogvØmSn,Ihn-fp-Iƒ F∂n-h-bpsS kq£-vaambNn{Xo-I-c-W-Øm¬ ]pI-gvØ-s∏´ temI{]i-kvX-amb inev]-am-Wn-Xv. hfscZqcØv \n∂pw sIm≠p-h∂ncn-°m-hp∂Iń-bp≈ ine-bn-emWv Cu inev]w

sImØn-h-®n´p-≈-Xv.

CØcw Hcp inev]-Øns‚ krjvSn-bn¬ inem-ti-J-c-W-w apX¬ ]¶m-fn-I-

fmb F√m hnZ-Kv≤-cpsSbpw ]ńI Xbmdm°pI.


Hcp kmaq-lnIhyhÿ GsXmcp {]tZ-i-Øn\pw A\n-hm-cy-am-Wv. \K-c-

ß-fnse \n¿am-Xm-°ƒ°v C‘-\w, teml-ßƒ, hn`n-∂-ß-fmb ine-Iƒ, XSn XpS-

ßn-bh e`n-®n-cp-∂Xv hyXykvX ÿe-ß-fn¬ \n∂m-Wv. AXn-\m¬ kwL-SnX

hym]m-chpw kw`-c-Whpw Bh-iy-am-bn-h-∂p. [m\y-ßfpw a‰v `£y-hn-`-h-ßfpw

{Kma-ß-fn¬ \n∂pw \K-c-ß-fn-te°v sIm≠p-t]m-tI≠-Xp≠v. Ch kw -cn®v hnX-

cWw sNøpIbpw thWw. IqSmsX a‰v hyXykvX {]h¿Ø-\-ßsf GtIm-]n-∏n-

°-W-am-bn-cp-∂p. ap{Z-∏-Wn-°m¿°v ine-am-{X-a√ sh¶e D]-I-c-W-ßfpw a¨]m{X-

ßfpw e`n°W-ambncp∂p. CØcw Hcp hyh-ÿ-bn¬ hy‡-ambn Nne¿ I¬∏-\-

Iƒ \¬Iptºmƒ a‰p-≈-h¿ Ah A\p-k-cn-®p. am{X-a√ \mK-cnI kºZvLS-\bv°v

an°-t∏mgpw Fgp-X-s∏´ (written records) tcJ-IfpsS kq£n-°¬ A\n-hm-cy-ambn-

Øo¿∂p.

\K-c-ß-fn-te-°p≈ Nc-°p-\o°w (Movement of Goods intoCities)saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-bn¬ £y-hn- -h-ßƒ [mcm-f-ap-≠m-bn-cp-s∂-¶nepw [mXp-hn- -h-

ßƒ hfsc ]cn-an-X-am-bn-cp-∂p. Z£nW taJ-e-bnse qcn- mKw {]tZ-iØpw D]-I-

c-W-ßfpw ap{Z-Ifpw B -c-W-ßfpw \n¿Ωn-°m-\p≈ ine-Iƒ C√m-bn-cp-∂p. Cdm-

Jnse Cu¥-∏g acØns‚bpw t]mπm¿-a-cØns‚bpw XSn hml-\w, hml-\-Øns‚

N{Iw, h≈-ßƒ F∂nh \n¿Ωn-°m≥ ]cym-]vX-am-bn-cp-∂n-√. D]-I-c-W-ßƒ, ap{Z-

Iƒ, B -c-W-ßƒ F∂nh \n¿an-°m-\p≈ teml-ßfpw AhnsS D≠m-bn-cp-∂n-√.

Aß-s\-sb-¶n¬ {]mNo\ saskm-s∏m-t´an-b≥ P\X XSn, sNºv, Cubw, sh≈n,

kz¿Ww, Nn∏n, IqSmsX Xp¿°n, Cdm≥, Kƒ^v {]tZ-i-ßƒ F∂n-hn-S-ß-fnse

hyXykvX ine-Iƒ F∂n-hbv°v th≠n Xß-fpsS kar-≤-amb XpWn-Ø-c-ßfpw

Im¿jn-tIm-¬∏∂-ßfpw ssIam‰w sNbvX-Xmbn A\p-am-\n°mw. HSp-hn¬ ]d™

{]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ [mcmfw [mXp-hn- -h-ßƒ D≠mbn-cps∂¶nepw Irjn-°p≈ km[y-

X -h-fsc Ipd-hm-bncp∂p. hntZi ]cy-S-\-ßƒ k÷-am-°p-∂Xn-\pw CS-]m-Sp-Iƒ

\nb-{¥n-°p-∂-Xn\pw Bhiyamb ]Xnhv hn\n-a-b-ßƒ \S-Øp-∂-Xn\v ap≥I-sø-Sp-

Øn-cp-∂Xv Z£nW saskm-s∏m-t´m-an-b-bnse P\-ß-fmbncp-∂p.˛ Hcp kwL-SnX

kmaqly hyh-ÿ-bn¬ am{Xta CXv km[y-am-hp-I-bp-≈q.

IcIui-ew, hym]m-cw, tkh\ßƒ F∂n-hbv°v ]pdsa Imcy-£-a-amb

KXm-K-X-Øn\pw \Kc hnI-k-\-Øn¬ {]m[m-\y-ap≠v. [m\y-ßfpw ac-°-cnbpw arK-

ß-fpsS Npa-en¬ Ib-‰n-tbm, Imfh≠n-bn¬ Ib-‰n-tbm, \K-c-ß-fn-te°v sIm≠p-

t]m-Ip-∂-Xn\v IqSp-X¬ ka-btam arK-ßƒ°v IpSp-X¬ Xo‰tbm Bh-iy-ambn

h∂m¬ B \-Kc kº-Zvhyhÿ hnP-b{]Zambn-cn-°n-√. F√m-bn-SØpw G‰hpw

sNehv Ipd™ KXm-KXw Pe-am¿Kam-Wv. Nm°pIW-°n\v [m\y-ßƒ \Zn-bn-eqsS

Pe-Øns‚ Hgpt°m Imt‰m Ch c≠pw IqSntbm apt∂m´p ]mbn-°p∂ h≈-Øntem

Nßm-S-Øntem sIm≠p-t]m-Im≥ Ign-bpw. F∂m¬ km[-\-ßƒ sIm≠p t]mIm-

\mbn arK-ßsf D]-tbm-Kn-°p-tºmƒ Ahbv°v Xo‰- sIm-Sp-°-Ww. {]mNo\ saskm-

s∏m-t´m-an-b-bnse tXmSp-Ifpw {]IrXnZØ-amb \o¿®mep-Ifpw e-Øn¬ hepXpw

sNdp-X-amb P\ hmk tI{μ-ßƒ°n-S-bn-ep≈ \√ KXm-KX ]mX-I-fm-bn-cp-∂p.

Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬ Xs∂ amcn \K-c-sØ-°p-dn-®p≈ hnh-cWw ]cn-tim-[n-°p-tºmƒ

Hcp "temI-]mX' F∂ \ne-bn¬ bq{^´okv \Zn-°p≈ {]m[m\yw a\- n-em-Ipw.


Fgp-Øns‚ hnImkw (The Development of Writing)F√m kaq-l-ßƒ°pw Nne A¿Y-ßƒ ssIam-dp∂ kwkmci_vZ-ß-

fp≈ `mjIfp≠v. CXmWv hmNnI Bi-b-hn-\n-a-bw. FgpØv hyXy-

kvX-amb hgn-bn-eq-sS-bp≈ hmNnIamb Bi-b-hn-\n-abw Xs∂-bm-Wv.

FgpØv hnZy-tbtbm en]n-tb-tbm -Ip-dn®v ]d-bp-tºmƒ \Ωƒ A¿Y-am-

°p-∂Xv AS-bmf ap{Z-I-fm¬ {]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn-°-s∏-Sp∂ Nne kwkmc

i_vZ-ßƒ Xs∂-bm-Wv.

GI-tZiw 3200 _n.kn.C. bn¬ Fgp-X-s∏´ BZysØ saskm-

s∏m-t -an-b≥ eIØn¬ Nn{Xcq]-Øn-ep≈ ap{Z-Ifpw kwJy-Ifpw AS-

ßnbncn-°p-∂p. Aøm-bn-ctØmfw hcp∂ ]´n-I-bn¬ Imf-Iƒ, a’yw,

sdm´n XpS -ßn -b-h-bpsSsb√mw cq]-ßƒ Dƒs∏-Sp -∂p. Cu

hkvXp°sf√mw Z£n-W- m-K-Øp≈ Ddq-°nse

t£{X-Øn-te°v sIm≠p h∂tXm AhnsS

\n∂pw hnX-cWw sNbvXtXm Bbn-cp-∂p.

ssIam-‰-ß-fpsS tcJ-Iƒ kaq-l-ßƒ kq£n-

°m≥ XpS-ßn-b-tXm-sS-bmWv FgpØv IrXy-ambn

Bcw- n-®-Xv. F¥p-sIm-s≠-∂m¬ \Kc Pohn-X-

Ønse hyXykvX -h-kvXp-°-fpsS hn\n-a-b-ßƒ

hyXy-kvX-k-a-b-ß-fn¬ A\-h[n Bfp-I-fmWv

\S-Øn-b-Xv.

saskm-s∏m-t´m-an-b≥ P\X Ifn-a¨ e-

I-ß-fn-emWv Fgp-Xn-bn-cp-∂-Xv. Fgp-Øp-Im-c≥

Ifn-aÆv \\-®-tijw X\n°v kuI-cy-{]-Z-ambn

Hcp ssIbn¬ ]nSn-°m-hp∂ Hcp eIw D≠m°p-

∂p. ]n∂o-S-Xns‚ D]-cn-Xew {i≤m-]q¿hw an\p-

k-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p. B∏ns‚ BIr-Xn-bn¬ Ncn®p

a’yw

Imf

GI-tZiw 3200 _n.kn.C. bnse

Ifn-a¨ e-I-ßƒ. Hmtcm-∂n\pw

3.5 sk‚o-ao-‰tdm AXn¬ Ipdthm

Db-cw, Nn{X-k-am-\-amb AS-bm-f-

ßfpw (Imf, a’yw, [m\yw, h©n)

A°-ßfpw ( )

IyqWnt^mw

GI-kz-c-hy-RvP\ AS-

bm-f-ßƒ

c≠v mKØpw IyqWn-

t^m-an¬ Fgp-Xnb Hcp

Ifn-a¨ e-Iw. CXv

Hcp KWnX A`ym-k-am-

Wv. adph-iØv apIƒ

`mKØv Hcp {XntIm-

Whpw hne-ßs\ hc-

Ifpw ImWmw. A£-c-

ßƒ Ifn-a-Æn¬ ap{ZWw

sNbvXXmbn \nßƒ°v

ImWmw.

[m\yw

A°-ßƒ,

h©n


apdn® Hcp Cud-bpsS ap\-bp≈ A‰w-sIm≠v \\™ ê-I-Øns‚ apI-fn¬

B∏ns‚ BIr-Xn-bn-ep≈ (IyqWn-t^mw*) ap{Z-Iƒ ]Xn-∏n°p-∂p. kqcy-{]-Im-i-

Øn¬ h®v DW-°nbm¬ CXv Iń-bm-hp-Ibpw ]ns∂ a¨]m-{X-ßƒ t]mse Xs∂

\in-∏n-°m≥ Ign-bm-Xm-hp-Ibpw sNøp-∂p. DZm-l-cWambn, teml-ß-fpsS hnX-c-

W-sØ°p-dn-®p≈ Hcp tcJ-bpsS Imem-h[n Ignbptºmƒ C{]-Imcw tcJ-s∏-Sp-

Øn-bn-´p≈ B ê-IØns‚ {][m\yw \jvS-s∏-SpIbpw AXv Dt]-£n-

°s∏SpIbpw sNbvXn-cp∂p. D]-cn-Xew DW-ßn-°-gn-™m¬ AXn¬ ap{Z-Iƒ ]Xn-

°m≥ Ign-bn-√. AXn-\m¬ sNdp-Xm-bmepw hep-Xmbmepw Hmtcm hn\n-a-b-Øn\pw

Hmtcm eIw Bh-iy-am-bn- h-∂p. AXp-sIm-≠mWv saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-bnse Hmtcm

ÿeØv \n∂pw \qdp-I-W-°n\v e-I-ßƒ e`n-®n- p-≈-Xv. AXn-\m¬ A∂sØ

C¥y-bp-tS-Xn¬ \n∂v hyXy-kvX-ambn saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-bpsS Ncn-{XsØ°pdn-®-

dn-bm≥ [mcmfw t{kmX- p-Iƒ \ap°v e`y-am-Ip-∂p-≠v.

_n.kn.C. 2600 HmsS A£-c-ßƒ IyqWn-t^mapw mj- kp-ta-dnb\pam-bn.

AtXmsS tcJ-Iƒ kq£n-°p-∂-Xn\p ]pdta \nL-≠p-°ƒ Xbm-dm-°p-I, `qan

ssIam-‰-Øn\v \nb-a-]-c-amb AwKo-Imcw \¬Ip-I, cmPm-hns‚ {]h¿Ø-\-ßsf

hnh-cn-°p-I, cmPyØv \ne-\n¬°p∂ \nb-a-ß-fn¬ cmPmhv hcp-Ønb am‰-ßƒ

P\-ßsf Adn-bn-°pI F∂n-h-bvs°√mw FgpØv hnZy D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ XpS-ßn.

_n.kn.C 2400 HmsS saskm-s∏m-tán-b-bnse BZysØ Adn-b-s∏´ mj-bmb kpta-

dn-bs‚ ÿm\Øv A°m-Un-b≥ mj IS-∂p-h-∂p. kn.C. H∂mw \q‰m≠v hsc,

GI-tZiw c≠m-bn-c-Øn-e-[nIw h¿j-ßƒ, A°m-Un-b≥ mj-bnse IyqWnt^mw

FgpØv D]-tbm-K-Øn-ep-≠m-bn-cp-∂p.

FgpØv coXn [The System of Writing ]Hcp IyqWnt^mw ap{Z {]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn-°p-∂Xv Hcp hyRvP-\m-£-c-sØtbm kzcm-

£-c-tØtbm, (AXm-bXv Cw•ojv A£-c-am-e-bnse ‘m’ As√-¶n¬ ‘a’ t]mse)

A√, adn®v Hcp i_vZw krjvSn-°p∂ A£-c-°q-´-ß-sf-bm-Wv. (DZmlcWambn

"]pSv (put)’, "em (la)’, "C≥ (in)’). AXn-\m¬ saskm-s∏m-t´-an-b-bnse Hcp Fgp-

Øp-Im-c\v \qdp-I-W-°n\v ap{Z-Iƒ ]Tn-t°-≠n-h-cpw. Abmƒ Hcp Cu¿∏-ap≈

êIw ssIImcyw sNøp∂Xn\pw AXv DW-ßp-∂-Xn\v ap≥]v Fgp-Xp-∂Xn\pw

sshZKv[yap≈bmfmbncn°Ww. AXn-\m¬ FgpØv hfsc-b-[nIw sshZKv[yw

th≠ Hcp Ic-Iu-i-e-am-bn-cp-∂p. AXn-t\-°m-fp-]cn Hcp {]tXyI `mj-bnse

i_vZk{º-Zm-bsØ Zriycq]-Øn¬ hn\n-anbw sNøp∂ henb Hcp _u≤nI t\´w

IqSn-bmbncp∂p saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-bnse FgpØv coXn.

km£-cX [Literacy]hfsc°pd®v saskm-s∏m-t -anb°m¿°v am{Xta Fgp-Xm\pw hmbn-°m\pw Ign-bpam-

bn-cp∂p≈q. Ah¿°v ]Tn-°m-\mbn \qdp IW-°n\v ap{Z-Iƒ D≠m-bn-cp∂p F∂v

am{X-a√ Ah ]eXpw k¶o¿W-hp-am-bn-cp-∂p (t]Pv 33 ImWp-I). Hcp cmPm-hn\v

hmbn-°m-\-dn-bm-am-bn-cp∂psh¶n¬, At±lw, A°mcyw Xs‚ Bfl-{]-iw-km-]-c-

amb enJn-X-ß-fn-sem-∂n¬ tcJ-s∏-SpØn F∂v Dd∏m-°n-tbt\! F∂n-cp-∂mepw

an°-hmdpw mK-ßfnepw FgpØv kwkmccoXnsb {]Xn- -en-∏n-®p.

HcptZym-K-ÿs‚ IØv cmPm-hns\ hmbn®v tIƒ∏n-°-W-am-bn-cp-∂p. AXn-

\m¬ AXv Bcw- n-°p-∂Xv Cß-s\-bm-bn-cn-°-Wambn-cp∂p.

""Fs‚ {]`p, Bb ‘F’ tbmSv kwkm-cn-°p∂p: ........ Xm¶-fpsS `rXy≥

Bb ‘_n’ Cßs\ ]d-bp-∂p: ...... "Fs∂ G¬∏n® ]Wn Rm≥ Xo¿Øn- p-≠v.....'

* eØo≥ ]Z-ß-fmb

"IyqWnbkv' (A¿Yw ˛

B∏v)' "t^m¿a' (A¿Yw

˛ BIr-Xn) F∂n-h-bn¬

\n∂mWv "IyqWnt^mw'

F∂ hm°v D≠m-b-Xv.


krjvSn-sb-Ip-dn-®p≈ Hcp Zo¿L-amb sFXnly IhnX Cß-s\-bmWv Ah-km-\n-

°p-∂-Xv.

""Cu Imhy-i-I-e-ßƒ Hm¿Ω-bn-en-cn-°s´

Ah apXn¿∂-h¿ Ahsc ]Tn-∏n-°s´;

⁄m\nIfpw ]fin-Xcpw AXn-s\-°p-dn®v N¿®-sN-øs´;

]nXm-hv Xs‚ Bä-°-tfmSv AXv Bh¿Øn-°s´;

CS-b-∑m-cp-sS t]mepw ImXp-Iƒ Ah-bn-te°v Xpd-∂n-cn-°-s´.'

Fgp-Øns‚ D]-tbmKßƒ (The Uses of Writing)\K-c-Po-hn-Xw, I®-hSw F∂n-hbv°v Fgp-Øp-am-bp≈ _‘w Ddp-°nse BZy-Ime

`c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-I-fn-sem-cm-fmb F≥a¿°sd Ipdn-®p≈ Zo¿L-amb Hcp kpta-dn-b≥

CXn-lmk Imhy-Øn¬ kv]jvSam°s∏Sp-∂p-≠v. saskm-s∏m-tán-b≥ ]mc-º-cy-

Øn¬ "\Kcw' F∂dn-b-s∏-Sp∂ AXn-hn-injvSamb Hcp \K-c-ambncp∂p Ddp-°v.

kpta-dnse BZysØ hym]m-c-Øns‚ kwLmS\hp-am-bmWv F≥a¿°¿

_‘-s∏-ń-cn-°p-∂-Xv. BZy-Im-e-ß-fn¬ ‘hym]mcw Fs¥-∂-dn-bn-√m-bn-cp∂p’F∂mWv CXn-lmkw ]d-bp-∂-Xv. F≥a¿°¿ \K-c-t£-{X-Øns‚ at\m-lm-cnX

h¿[n-∏n-°p∂Xn\mbn C{μ-\o-ehpw Aaqey teml-ßfpw sIm≠v \K-c-t£{Xw

tamSn ]nSn-∏n-°m-\mbn B{Kln°p-Ibpw Ah -e- n-°m-\mbn hnZqc {]tZ-i-amb Adm-

-bnse apJys‚ ASp-tØ°v Xs‚ ktμ-i-hm-l-Is\ Ab-bv°p-Ibpw sNbvXp.

ktμ-i-hm-l-I≥ c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-bpsS hm°p-Iƒ A\p-k-cn-®p. \£-{X-ßsf t\m°n

At±lw cm{Xn-bn¬ bm{X-Xn-cn-®p. ]I¬ kz¿K-Ønse kqcys‚ hnip-≤n-bnepw

At±lw bm{X sNbvXp. At±-l-Øn\v ]¿h-X-\n-c-IfpsS Db-c-ß-fn-te°v t]mhp-

Ibpw Xncn®v Xmtg°p hcp-Ibpw sNø-W-am-bn-cp-∂p. ]¿h-X-ß-fpsS Xmgvhmc-

Ønep≈ kpk-bnse (Hcp \K-cw) P\-ßƒ Nps≠-en-Isft∏mse At±-lsØ

A`n-hmZyw sNbvXp*. XpS¿∂-t±lw A©pw Bdpw Ggpw ]¿h-X-\n-c-Iƒ XcWw

sNbvXp.

ktμ-i-hm-l-I\v Adm- -bnse apJy-s\-s°m≠v C{μ-\o-etam sh≈n-tbm

A\p-h-Zn-∏n-°m≥ Ign™n-√. AXn-\m¬ At±lw Zo¿L-amb B bm{X Atßm´pw

Ctßm´pw ho≠pw ho≠pw XpS¿∂p sImt≠-bn-cp-∂p. Ddp-°nse cmPm-hn¬ \n∂v

At±-l-Øn\v oj-Wnbpw, H∏w hmKvZm-\-ßfpw Abmƒ ssIam-dn-s°m-≠n-cp-∂p.

A¥n-a-ambn, ktμ-i-hm-l-I≥ ‘kwkm-cn®v hmbv Ig®p.’ am{X-a√ ktμ-i-ßƒ

At±-l-Øn¬ Bi-b-°p-g-∏-ap-≠m-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. XpS¿∂v F≥am¿°¿ Hcp

Ifn-a¨ e-I-ap-≠m-°p-Ibpw AXv ssIbn¬ ]nSn®v AXn-se-gp-Xp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

A°m-eØv Ifn-a-Æn¬ Fgp-Xp∂ coXn \ne-hn-en-√m-bn-cp-∂p.

X\n°v e`n® Ifn-a¨ eIw Adm- -bnse c-Wm-[n-Imcn ]cn-tim-[n-®p.

hm°p-Iƒ BWnIƒ** t]mse-bm-bn-cp-∂p. ‘At±-l-Øns‚ apJw Ip]n-X-ambn.

At±lw e-I-Øn¬ Xs∂ t\m°n-s°m-≠n-cp-∂p.’CXv A£cw{]Xn kXy-am-sW∂v IcpXm≥ Ign-bn-√. F∂m¬, saskm-

s∏m-tán-b-°m-cpsS Cu [mc-W-bn¬ \n∂v cmP-hm-gvN-bmWv hym]m-chpw FgpØpw

kwL-Sn-∏n-®-sX∂v \ap°v A\p-am\n-°mw. hnh-c-ßƒ tiJ-cn-°p-∂-Xn\pw ktμ-i-

ßƒ hnZq-c-ß-fn-te°v Ab-bv°p-∂-Xn-\p-ap≈ am[yaw F∂-Xn\v ]pdsa FgpØv

hnZy saskm-s∏mt- -an-b-bnse \mK-cnI kwkvIm-c-Øns‚ {]Xm]Øns‚ Hcp {]Xo-

I-am-bn-cp∂p F∂pw Cu IhnX \tΩmSv ]d-bp-∂-p.

* ktμ-i-hm-l-I≥

Ip∂ns‚ Db-c-ß-fn¬

Ib-dn°-gnbptºmƒ

Xmsg Xmgvhmc-ß-fn-

ep≈ k¿ΔXpw hfsc

sNdp-Xm--bn--´mWv Zriy-am-

b-sX-∂mWv Ihn

A¿∞-am-°p-∂-Xv.

** IyqWnt^mw A£-c-

ßƒ B∏ns‚ BIr-Xn-

bn¬ Bb-Xn-\m¬ Ah

BWn-Isft∏msebncp-∂p.


Z£nW saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-bnse \K-c-h-¬°-c-Ww: t£{X-ßfpw

cmPm-°-∑m-cpw (Urbanisation in Southern Mesopotamia: Templesand Kings)_n.kn.C. 5000 apX¬ Z£nW saskm-s∏m-tán-b-bn¬ a\p-jym-[n-hmk tI{μ-ßƒ

hnI-kn-®p- h-cm≥ XpS-ßn. Cu hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fn¬ Nne-Xn¬ \n∂mWv BZna \K-c-

ßƒ cq]s∏-´-Xv. Ch Xs∂ ]e-X-c-Øn-ep-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. t£{X-ßsf Np‰n∏‰n

{ItaW hf¿∂ph∂ -\-K-c-ßƒ; hmWnPy tI{μ-ß-fmbn hf¿∂p-h∂ \K-c-ßƒ;

km{am-Py-Xz -\-K-c-ßƒ F∂n-h-bm-W-h. CXn¬ BZysØ c≠v Xcw \K-c-ß-sf-

°pdn-®mWv ChnsS N¿® sNøm≥ t]mIp-∂-Xv.

BZy-ImeXma-k-°m¿ (Ah-cpsS D¤hw A⁄mXamWv) {Kma-ß-fnse

Xnc-s™-SpØ ÿe-ß-fn¬ t£{X-ßƒ \n¿Ωn-°p-Ibpw ]p\¿\n¿Ωn-°p-Ibpw

sNbvXp. Nps´-Sp-°mØ CjvSnI sIm≠p \n¿Ωn® Hcp sNdnb tZhm-e-b-am-bn-

cp∂p BZysØ t£{Xw. t£{X-ßƒ hyXykvX ssZh-ß-fpsS

hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fm-bn-cp-∂p. D¿ ]- -W-Ønse Nm{μ-tZ-h≥, kvt\l-

Øn-s‚bpw bp≤-Øn-s‚bpw tZh-X-bmb C\∂ F∂n-ßs\

hnhn[ ssZh-ß-fpsSsb√mw hmk-ÿ-e-ß-fm-bn-cp∂p Ah.

CjvSnIsIm≠p \n¿an® Cu t£{Xßƒ-s°m∏w Imem-¥-c-

Øn¬ \Sp-ap-‰hpw AXn-\p-Np‰w apdn-Ifpw Iqń-t®¿°-s∏- tXmsS

Ah hnim-e-am-bn-Øo¿∂p. BZy-ImesØ t£{X-ß-fn¬ ]eXpw

km[m-cW hoSp-I-fn¬ \n∂v hyXy-kvX-am-bn-cp-∂n√. ImcWw

t£{X-w Hcp ssZh-Øns‚ h-\-am-bn-cp-∂p. ]t£, t£{Xßƒ°v

Ft∏mgpw km[m-cW sIń-S-ß-fn¬ \n∂v hyXy-kvX-ambn ]pdw

aXn-ep-Iƒ D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. Ah-bn¬ AI-tØ°pw ]pd-tØ°pw

t]mIm-\mbn CS-bv°n-Sbv°v hgn-Iƒ D≠m-bn-cp-∂p.

Bcm-[-\-bpsS tI{μ-am-bn-cp∂ ssZh-Øn\v P\-ßƒ

[m\y-ßƒ, ssXcv, a’y-ßƒ F∂nh- ka¿∏n®p. (Nne t£{X-

ß-fpsS Xd-bn¬ \n∂v [mcmfw ao≥ap-≈p-Iƒ e`n-®n- p-≠v). XØz-

Øn¬ Hcp {]tZ-isØ P\-ß-fpsS Irjn∏mS-ßƒ, a’y-k-

ºØv, \m¬°men°q´w F∂n-h-bpsSsb√mw DSa ssZh-am-bn-cp-

∂p. Imem-¥-c-Øn¬ D¬∏-∂-ß-fpsS kwkvI-c-Whpw (DZm-l-c-

W-Øn\v FÆ-bm-´v, [m\y-ßƒ s]mSn-°¬, s\bvØv, Iºnfn

hkv{X-ß-fpsS Xp∂¬ F∂n-h) t£{X-ß-fn¬ h®v sNøm≥ XpS-ßn. h-\-ßƒ°-

∏p-d-ap≈ D¬∏m-Z-\-Øns‚ kwLm-S-I≥, I®-h-S-°m-cpsS sXmgn¬ ZmXm-hv, a’yw,

[m\y-ß-fn¬ \n∂v e`n-°p∂ elcn ]m\o-bw, sdmń, \ne-ap-gm-\p≈ arK-ßƒ,

[m\y-ß-fpsS ]¶n-S¬, hnX-cWw F∂n-h-bpsS Fgp-X-s∏´ tcJ-Iƒ kq£n-°p∂

ÿew XpS-ßnb \ne-Ifn¬ t£{Xßƒ Ah-bpsS {]h¿Ø-\-ta-Je hym]n-∏n-

°p-Ibpw kp{]-[m\ \mK-cn-I-ÿm-]-\-ambn amdp-Ibpw sNbvXp. ]t£, CtXm-

sSm∏w as‰mcp LSIw IqSn Ahn-sS ImWm-\p-≠m-bn-cp-∂p.

{]IrXn ZØ-amb e-`q-bo-jvSX D≠m-bn-cp-s∂-¶nepw Irjn°v Nne

A]-IS- km[yXIƒ D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. bq{^-ókv \Zn-bpsS kzm`m-hnI ssIh-

gn-Iƒ h¿jw tXmdpw sh≈-s∏m-°-Øm¬ Ic-I-hn-s™m-gp-Ip-Ibpw Nne-t∏mƒ Zni-amdn Hgp-Ip-Ibpw sNøpambn-cp∂p. ]pcm-h-kvXp-tc-J-Iƒ ]d-bp-∂-

Xv saskm-s∏m-t´-an-b-bpsS Ncn-{X-Øn¬ ]e-t∏mgpw {Kma-ßƒ am‰n ÿm]n-

Z£n-tW-jy-bnse Adn-b-

s∏-Sp∂ BZy t£{Xw,

GI-tZiw 5000 _n.kn.C.

(cq]-tc-J).


GI-tZiw 3000 _n.kn.C.

bn¬ \n¿an® Hcp "]n¬°m-

e-t£{Xw'. Xpd∂ ap‰hpw

Ccp-h-i-tØ°pw apJ-∏p-

Ifpw ImWmw. (D¬J-\\w

\S-Ønb \ne-bn-ep≈

Nn{Xw)°-s∏- n- p-s≠-∂m-Wv. CXn-\p-]p-dsa a\p-jy≥ krjvSn® {]iv\-ß-fp-ap-≠mbn-cp∂p. ssIh-gn-bpsS Db¿∂ Xoc{]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ Xma-kn-°p-∂-h¿ Xß-fpsS

Irjn-∏m-SØv IqSp-X¬ sh≈w e`n-°p-∂-Xn-\mbn ssIh-gn-bpsS KXn-Xn-cn®vhnSpw. At∏mƒ {Kma-Ønse Xmgv∂ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ Xma-kn-°p∂h¿°v

sh≈w e`n-°n-√. As√¶n¬ apI-fn¬ Xma-kn-°p-∂-h¿ sNfn-\n-d™ ssIh-gn-hr-Øn-bm-°m≥ Xbm-dm-Im-Xn-cn-°p-tºmƒ Xmtg-°p≈ sh≈-Øns‚ Hgp°v XS-

-s∏-Spw. X¬ -e-ambn BZy-Ime sask-ms∏m-t -an-b-bpsS {Kma{]tZ-i-ß-fn¬`qan°pw Pe-Øn\pw th≠n-bp≈ kwL¿j-ßƒ \nc-¥-c-ambn \S-∂n-cp-∂p.

Hcp {]tZ-iØv \nc-¥cw bp≤-ßƒ \S-∂m¬ hnP-bn-°p∂ apJy≥am¿Xß-fpsS A\p-bm-bn-Iƒ°v bp≤-Øn¬ ]nSn-s®-SpØ kºØv hoXw h®v

sImSp-°-W-am-bn-cp-∂p. am{X-a√ ]cm-P-b-s∏-´- hn-`m-K-°msc XS-hp-Im-cmbn]nSn-®v Xß-fpsS ]cn-Nm-c-Icpw AwK-c-£-Icpw Bbn -\n-b-an-°p-Ibpw

sNømambn-cp-∂p. Aßs\ apJy-∑m¿°v Ah-cpsS kzm[o-\hpw i‡nbpwh¿[n-∏n-°mw. kaq-l-Øns‚ \∑-bv°m-bp≈ ]pXnb ÿm]-\-ßƒ \ne-

hn¬ hcp∂Xphsc CØcw bp≤-t\-Xm-°ƒ hcpIbpw t]mhp-Ibpw sNbvXp-sIm-≠n-cp-∂p. hnP-bn-I-fmb apJy-∑m¿ bp≤-Øn¬ ]nSn-s®-SpØ Aaqey

hkvXp-°ƒ ssZh-Øn\v ka¿∏n-°p-Ibpw Ah-cpsS kap-Zmb t£{X-ßƒat\m-l-c-am-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. ssZh-Øn-s‚bpw kaq-l-Øn-s‚bpw t\´-Øn-

\mbn hne-tb-dnb ine-Ifpw teml-ßfpw tiJ-cn-°m-\mbn Ah¿ Xß-fpsS Bfp-Isf ]e-ÿ-e-ß-fn-te°v Ab-®p. t£{X-ß-fn-te-°p≈ hchpw

sNehpw IrXy-am-bn -I-W°m°n Ah¿ t£{X kºØv ka¿∞-amb coXn-bn¬ hnX-cWw sNbvXp. F≥-a¿°-sd Ipdn-®p≈ IhnX kqNn-∏n-°p-∂Xv

t]mse CØcw {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ cmPm-hn\v Db¿∂ ]Z-hnbpw kaq-l-Øns‚ta¬ B⁄m[n-Im-chpw \¬In.

AhnsS ]c-kv]-cw i‡n-s∏SpØp∂ {]h¿Ø-\-ß-fpsS Hcp irwJe\ne-\n-∂n-cp∂Xmbn IW-°m-°mw. {Kma-hm-kn-Isf Xß-fpsS kao-]Øv hkn-

°m≥ t\Xm-°ƒ t{]cn-∏n-®p. Aßs\bmsW-¶n¬ Bhiyw hcp-tºmƒAhsc Iq´n Hcp ssk\y-ap-≠m-°mw. am{X-a-√, ASp-Ø-SpØv Xma-kn-°p-∂-


XmWv F√m-h¿°pw kpc-£n-X-hpw. BZy-Ime t£{X \K-c-ß-fn-sem-∂mbDdp-°n¬ Bbp-[-[m-cn-I-fmb hoc≥amcp-sSbpw Ah-cpsS Cc-I-fp-sSbpw Nn{Xo-

I-c-W-ßƒ Im-Wm≥ Ign-bpw. GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 3000 tØmsS Ddp°v 250slIvS¿ hnkvXm-c-ap≈ hnim-e-amb ]´-W-ambn˛]n¬°me \q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬

taml≥-sPm-Zmscmsb°mƒ c≠n-cń hep∏ap≈Xmbn˛hf¿∂psh∂v kq£va-amb ]pcm-hkvXp hniIe-\-ß-fn¬ sXfn-bp -∂p.

AtXmsS Uk≥IW-°n\v sNdnb {Kma-ßsf P\-ßƒ Dt]-£n-®p \K-c-ß-fn-te°p t]mbn. AsXm-cp-

h-enb P\kwJy-bpsS Hgn™pt]m°m-bn-cp-∂p.as‰mcp {][m\ Imcyw hf-sc- ]-gbImew apX¬°v

Xs∂ Ddp-°n¬ Hcp {]Xntcm[ aXn¬ D≠m-bn-cp∂pF∂-Xm-Wv. _n.kn.C. 4200 apX¬ GI-tZiw kn.C.

400 hsc Cu {]tZ-isØ XpS¿®-bmbn P\-ßƒ ssIb-S-°n-bn-cp-∂p. GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 2800 HmsS Cu

{]tZiw 400 slIvS¿ hnkvXr-Xnbn-te°v hym]n®ncp∂p.

bp≤-Ø-S-hp-Imcpw {]tZ-in-I-hmknIfpw t£{X-

Ønt\m As√-¶n¬ t\cn´v `c-Wm-[n-Im-cnt°m th≠n

]Wnsb-Sp-°p-hm≥ \ntbm-Kn-°-s∏-ńcp∂p. CXv Im¿jnI-

\nIpXn \¬Ip-∂-Xn-t\-°mƒ \n¿_-‘-am-bn-cp-∂p. ]Wn-sb-

Sp-°m≥ \ntbm-Kn-°-s∏-Sp∂h¿°v tdj≥ \¬In-bXv kw_-‘n®v

\qdp-I-W-°n\v ]ń-I-Iƒ Is≠-Øn-bn-´p-≠v. B ]ń-I-bn¬ Hmtcm-

cp-Ø-cp-sSbpw t]cn\v t\¿°v Ah¿°v A\p-h-Zn-®n- p≈ [m\y-w, XpWn,

FÆ F∂n-hbpsS Afhv tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cp-∂p. Hcp-t£{Xw \n¿Ωn-°p-

∂-Xn\v 1500 Bfp-Iƒ Znhkw 10 aWn°q¿ h®v A©v h¿jw ]Wn-sb-Sp-Ø-Xm-

bn- I-W-°p-Iƒ kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p.

ine-Ifpw teml Abn-cp-Ifpw tiJ-cn-°m\pw I -Iƒ \n¿an-°m\pw Ah -

t£-{X-ß-fn¬ ]mIm\pw hnZq-c-\m-Sp-I-fn¬ t]mbn A\p-tbm-Py-amb hkvXp-°ƒ

tiJ-cn-°m\pw c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-Iƒ P\-ß-tfmSv B⁄m-]n-®p. AtXm-sSm∏w GI-

tZiw _n.kn.-C. 3000 tØmsS Ddp-°n¬ kmt¶-Xn-I-amb ]ptcm-K-Xn-bp-ap≠m-bn.

hyXykvX Ic-Iu-ie ]Wn-Iƒ°mbn sh¶-e-Øn¬ Xo¿Ø D]-I-c-W-ßƒ D]-

tbm-Kn-°m≥ XpS-ßn. hnim-e-amb Xf-ß-fpsS ta¬°q-c-bpsS mcw-Xm-ßm≥ A\p-

tbm-Py-amb XSn-Øq-Wp-Iƒ C√m-Xn-cp-∂-Xn-\m¬ CjvSnI-IƒsIm≠v XqWp-Iƒ

\n¿an-°m≥ inev]n-Iƒ ]Tn-®p.

\qdp-I-W-°n\v Bfp-Iƒ Ifn-aÆv Np´v Iq¿Ø tKm]p-c-ßƒ \n¿an-°m≥

\ntbm-Kn-°-s∏- p. Ah ]n∂oSv t£{X-ß-fpsS nØn-I-fm°n am‰n. Ah-bn¬ hnhn-

[-h¿W-ßƒ ]qin samØ-Øn¬ h¿Wm-`-am-°n. btYjvSw e`y-am-bn-cp∂ Ifn-a-

Æn¬ am{X-a√ Cd-°p-aXn sNbvX ine-bnepw Ah¿ {it≤-b-ß-fmb inev]-ßƒ

\n¿an-®p. Ipi-hs‚ N{IØns‚ I≠p-]n-SnØw Hcp \Kc kºZvLS-\bv°v A\p-

tbm-Py-amb kmt¶-XnI cwKsØ kp{]-[m\ \mgn-I-°-√m-bn-cp-∂p. Htc t]mesØ

Uk≥ IW-°n\v a¨]m-{X-ßƒ Htc kabw \n¿an-°m≥ CXv ]n¬°m-eØv Ipi-

h≥amsc klm-bn-®p.

_kmƒ´v Ãoen* (Basaltstele). Hcp XmSn-ao-i-°m-cs\

c≠p-h´w Nn{Xo-I-cn-°p∂

IrjvW-in-em- -e-Iw.

AbmfpsS Xe-s°-´v, apSn, Ac-

°-®, \of-ap≈ Ip∏m-b-Øns‚

Iogv mKw F∂nh {i≤n-°p-I.

henb Hcp Aºpw hn√p-ambn

Hcp knwlsØ B{I-an-°p∂

cwK-amWv Xmsg. apI-fn-esØ

cwKØv \mb-I≥ Ip¥-ap-]-tbm-

Kn®v A{I-am-k-‡-amb

knlsØ sIm√p∂ cwK-amWv.

(GI-tZiw 3200 _n.kn.C.)

*enJn-X-ßfpw tImdn-h-c®

Nn{X-ß-fp-a-S-ßnb inem-^-e-I-

ß-fmWv ÃoenIƒ.


knen-≠¿ koens‚ ap{ZWw : GI-tZiw 3200 _n.kn.C. XmSnh®, Bbp-[ta¥n \n¬°p∂ cq]w.

hkv{X-[m-c-W-Ønepw tIim-e-¶mc coXn-bnepw apI-fnse inem-^-e-I-Ønse cq]-hp-ambn kmay-ap-

≠v. ssIIƒ _‘n-∏n-°-s∏´ aq∂v bp≤-Ø-S-hp-Im¿, \mem-asØbmƒ bp≤ t\Xm-hn-t\mSv tIW-

t]-£n-°p-∂p.

ap{Z ˛ Hcp \mK-cnI Ic-Iu-ie D¬∏\w

(The Seal – An Urban Artefact)C¥y-bnse BZy-Ime ap{Z-Iƒ ]Xn®v hbv°s∏-´-hbmbn-cp-∂p. _n.kn.C.BZy kl-{km-_vZ-Øns‚ A¥yw-hsc saskm-s∏m-t´-an-b-bn¬ tKmfkvXw`m-Ir-Xn-bn-ep≈ inem ap{Z-Iƒ, a[y-`mKØv Zzmc-an´-tijw Hcp hSn-tbmSvtN¿Øvsh®v sIń \\™ Ifn-a-Æn-eqsS Dcpń XpS¿Nn{Xw krjvSn-s®-Sp-Øp. hnZ-Kv[-cmb Ic-Iu-i-e-∏-Wn-°m¿ Ah -sIm-Øn-sb-Sp-Øp. Nne-t∏m-sgms° Ah-bn¬ DS-a-ÿs‚ t]cv, Abm-fpsS ssZhw, At±-l-Øns‚HutZym-KnI ÿm\w XpS-ßn-bh Fgp-Xn-h-®n-cp-∂p. a¨]m{Xw sImt≠mIpcp-°n´v sIńb XpWn-sImt≠m Bh-cWw sNbvXv D≈-S°w kpc-£n-X-am-°nb tijw, ap{Z Ifn-a-Æn\v apI-fn-eqsS Dcp-ń-bn-cp-∂p. Ifn-a¨ ê-I-Ønsegp-Xnb A£-c-Øns‚ apI-fn-eqsS Aa¿Øn Dcp-´p-tºmƒ AXv HcpB[n-Im-cnI ap{Z-bmbn am‰-s∏-Spw. Aßs\ ap{Z s]mXp Pohn-X-Øn¬ \K-c-

hm-kn-Iƒ°p≈ ]¶ns‚ {]Xo-I-ambn amdn.

A©v BZy-Ime knen-≠-dp-Ifpw Ah-bnse ap{Z-W-ß-fpw.

ap{Z-W-ß-fn-tem-tcm-∂nepw \nßƒ ImWp-∂-sX-¥m-sW∂v hnh-cn-°p-I. IyqWnt^mw

A£cw AXn¬ ImWp-∂pt≠m?


\K-c PohnXw (Life in the City)`c-W-hp-ambn _‘-s∏´ Hcp htc-Wy-h¿Kw Db¿∂p-h∂p F∂p \mw I≠p. kº-

Øns‚ knwl`m-Khpw kaq-l-Øns‚ Cu sNdphn`m-K-Øns‚ ssIhi-am-bn-cp-∂p.

Ddnse Nne cmP-°≥am-scbpw cm⁄n-am-scbpw adhp sNøp-tºmƒ hne-]n-Sn-∏p≈

kº-ØpIƒ (B -c-W-ßƒ, kz¿W∏m{X-ßƒ, sh≈®n∏n-Iƒ ]Xn-∏n® XSn-sIm-

≠p≈ hmtZym-]-I-c-W-ßƒ, em∏nkv ekqen, kz¿W-Øn-ep≈ BNm-c-]-c-amb

IØn-Iƒ) apX-em-b-h \nt£-]n-®n-cp∂p F∂Xn¬ \n∂pw C°mcyw kphy-‡-am-

Wv. F∂m¬ km[m-cW°mcs‚ Imcytam?

AWp-Ip-Spw-_-w* Bbncp∂p saskm-s∏m-t -an-b≥ kaq-l-Øns‚ hyhÿ

F∂v \nba {KŸ-ß-fn¬ \n∂pw (X¿°-ßƒ, ss]XrI hkvXp-°ƒ F∂n-h)

\ap°v Adn-bm≥ Ign-™n-´p-≠v. F∂mepw hnhm-ln-X-\mb aI\pw IpSpw-_-hpw

]e-t∏mgpw c£-I¿Øm-°ƒs°m∏hpw Xma-kn-®n-cp-∂p. ]nXm-hmWv IpSpw-_-\m-

Y≥. hnhml \S-]Sn {Ia-ß-sf-°p-dn®v \ap°v Ipd®v am{Xsa Adn-bp-I-bp-≈p.

hnhm-l-Øn-\p≈ kΩXw Adn-bn-®p-sIm-≠p≈ Hcp {]Jym-]\w D≠mbncp∂p.

h[phns‚ amXm-]nXm-°ƒ hnhm-l-Øn-\p≈ kΩXw \¬Ip∂p. AXn-\p-tijw

hcs‚ _‘p-°ƒ h[p-hns‚ _‘p-°ƒ°v kΩm\w \¬Ip-∂p. hnhmlw \S∂p

Ign-™m¬ c≠p hn`m-K-°mcpw ]c-kv]cw kΩm-\-ßƒ ssIam-dp-Ibpw Hcp-an®v

`£Ww Ign-°p-Ibpw t£{X-Øn¬ hgn-]m-

Sp-Iƒ \S-Øp-Ibpw sNøp-∂p. AΩm-bn-bΩ

h[p-hns\ Iq´n-s°m≠p t]mIm≥ hcp-

tºmƒ h[p -hns‚ A—≥ ]mc -ºcy -

kzØns‚ Hcp hnlnXw h[p-hn\v \¬Ip-∂p.

A—s‚ hoSv, I∂p-Im-en-Iƒ, IrjnbnS-ßƒ

F∂n-hsb√mw ]p{X≥am¿°v ]n¥p-S¿®mh-

Im-iambn e`n-®ncp∂p.

D¬J-\\w \S-Ønb BZy-Ime \K-

c-ß-fn-sem-∂mb "D¿'te°v \ap°v t\m°mw.

1930˛ Ifn¬ "D¿' \KcØnse km[m-cW

hoSpIƒ Nn´-tbm-Sp-Iq-Sn- DXvJ-\\w sNø-

s∏´p. ]e hoSp-I-fnepw N{Ih-≠n-Iƒ°v

FØnt®-cm≥ Ign-™ncp-∂n√ F∂mWv CSp-

ßnbXpw hf-™-Xp-amb sXcp-hp-Iƒ kqNn-

∏n-°p-∂Xv. [m\y-ßfpw hnd-Ip-Ifpw Nm°p-

I-fn-em°n Igp-X-∏p-d-ØmWv hoSp-I-fn¬

FØn-®n- p≠m-hpI. \K-cm-kq-{XW-Øns‚

A`m-h-sØ-bmWv CSp-ßnbXpw hf-™-Xp-

amb sXcp-hp-Ifpw hoSp-Iƒ \n¬°p∂

{IaclnXamb BIrXn-bnep≈ ÿe-

ßfpw kqNn-∏n-°p-∂-Xv. ka-Im-en-I-amb

saml≥sPm-Zm-tcm-bn¬ \Ωƒ I≠n-´p≈

coXn-bn-ep≈ Agp°p Nmep-Iƒ Chn-sS-bn-

√. Ddnse hoSp-I-fnse AI-Øp≈ \Sp-ap-‰-

ß-fn-emWv Agp°pNmep-Ifpw Ifn-a-Æp-sIm-

≠p≈ ss]∏p-Ifpw ]Icw ImW-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv.

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 2000

Øn¬ D¿-˛se (Ur) Hcp Xma-

k-ÿew. hf™ sXcp-hp-

Iƒ IqSmsX ct≠m- aqt∂m

Ccp≠ H‰-bSn∏mX-Iƒ

AYhm CS-h-gn-Iƒ Is≠-

Ømtam?

*A-Wp-Ip-Spw_w F∂Xv

Hcp ]pcp-j\pw AtZ-l-

Øns‚ `mcybpw Ip´n-I-

fp-a-S-ßp-∂-Xm-Wv.


Chn-SsØ hoSns‚ ta¬°q-c-Iƒ°v AI-tØ°v Ncn-hv \¬Ip-Ibpw X¬ -e-ambn

ag-sh-≈w AI-Øp≈ \Sp-ap-‰-Øn¬ ÿm]n-®n-cn-°p∂ Ipgn-I-fn- (Sumps*) te°v

Hmhp-hgn hgn-Xn-cn®v hnSp-Ibpw sNbvXncn°mw. CXv I\Ø ag-bv°p-tijw ]mIn

Hcp-°mØ ]mX-I-fn¬ Aan-X-ambn sNfn sI´p-∂Xv XS-bp-∂-Xn-\mbn kzoI-cn®

Hcp am¿K-am-bn-cp-∂p.

F∂n´pw P\-ßƒ Km¿lnI amen-\y-ßƒ sXcp-hntebv°v XqØn-Sp-Ibpw

Bfp-Iƒ AXn\p aosX Nhnń \S-°p-Ibpw sNbvXncp-∂p. {ItaW sXcp-hns‚

Dbcw IpSp-∂-Xn-\\p-k-cn®v ag-bv°p-ti-j-ap≈ sNfn hoSp-Iƒ°p-≈n¬ Ib-dm-Xn-

cn-°m≥ hmXn¬∏Sn-bpsS Dbcw Iqt´≠n-h-∂p. {]Imiw apdn-Iƒ°p≈n-te°v IS∂p

hcp-∂Xv P\-en-eq-sS-b√ adn®v A¶-W-Øn-te°v Xpd-∂n-cn-°p∂ hmXn-en-eq-sS-bm-

Wv. CXv IpSpw-_-ßƒ°v IqSp-X¬ kzIm-cyX \¬Ip-∂p. Ahn-SsØ hoSp-

Isf°pdn®v A‘-hn-izm-k-ßƒ D≠m-bn-cp-∂-Xmbn D¿- se iIp\ e-I-ß-fn¬

(omen tablets) tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-´p-≠v. Db¿∂ hmXn¬∏Sn kºØv sIm≠p-h-cp-

sa∂pw hoSns‚ ap≥hm-Xn¬ as‰mcp hoSn-\p-t\sc Xpd-°m-Xn-cn°p-∂-Xv `mKy-

amsW∂pw IcpXnbncp∂p. F∂m¬ Hcp hoSns‚ XSn-sIm-≠p≈ {][m\ hmXn¬

]pd-tØbv°v Xpd∂v Ccn-°p-I-bm-sW-¶n¬ (AI-tØbv°v Xpd∂v Ccn-°p-∂-Xn\p

]I-cw) mcy ¿Øm-hn\v bmX-\-bm-bn-cn-°p-sa∂mbncp∂p hnizmkw.

D¿˛ ¬ Hcp \Kc ivaim\w D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. AXn¬ cmP-Ip-Spw-_mwKß-fp-

sSbpw km[m-cW°mcp-sSbpw ih-°-√-d-Iƒ Is≠-Øn-bn- p-≠v. F∂m¬ Npcp°w

Nne hy‡n-Isf km[m-cW hoSp-Iƒ°p≈n¬ AS°n-bncp∂Xmbn Is≠-Øn-bn-

´p-≠v.

CS-b-ta-J-e-bnse Hcp hym]mc \K-cw (A Trading Town in aPastoral Zone)

_n.kn.C. 2000 Øn\p tijw amcn F∂ cmP-

Iob Xe-ÿm\\Kcw A`n-hr-≤n-s∏-´-p. Db¿∂coXn-bn¬ Im¿jn-tIm¬∏mZ\w \S-°p∂ sX°≥ka-X-e-Øn-e√, adn®v bq{^ókv \Zn-bpsS D]-cn

`mK-Øm-bn- mWv amcn ÿnXn-sN-øp-∂-Xv F∂Xv{i≤n®p ImWp-at√m (`q]Sw 2 ImWp-I). q]Sw3 se \nd-ßƒ ImWn-°p-∂Xv Cu {]tZ-iØv

Irjnbpw I∂p-Im-en-h-f¿Øepw CS-I-e¿∂p\S∂n-cp∂p F∂-Xm-Wv. amcn cmPysØ Nne kap-Zm-b-ß-fn¬ Irjn-°mcpw CS-b≥amcpw D≠m-bn-

cp-∂p. F¶nepw qcn-`mKw {]tZ-i-ßfpw sNΩ-cn-bmSpI-sfbpw BSp-I-sfbpw hf¿Øp-∂-Xn-\p-th≠n D]-tbm-Kn-®n-cp-∂p.

I¿j-Icpw CS-bcpw XΩn¬ Ah-cpsS

D¬∏-∂-ßƒ ssIam‰w sNbvXn-cp-∂p. arK-°p-™p-ßƒ, shÆ, XpI¬, amwkw F∂nh CS-b¿temtlm-]-I-c-W-ßƒ°pw [m\y-Øn\pw ]Icw

ssIam‰w sNbvXp. sIń-bn´ arK-ß-fn¬ \n∂ptiJ-cn® NmW-Ihpw I¿j-I¿°v hfsc Bh-iy-ap-≈-Xm-bn-cp-∂p. AtX-k-abw Xs∂ kwL¿j-

ßfpw D≠m-bn-cp-∂n-cn-°mw. Bń-S-b≥ Xs‚Bń≥ ]‰-hp-ambn Pe-t{km-X- pIƒ tXSn hnX-

`q]Sw 3 : amcn-bpsS ÿm\w

* Pehpw aen-\-P-ehpw

Hgp-In-sb-Øp∂ \neØv

ÿnXn sNøp∂ aqS-s∏´

Pe-kw-`-c-Wn-bmWv

kw]v (Sump).


bv-°-s∏´ ]mSßfn-eqsS sIm≠p t]mIp-∂Xv hnf-I-fpsS \mi-Øn\v Imc-W-am-Ipw. CXv IqSmsX, Hcn-Sp-Øp-\n∂v as‰mcnS-tØ°v k©-cn-®p-sIm-≠n-cn-°p∂ Bń-S-b≥am¿°v Im¿jnI{Kma-ßsf- B{I-an-°p-hm\pw AhnSsØ Irjn-°m¿ tiJ-cn®v h®n-cn-°p∂ [m\y-ßƒ Ih¿s∂-Sp-°m\pw km[n-°p-am-bn-cp-∂p. AXn-\m¬ÿnc-Xm-a-k-°m¿ Bń-S-bsc \Zn-I-fn-te°pw tXmSp-I-fn-te-°p-ap≈ Nne ]mX-IƒD]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ A\p-h-Zn-®n-cp-∂n-√.

saskm-s∏m-t -an-bbpsS Ncn-{X-Øn-ep-S-\ofw ]›na acp-{]-tZ-i-Øp≈ \mtSmSnkaq-l-ßƒ Im¿jnIm`n-hr-≤n-bpsS tI{μ-ß-fn-te°v {Iam-\p-K-X-ambn IS-∂p-h-∂ncp∂p. th\¬°m-e-ß-fn¬ Bń-S-b≥am¿ arK-ßsf hnX-bv°-s∏´{]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ sIm≠p-h-cm-dp-≠v. CS-b≥am¿, hnf-sh-Sp∏psXmgn-em-fn-Iƒ, Iqen-∏´m-f-°m¿ XpS-ßnb coXn-I-fn¬ CØcw hn`m-K-ßƒChnsS FØn-t®-cp-Ibpw Nne-t∏mƒ Ch-cn¬ Nne¿ kº-∂-cmbnØocp-Ibpw, Ah¿ ÿnc-Xm-a-k-am-°p-Ibpw sNbvXncp∂p. Ah-cn¬ Ipd-®p-t]¿°v Icp-Øm¿Pn-°p-hm\pw Ah-cp-tS-Xmb `cWwÿm]n-°p-hm\pw km[n-®p. A°m-Un-b-∑m¿, Atam-ssd-‰p-Iƒ, A o-cn-b≥am¿, Adm-a-bn-\p-Iƒ F∂n-h¿ CXn¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-∂p. (Cu CSbkaq-l-Ønse `c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-Isf Ipdn®v {]tabw 5˛¬ \nßƒ°vhmbn-°m-hp-∂-XmWv). amcn-bnse cmPm-°≥am¿ Atamssd-‰p-I-fm-bncp∂p. Ah-cpsS hkv{X-[m-cWw Xt±-in-b-cn¬ \n∂v hyXy-kvX-am-bncp∂p. saskm-s∏m-t -anb-bnse ssZhsØ BZ-cn-®Xn\p ]pdsa]p¬ta-Snse tZh-\mb ZmK-\p-th≠n Hcp t£{Xw \n¿Ωn-°p-IbpwsNbvXp. saskm-s∏m-t -an-b≥ kaq-lhpw kwkvIm-chpw Aßs\hyXy-kvX P\-ßƒ°pw kwkvImcßƒ-°p-ambn Xpd-∂nSs∏- p. CukΩn{i-XbmWv Hcp ]t£ Cu kwkvIm-c-Øns‚ Du¿Pkz-e-Xbv°vImcWw.

amcn-bnse cmPm-°≥am¿ ]e-t∏mgpw PmKcqI-c-m-tI≠n-bn-cp-∂p. hyXykvX t{KmX-ß-fnse CS-b≥amsc cmPy-Øn-\p-≈n-eqsSk©-cn-°m≥ A\p-h-Zn-®psh¶nepw Ahsc \nco£n®p sIm≠n-cp-∂p. CSb kt¶-X-ß-sf-°p-dn®v cmPm-°≥amcpw CtZym-ÿcpw XΩn-ep≈ IØn-S-]m-Sp-I-fn¬ \nc-¥cw ]cm-a¿in-®n-cp-∂p. HcptZym-K-ÿ≥cmPm-hn-s\-gp-Xnb IØn¬ "cm{Xn-Im-e-ß-fn¬ \nc-¥cw Xo D]-tbm-Kn®v Hcp Xmh-f-Øn¬ \n∂pw as‰mcp Xmh-f-Øn-te°v ap∂-dn-bn∏v \¬Ip-∂-Xmbn ImWp∂p'F∂v tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cp-∂p. CXv an∂m-em-{I-a-WØn\p≈ ]≤Xn Bkq-{XWwsNøp-I Bbn-cn-°m-sa∂v At±lw kwi-bn-°p-∂p.

bq{ - o-kns‚ XocØv hym]m-c-Øn\v G‰hpw anI-hp‰ ÿm\Øv ÿnXnsNøp∂ amcn, hym]mcw sIm≠v A`nhr≤n {]m]n® \mKcnI tI{μØn\v DØtam-ZmlcWamWv. XSn, sNºv, IdpØo-bw, FÆ, ho™v XpS-ßn-b-hbpw ]e-XcwD¬]-∂-ßfpw t_m´p-I-fn¬ bq{ - o-kneqsS Z£nW kndnb, se_-t\m≥ F∂n-hnS-ß-fn-te°pw FØn-®n-cp-∂p. [m\y-ßƒ s]mSn°p∂ DcI√p-Iƒ, XSn, ho™v,FÆ c-Wn-Iƒ, F∂nh hln-®p-sIm-≠p-t]m-Ip∂ t_m´p-Iƒ sX°≥\K-c-ß-fn-te-°p≈ am¿K-at[y amcn-bn¬ \n¿Øp-am-bn-cp-∂p. amcn \Kc-Ønse DtZym-K-ÿ≥AXn-\p-≈n¬ Ib-dp-Ibpw Nc-°p-Iƒ ]cn-tim-[n-°p-Ibpw sNbvXn-cp∂p. (Hcpt_mń\v 300 ho™v c-Wn-Iƒ hln-°m≥ Ign-bpw) Xmgv∂ m-K-tØ-°v XpS¿∂p≈bm{X A\p-h-Zn-°-W-sa-¶n¬ Nc-°p-I-fpsS aqey-Øns‚ ]Øn-sem∂v \nIp-Xn-bmbn\¬IpIbpw thW-am-bn-cp∂p. {]tXyI [m\yt_m´p-I-fn-emWv _m¿en ChnsSFØn-bn-cp -∂-Xv. C∂sØ ssk{]-kv Zzo]mb Aem-jn-bn¬ \n∂p≈sNºns\°pdn®v e-I-ß-fn¬ kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p≠v. shfp-Øobw Hcp {][m\ hym]mcD¬∏∂-am-bn-cp-∂p. Bbp-[-ßƒ°pw D]-I-c-W-ßƒ°pap≈ {][m\ hymh-km-bnIAkw-kvIrX hkvXp-hmbn sh¶ew amdn-b-t∏mƒ, Cu hym]m-c-Øn\v hºn® {]m[m-\y-ap-≠m-bn. ssk\n-I-ambn i‡-a-√m-Xn-cp∂n´pw Akm-[m-cWamwhn[w A`n-hr-

≤n-bp≈ cmPy-am-bn-cp∂p amcn.

\of≥ Ip¥hpw Nqc¬

]cn-N-bp-ambn \n¬°p∂

Hcp tbm≤m-hv. AtZ-l-

Øns‚ hkv{Xw {i≤n-°q.

Atam-ssd-‰p-I-fpsS khn-

ti-j-am¿∂ Cu hkv{Xw

t]Pv 38 se Nn{X-Øn¬

ImWn-®n-cn-°p∂ kpta-dn-

b≥ t]mcm-fn-bp-tS-Xn¬

\n∂pw XnI®pw hyXy-

kvX-amWv. GI-tZiw

_n.kn.C. 2600˛¬ Hcp

Nn∏n-bn¬ sImØn-b-XmWv

Cu Nn{Xw.


amcn-bnse cmPm-hmb kn{an-en-ans‚ sIm´mcw (1810 -1760 _n.kn.-C.) (The Palace at Mari of King Zimrilim (1810-1760 BCE))

]I¿s∏-gp-Øp-Im-cpsS Imcym-e-bw. s_©p-Ifpw

Ifn-a¨^-e-I-ßƒ kq£n-°m-\p≈ sXm´n-Ifpw

ImWmw.ap≥ap‰w (131)

k`m-Xew (132)

A¶Ww (131)

\Sp-ap‰w(106)

IhmSwInW¿

knwlm-k-\-apdn


{]h¿Ø\w 3

{]th-i\ IhmSw apX¬ \Sp-ap‰w

hsc-bp≈ ]mX I≠p-]n-Sn-°p-I.

kw`-cW apdnI-fn¬ kq£n-®n-cp-

∂Xv F¥m-sW-∂mWv \nßƒ

Nn¥n-°p-∂Xv? ASp-°fsb Xncn-

®-dn-bp-∂Xv Fßs\?

amcn-bnse cmPm-hmb kn{an-en-

ans‚ sIm´mcw (_n.kn.-C. 1810 -1760) The Palace at Mari ofKing Zimrilim (B.C.E. 1810-

1760)amcn-bnse al-Øm-b-sIm-´m-cw cmP-

Ip-Spw-_-Øns‚ hmk-ÿ-ehpw cW

tI{μhpw hne]n-Sn-∏p≈ teml B -c-

W-ß-fp -sS D¬∏m-Z\ tI{μ-hp -

ambncp∂p. C°meØv hfsc {]i-

kvX-am-bn-cp-∂ Cu sIm´mcw ImWp-

∂-Xn-\v am{X-ambn hS-°≥ kndn-b-

bn¬ \n∂v Hcp Cfb cmP-Ip-am-c≥

ChnsS h∂p. amcn-bnse cmPm-hmb

kn{an -en -ans‚ cmP-Iob kplr -

Øn¬\n∂pw ]cn-N-b-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xn-

\p≈ Hcp IØpw At±-l-Øns‚

ssIhiw D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. amhv, sdm´n,

amwkw, a’yw, ]g-ßƒ, _nb¿,

ho™v XpS-ßnb henb Af-hn-ep≈

`£-W-ßƒ Zn\w-{]Xn cmPm-hns‚

tai-∏p-dØv k∂n-ln-X-ambncp-∂p-

sh∂v ssZ\w-Zn\ ]´n-I-Iƒ shfn-s∏-

Sp-Øp-∂p. sh≈ ]mInb \Sp-ap-‰-Øn-

\-ItØm (106) Np‰pamtbm BWv

At±lw an°hmdpw a‰p ]e-tcm-

Spsam∏w Ccp∂v £Ww Ign-®n-cp-∂-

Xv. hS°p `mK-Ømbn Hcp {]th-i\

Ihm-Sw am{Xta sIm´m-c-Øn-\p-≠m-bn-

cp-∂p≈psh∂v cq]-tc-J-bn¬ \n∂pw

\nßƒ°v a\- n-em-°m≥ Ign-bp-w. 131

t]mep≈ hepXpw Xpd∂Xpamb A¶-

W-ßƒ at\m-l-c-ambn ]mIn-bn-cp∂p.

132˛¬ Bbn-cn-°mw. cmPmhv hntZ-

isØ hnin-jvShy-‡n-I-sfbpw Xs‚

Xs∂ P\-ß-sfbpw kzoI-cn-®ncp-∂-Xv.

Npa¿ Nn{X-ßtfmSpIq-Snb Cu apdn-

Iƒ kμ¿i-I-cn¬ `b-`‡n _lp-

am\w krjvSn-°p∂p. 2.4 slIvS¿

ÿeØv 260 apdn -I-fn -embn Cu

sIm´mcw hym]n®p InS∂cp-∂p.

ASp-°f

iuNm-e-bhpw

Ipfn-ap-dnbpw

132˛mw nØn-bnse Nph¿ Nn{X-ßƒ

]Wn-∏p-cbpw

ASp-°-fbpw

cmPm-hns‚

hmk-ÿm\w


saskm-s∏m-t´-an-b≥ \K-c-ßsf D¬J-\-\w sNøp∂p

(Excavating Mesopotamian Towns)C∂,v saskm-s∏m-t -an-b≥ D¬J-\-\-°m¿ hnh-c-ßƒ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xn¬ ]gb

\mfp-I-sf°mƒ Db¿∂ \ne-hm-c-Øn-ep≈ IrXy-Xbpw {i≤bpw ]men-°p∂p.

AXn-\m¬ D¿˛se D¬J-\\w t]mse hnime {]tZ-i-ß-sf Bcpw Xs∂ J\\-

Øn¬ G¿s∏Sp∂n√. AXnep-]-cn, GXm\pw ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-I¿°v D¬J-\-

\-°m-cpsS henb kwLßsf \nb-an-°m-\p≈ ≠p-Iƒ (XpI-Iƒ) D≠m-bn-

cp-∂n√. X¬ -e-am-bn, hnh-c-ßƒ e`n-°p∂ coXn-bn¬ am‰-ßƒ D≠m-bn.

2500 _n.kn.C. bn¬ 10 slIvS¿ hnkvXr-Xnbpw 10000 Øn\v Xmsg P\-

kw-Jy-bp-ap≈ A_q kem-_n°v (Abu Salabikh) F∂ sNdp-\-K-c-sa-Sp-°mw. {]X-

e-ßsf Npc-≠n-b-Xn-eq-sS-bmWv nØn-IfpsS cq]-tc-J-Iƒ BZy-ambn AS-bm-f-

s∏-Sp-Øm\m-b-Xv. aq¿®-tb-dn-bXpw hoXn-bn¬ A{K-hp-ap-≈-Xp-amb henb Ic-

≠ntbm a‰v D]-I-c-W-ßtfm D]-tbm-Kn®v taSns‚ apIƒ`mKw Ipd®p an√n-ao--‰-¿

Npc-≠p∂ {]{In-b-bmWv CXn¬ Dƒs∏-S-p-∂-Xv. At∏mƒ AXn-\-Sn-bn-ep≈ aÆn\v

sNdnb coXn-bn¬ Cu¿∏-ap-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. hyXykvX \nd-ßƒ, LS-\m-co-Xn-Iƒ,

CjvSnI®pa-cp-I-fpsS hcn-Iƒ, Ipgn-Iƒ apX-emb khn-tijXIƒ a\- n-em-

°p-hm≥ ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-I¿°v Ign-™p. Is≠-Ønb GXm\pw

ho-Sp-I-fn¬ D¬J-\\w \S-Øn. SÏ-W-°n\v aÆv Acn-®-Xn-eqsSbmWv ]pcm-

hkvXp Kth-j-I¿°v kky-ß-fp-sSbpw P¥p-°-fp-sSbpw Ah-in-jvS-ßƒ

hos≠Sp°m≥ Ign-™-Xv. Cu {]{In-b-bn-eqsS [mcmfw arK-ß-fp-sSbpw kky-

ß-fp-sSbpw h¿K-ßsf Xncn-®-dn-™p. sXcp-hn-te°v hen-s®-dn-b-s∏´ Icn™

a’y-ßfpsS ap≈p-Iƒ henb Af-hn¬ Is≠-Øn-bn- p-≠v. NmW-IsØ (dungcake) C‘-\-ambn IØn-®-Xn-\p-tijw Ah-ti-jn® kky-ß-fpsS hnØpI-I-

fn¬ \n∂pw \mcn¬ \n∂pw ASp-°-f-Iƒ Xncn-®-dn-bp-hm≥ Ign-™p. s]mXp Bh-

iy-ßƒ°p≈ apdn-Isf°pdn-®p≈ Adn-hp-Iƒ IpdhmWv. sXcp-hn¬ \n∂v

]∂n°p™p-ß-fpsS ]√ns‚ Ah-injvSßƒ Is≠-ØnbXn-\m¬ a‰p≈ saskm-

s∏m-t -an-b≥ \K-c-ß-fn-se-∂-t]mse ]∂n-Iƒ ChnsSbpw kzX-{¥-ambn k©-

cn-®ncp∂-Xmbn ]pcmhkvXp Kth-j-I¿ \nK-a-\Øn-se-Øn-bn- p-≠v. bYm¿Y-Øn¬

Hcp hońse ih-°√-dbn¬ Ipd®v ]∂n-I-fpsS F√p-Iƒ Is≠-Øn-bn-´p-≠v.

acn® hy‡n°v ac-Wm-\-¥c Pohn-X-Øn¬, ]cn-t]mj-WØn-\mbn ]∂n-bn-d®n

Xo¿®-bmbpw \¬I-s∏-ń-cn°mw! Hcp hoSns‚ GXv apdn-Iƒ°mWv ta¬°qc

D≠m-bn-cp-∂-sX∂pw (\o≠p-sa-en™ hr£-Øns‚ XSn, ]\ Hme-Iƒ,

hbvt°m¬ apX-em-b-h sIm≠v) ta¬°qc C√mØXv GXn-\m-sW∂pw \n¿W-

bn-°p-∂-Xn-\mbn hoSp-I-fpsS \nesØ°pdn®v ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-I¿ kq£va-

amb ]T\w \S-Øn.

\K-c-ßƒ saskm-s∏m-t´m-an-b≥ kwkvIm-c-Øn¬ (Cities inMesopotamian Culture)saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-°m¿ \Kc Pohn-X-Øn\v aqeyw I¬∏n-°p-Ibpw ]e kaq-l-ß-

fn-sebpw kwkv-Im-c-ß-fn-sebpw P\-ßƒ AhnsS Hcp-an®v Pohn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp.

\K-c-ßƒ bp≤-ß-fn¬ \in-∏n°-s∏- -t∏mƒ AXns\ Ihn-X-bn-eqsS Ah¿ Hm¿sØ-

SpØp.

satkm-s∏m-t -an-b-°m¿ Xß-fpsS \K-c-ßsf sNm√n F{X-am{Xw A`n-am-\n-

®n-cp∂p F∂-Xns\ 12 e-I-ß-fn-embn Fgp-X-s∏´ Kn¬K-tajns‚ CXn-lm-k-Øns‚


Ah-km-\ `mKw \sΩ Hm¿Ωn-∏n-°p-∂p. F≥sa-¿°dns‚ `c-W-Øn\v Ipd-®p-

ImeØn\p-tijw, Ddq°v \K-cw Kn¬K-tajv cn-®n-cp-∂-Xmbn ]d-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. hnZqc

{]tZ-i-ß-fnse P\-ßsf Iogvs∏-Sp-Ønb alm\pw [oc-\p-ambncp∂p At±lw.

F∂m¬ At±-l-Øns‚ [oc tbm≤m-hmb kplrØv ac-Ws∏ -t∏mƒ D≠mb BLm-

X-Øn-\p-tijw A\-iz-c-X-bpsS clkyw Is≠-Øp-hm≥ ]pd-s∏-Sp-Ibpw temIsØ

Np‰n°nS-°p∂ Pem-i-b-ß-sf√mw apdn®v IS-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. Cu [oc-amb {ia-

Øn-¬ ]cm-P-b-s∏´t∏mƒ At±lw Ddp-°n-te°v aS-ßn-. Ahn-sS, \K-cØns‚ aXn-

en¬ IqSn apt∂m pw ]nt∂m pw \S-∂p-sIm≠v At±lw kzbw Biz-kn∏n®p. At±lw,

Xm≥ AhnsS NpSp-I-√p-Iƒ sIm≠v \n¿Ωn® ASn-Ø-dsb hnkva-tØmsS t\m°n.

[oc-X-bpsS \o≠ IY-Ifpw hnêamb ]cn-{i-a-ßfpw Ddp-°nse \KcaXn-en¬

\n∂pamWv D≠m-b-Xv. km[m-cW Hcp tKm{Xhocs\ t]mse Kn¬K-tajv Xm≥ ac-

W-s∏- mepw Xs‚ ]p{X≥am¿ Xs∂ AXn-Po-hn-°p-sa∂v ]d-™n--√. ]Icw Xs‚

P\X \n¿Ωn® \K-c-ØnemWv At±lw Bizmkw Is≠-ØnbXv.

Fgp-Øns‚ ss]XrIw (The Legacy of Writing){]Nm-c-Øn-en-cn-°p∂ BJym-\-ßƒ hmsam-gn-bn-eqsS ssIam-dm≥ Ign-bp-∂-Xm-Wv.

F∂m¬, ]fin-X-cpsS Xe-ap-dIƒ°v hmbn-°m\pw \n¿Ωn-°p-hm\pw Ign-bp∂ Fgp-

X-s∏´ {KŸ-ßƒ imkv{X-Øn\v Bh-iy-amWv. saskm-s∏m-t´man-b-°m¿ temI-

Øn\p \¬Inb G‰hpw al-Ømb kw`m-h-\-IfmWv Ime-K-W, KWnXimkv{Xw

F∂n-h-bnse Ah-cpsS ]finX ]mc-º-cyw.

GI-tZiw 1800 _n.kn.C Ime-L- -ß-fn-ep≈ e-I-ß-fn¬ KpW-\- l-cW

]ń-IIfpw h¿K˛h¿K-aqe ]ń-IIfpw Iq´p-]-eni ]ń-IIfpw ImWm≥ Ign-bpw.

2 s‚ h¿K-aqew NphsS X∂n-cn-°p-∂p.

1 + 24/60 + 51/602 + 10/ 603

\nßƒ CXv IW-°q-Iq´pI-bm-sW-¶n¬ \nßƒ°v e`n-°p∂ DØcw

1.41421296 BWv. icn-bpØ-c-amb 1.41421356 ¬ \n∂v t\cnb hyXym-kta

CXn-\p-≈p. hnZym¿Yn-Iƒ NphsS \¬In-bn-cn-°p∂Xpt]mep≈ {]iv\-ßƒ°v

DØcw ImWW-am-bn-cp-∂p. ""\n›nX hym]vXn-bp≈ Hcp ]mS-Øn¬ Hcp hnc¬

Bg-Øn¬ sh≈w \nd-™n-cn-°p-I-bmWv; sh≈-Øns‚ hym]vXw I≠p-]n-Sn-°pI.''

N{μ≥ qansb {]Z-£nWw hbv°p-∂-Xns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ h¿jsØ

12 amk-ß-fmbpw amk-sØ \mev BgvN-I-fmbpw Znh-k-sØ 24 aWn-°p-dp-I-fmbpw

aWn-°q-dns\ 60 an\n-‰mbpw Xncn-®n-cp-∂p. C∂v \ΩpsS ssZ\w-Zn\ Pohn-X-Øn¬

kzoI-cn-®n-cn-°p∂ CsX√mw \ap°v e`n-®Xv saskm-s∏m-t -an-b-°m-cn¬ \n∂p-am-

Wv. Cu kab hn -P-\sØ Ae-Ivkm-≠-dns‚ ]n≥Km-an-Iƒ kzoI-cn-®p. AhnsS

\n∂v tdma≥ temI-Øn-te°pw C…m-an-I-tem-I-Øn-te°pw a[y-Ime bqtdm-∏n-

te°pw CXv ssIam‰w sNbvXp. (CXv F{]-Imcw kw`-hn-®p F∂v Adn-bm≥

{]tabw 7 ImWp-I).

kqcy-{K-l-Whpw N{μ{Kl-Whpw \nco-£n°-s∏´t∏msgms° h¿jw,

amkw, Znhkw F∂n-h-bv°\p-k-cn®v Ah D≠m-Ip-∂Xv tcJ-s∏-SpØn. AXp-t]mse

cm{Xn-bn¬ BIm-i-Ønse \£-{X-ß-fp-sSbpw \£-{X-°q- -ß-fp-sSbpw ÿm\-ßƒ

\nco-£n®v tcJ-s∏-Sp-Ønbncp-∂p.

FgpØp hnZy-bpw \mK-cnI kvIqƒ ÿm]-\-ßfpw C√m-Xn-cp-s∂-¶n¬ kp{]-

[m-\-amb Cu saskm-s∏m-t´-an-b≥ t\´-ßƒ km[y-am-Ip-am-bn-cp-∂n-√. Cu \mK-


cnI ÿm]-\-ß-fmb hnZym-eb-ß-fn-¬ hnZym¿Yn-Iƒ BZy-Im-e-ß-fn¬ Fgp-Xs∏´

ê-I-ßƒ hmbn-°p-Ibpw ]I¿Øp-Ibpw sNbvXp. Nne BÏp-ń-Isf `c-W-

Øn--\p-th-≠n-bp≈ shdpw tcJ-Iƒ kq£n-°m-\p≈hcm-bn-´√ ]cn-io-en-∏n-®Xv,

]Icw Xß-fpsS ap≥Km-an-I-fpsS {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ Gs‰-Sp-Øp apt∂m´p sIm≠p

t]mIm-\p≈ _p≤n-Po-hn-I-fmbn´mWv.

saskm-s∏m-t -an-b≥ \mK-cnI temIsØ°pdn-®p≈ Nn¥m-KXn Hcp B[p-

\nI {]Xn- m-k-am-sW∂v Nn¥n-®m¬ \ap°v sX‰v kw -hn-°pw. Ah-km-\-ambn \ap°v

{KŸ-ßfpw qX-Im-esØ ]mc-º-cy-ßfpw Is≠Øn kwc-£n-°p-∂-Xns‚ c≠p

BZy-Ime {ia-ßƒ ]cn-tim-[n-°mw.

Hcp BZy-Ime {KŸ-ime (An Early Library)Ccp-ºpbpK-Øn¬, hS-°p-≈, Ako-cn-b≥am¿ Hcp km{amPyw ÿm]n-®p. _n.kn.C. 720 \pw 610

\panS-bn¬ Cu km{amPyw AXns‚ D∂Xnbn¬ FØp-Ibpw ]Sn-™mdv CuPn]vXp hsc hym]n-

°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. Cu cmjv{SØns‚ kºZvhyhÿ Ih¿®-bn¬ A[n-jvTn-X-am-bn-cp-∂p. A[o-

\-X-bn-ep≈ hnime P\-k-aq-l-Øn¬ \n∂pw sXmgn¬ i‡n ]ngn-s™-Sp-°p-Ibpw `£-Ww,

arK-ßƒ, teml-ßƒ, Ic-Iu-ie hkvXp-°ƒ F∂o cq]-ßfn¬ I∏w tiJ-cn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp.

hn{ipX-cmb Ako-cn-b≥ cmP-m°m-∑m¿ IpSn-tbdn h∂-h-cm-sW-¶nepw D∂X kmwkvIm-cnI

tI{μ-ambn sX°≥ {]tZ-i-amb _m_n-tem-Wn-bsb AwKo-I-cn-®p. Ah-cn¬ Ah-km-\sØ c-Wm-

[n-Im-cn-bm-b, A ¿_m\n-]m¬ (_n.kn.-C. 668˛ 627), Xs‚ Xe-ÿm-\-amb hS°v \nt\-thbn¬

Hcp {KŸ-ime ÿm]n-®p. Ncn-{Xw, CXn-lm-kßƒ, tPymXn-jw, iIp\kmln-Xyw, t«mIßƒ,

Ihn-X-Iƒ F∂n-h-bpsS e-I-ßƒ tiJ-cn-°p-hm≥ At±lw henb {ia-ßƒ \S-Øn. ]gb e-

I-ßƒ Is≠-Øp-hm≥ At±lw ]I¿sØ-gp-Øp-Imsc sXt°m v Ab-®p. sX°p≈ ]I¿sØ-gp-

Øp-Im¿°v Fgp-Xp-hm\pw hmbn-°m\pw kvIqfn¬ ]cn-io-e\w t\Sp-∂-Xns‚ mK-ambn UkÏ-

W-°n\v e-I-ß-ƒ ]I¿ØWam-bn-cp∂p. Aßs\ e-I--ßfpsS hen-b -ti-Jcßƒ \n¿Ωn-°p-

Ibpw {]ikvXn t\-S-bp-Ibpw sNbvX H -\-h[n ] -W-ßƒ _m_n-tem-Wn-bbn-ep-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. GI-

tZiw _n.kn.C 1800 \ptijw kpta-dnb≥ mj kwkm-cn-°p-∂Xv Ah-km-\n-®p. F¶nepw ]Z-{K-

Ÿ-ßƒ, Nn”-ß-fpsS ]ń-I, Zzn`m-jm (-kp-ta-dn-b\pw A°m-Un-b-\pw) e-I-ßƒ F∂nhbneqsS

CXv kvIqfp-I-fn¬ XpS¿∂pw ]Tn-∏n-°s∏ńcp∂p. AXn-\m¬ _n.kn.C. 650˛¬ t]mepw, _n.kn.-C.

2000˛¬ Fgp-Xnb IyqWnt^mw e-I-ßƒ thK-Øn¬ a\- n-em-°p-hm≥ Ign-bp-am-bn-cp-∂p. Ch-

bpsS ]I¿∏p-Ifpw BZy-Ime ê-I-ßfpw FhnsS At\zjn°-W-sa∂v Akp¿_m-\n-]m-ens‚

P\-ßƒ°v Adn-bm-am-bn-cp-∂p.

Kn¬Kta-jns‚ CXn-lm-k-ßƒ t]mep≈ {][m\ {KŸ-ß-ƒ°mWv ]I¿∏pIƒ \n¿Ωn-®-

Xv. AXn¬ ]I¿sØ-gp-Øp-Im-c≥ At±-l-Øns‚ t]cpw Fgp-Xnb Znh-khpw {]kvXm-hn-®n- p≠v.

Nne- -e-I-ßƒ Akq¿_m\n]mens\°pdn-®p≈ kqN-\-tbm-Sp-IqSnbmWv Ah-km-\n-®Xv.

"Rm≥ A ¿_m-\n-]m¬, {]]-©-Øns‚ cmPm-hv, Ako-cn-b-bpsS cmPmhv, ssZhw A]mc-

-amb _p≤n sNmcn-™n-´p-≈, ]finX⁄m\-Øns‚ \nKq-V-am-b hni-Zmw-i-ßsf B¿Pn-°p-

hm≥ Ign-bp∂ Rm≥ ssZh-⁄m\sØ°pdn®v e-I-ß-fn¬ Fgp-Xn-bn-´p-≠v...... e-I-ßsf

Rm≥ ]cn-tim-[n-°p-Ibpw HØpt\m-°p-Ibpw sNbvXn´p≠v. \nt\-thbnse Fs‚ ssZh-amb

\_p-hns‚ t£{X-Ønse {KŸ-im-e-bn¬ mhn-ImetØ°mbn Fs‚ Pohn-X-Øn\pw Fs‚ BXvam-

hns‚ t£a-Øn\pw Fs‚ cmP-Iob knwlm-k-\-Øns‚ ASn-Ød {Z-ambn \ne-\n¿Øp-∂-Xn\pw

th≠n- Ah -kq£n-®ncn°p∂p.......'

{KŸ-hn-hc∏ńI D≠m-bn-cp∂p F∂Xv IqSp-X¬ {]m[m\ya¿ln-°p-∂p: Hcp IqS Smª-‰p-

Iƒ°v Hcp Ifn-a¨ te_¬ e-I-ap-≠m-hpw. AXv hmbn-°p-∂Xv C{]-Im-c-amWv; _m[ Hgn-∏n-°-

ens\°pdn-®p≈ 'n' FÆw Sm_ve-‰p-Iƒ X \m¬ Fgp-X-s∏- Xv. Akp¿_m-\n-]m-ens‚ {KŸ-im-e-

bn¬ GI-tZiw 30,000 e-I-ßfp≈ hnjbmSn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ XcwXncn®v kq£n-®n´p≈ 1000 {KŸ-

ßƒ BsI-bp-≠m-bn-cp-∂p.


Hcp BZy-Ime ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-j-I\pw!(And, an Early Archaeologist!)

sX°≥ NXp∏p {]tZiØp \n∂p≈ \t_m-s]m-em- ¿ (Nabapolassar) F∂

Bƒ _m_n-tem-Wn-bsb 625 _n.kn.C. bn¬ Ako-cn-b≥ B[n-]-Xy-Øn¬

\n∂v tamNn-∏n-®p. At±-l-Øns‚ ]n≥Km-an-Iƒ Ah-cpsS q{]tZ-i-ßƒ h¿[n-

∏n°pIbpw _m_n-tem-Wn-b-bn¬ \n¿ΩmW ]≤-Xn-Iƒ kwL-Sn-∏n-°p-Ibpw

sNbvXp. A∂p-ap-X¬, _n.kn.C. 539˛¬ Cdm-\nse A°m-an-\n-Up-Iƒ _m_n-

tem¨ Iog-S-°n-b-Xn-\p-ti-jhpw Ae-Ivkm-≠¿ _n.kn.-C. 331 ¬ _m_n-tem¨

Iog-S-°p-∂Xp hscbpw temI-Ønse {]Y-a-ÿm-\-ap≈ \K-c-am-bn-cp∂p _m_n-

tem¨. 850 slIvS-dn\p ta¬ hnkvXr-Xnbpw aq∂p-hihpw Np‰p aXn-ep-I-tfmSp

IqSn-b-Xpw, al-Ømb sIm´m-c-ßfpw t£{X-ßfpw, kn§p-d‰v (Ziggurat) As√-

¶n¬ ]Sn-s°- p≈ tKm]pchpw Bcm-[\m tI{μ-Øn-te-°p≈ {]Z-£nW ]mXbpw

D≈ \K-c-ambncp∂p CXv. Chn-SsØ hym]m-c-tI-{μ-ßƒ°v hym]-I-amb CS-]m-

Sp-Iƒ D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. AXp-t]mse Chn-SsØ KWnX imkv{X-⁄≥amcpw

tPymXn imkv{X≥⁄-amcpw Nne ]pXnb I≠p-]n-Sp-Ø-ßfpw \S-Øn.

kzX{¥ _m_n-tem-Wns‚ Ah-km-\sØ `c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-bm-bn-cp∂p

\t_m-\n-U-kv. Hcp kz]v\-Øn-eqsS Dudnse tZh≥ Xs‚ ap∂n-se-ØnbXmbpw

sXs° A‰Øv ÿnXn sNøp∂ ]pcm-X\ \K-c-Ønse Bcm-[-\-bpsS Npa-Xe

\¬Ip∂-Xn-\mbn Hcp ]ptcm-lnXsb \nb-an-°Wsa∂v At±-l-tØmSv

I¬∏n®Xmbpw At±lw Fgp-Xp-∂p. ""alm-]p-tcm-ln-X -F∂ HutZym-KnI ÿm\w

Zo¿L-Imew hnkvar-X-ambnt∏m-bn. Ah-cpsS ss\k¿Kn-I-amb kz`mh khn-ti-

j-X-Iƒ Hcn-SØpw kqNn-∏n-®n- n-√, Rm≥ Zn\w {]Xn CXp XpSsc Nn¥n-®p.......''

AXn-\p-tijw Xm≥ Hcp BZnIme cmPm-hns‚ ih-°-√-d I≠p-sh∂pw,

C∂v 1150 _n.kn.C. bmWv Ime-K-W\ sNø-s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂-Xmbv AXn\p apI-

fn¬ ]ptcm-ln-X-bpsS sImØn-h® cq]w D≠m-bn-cp∂p F∂pw At±lw ]d-bp-

∂p. AXn¬ Nn{Xo-I-cn-®n-cn-°p∂ B`-c-W-ßfpw hkv{X-ßfpw At±lw \nco-

£n-®p. CXv Xs‚ ]p{Xnsb ]utcm-lnXy B-tcm-lW NS-ßn¬ hkv{X-[m-

cWw \S-Øp-∂-Xn\v At±-lsØ klm-bn®p.

as‰mcp kμ¿ -Øn¬, A°mUv cmPm-hmb km¿Ks‚ \maw ]Xn-∏n® Hcp

XI¿∂ {]Xna \t_m-\n-U-kns‚ Bƒ°m¿ At±-l-Øns‚ ASp-°¬ sIm≠p-

h-∂p. (GI-tZiw 2370 _n.kn.C. bnemWv km¿K≥ `cn-®n-cp-∂sX∂v \ap°v

Adn-bmw). \t_m-\n-Ukpw Ipsd _p≤n-Po-hn-Ifpw hnZq-c- Ime-Ønse Cu cmPm-

hn-s\-°p-dn®v tI´n- p-≠v. {]Xn-asb \∂m-°-W-sa∂v \t_m-\n-U-\n\p tXm∂n.

‘ssZh-tØm-Sp≈ BZ-chpw cmPm-[n-Im-c-tØm-Sp≈ _lp-am-\-hpw sIm≠mWv

Rm≥ sshZ-Kv[y-ap≈ Ic-Iu-i-e°msc hnfn-°p-Ibpw XI¿°-s∏´ {]Xn-a-bpsS

Xe am‰n hbv°p-Ibpw sNbvXXv' F∂p At±lw FgpXp-∂p.

{]h¿Ø\w 4

BZy-Ime sas m-s∏m-

t -an-b≥ ]mc-º-cysØ

A ¿_m-\n-]mepw

\t_m-\n-Ukpw ]cn-

t]m-jn-∏n-®Xv F¥p-

sIm-s≠∂mWv \nßƒ

Nn¥n-°p-∂Xv?


A`ymkßƒ (Exercises)Npcp°n DØcw FgpXpI (ANSWER IN BRIEF)1. kzm`mhnI ê]pjvSntbm Db¿∂ tXmXnep≈ `t£ym¬∏mZ\tam A√mbncp∂p

BZyIme \Kch¬°cWØns‚ ImcWßfmbn \Ωƒ ]dbp∂Xv, F¥psIm≠v?

2. X∂ncn°p∂Xn¬ A\nhmcyamb Ahÿ GsX∂pw BZyIme \Kch¬°c-WØns‚ImcWßƒ GsX∂pw \KcßfpsS hf¿®bpsS eßƒ GsX√msa∂pw ]dbpI.

F) Db¿∂ D¬∏mZ\£aamb Irjn

_n) PeKXmKXwkn) ineIfpsSbpw temlßfpsSbpw A`mhwUn) sXmgn¬ hn`P\w

C) ap{ZIfpsS D]tbmKwF v) sXmgn-se-Sp-°¬ \n¿_-‘-am-°nb cmPm-°-∑m-cpsS ssk\n-I-i-‡n.

3. \mtSmSnIfmb arK]meI¿ \mKcnI PohnXØn\v ojWnbmImØXv F¥psIm≠m-

bncp∂p?

4. BZyImet£{Xw hoSpt]msebmbncp∂Xv F¥psIm≠v?

eLp D]\ymkw FgpXpI (ANSWER IN A SHORT ESSAY)5. \KcPohnXw Bcw`n®t∏mƒ ]pXpXmbn \nehn¬ h∂ ÿm]\ßfn¬ cmPmhns‚

Xm¬∏-cysØ ap≥\n¿Øn D≠m-bXv GXmWv?

6. saskms∏mtánb≥ kwkvImcsØ°pdn®v ]pcmX\ IYIfn¬ ]dbp∂Xv F¥mWv?

Ime-tcJ (TIMELINE)GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 7000 - 6000 hS-°≥ saskm-s∏m-tán-b≥ ka-X-e-ß-fn¬ Irjn-bpsS Bcw- w

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 5000 sX°≥ saskm-s∏m-tánbn¬ BZy-Im-e-t£-{X-ßƒ \n¿an-®p

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 3200 saskm-s∏m-tán-bnse BZy Ggp-Øv

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 3000 alm\-K-c-ambn Ddp°v hnI-kn-°p-∂p, sh¶e D]-IcWß-fpsS h¿[n-®p-h-cp∂D]-tbm-Kw

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 2700 - 2500 BZy-Ime cmPm-°≥am¿ ˛ sFXn-lm-knI `c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-bmb Kn¬K-tajvDƒs∏-sS.

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 2600 IyqWnt^mw en]nbpsS ]ptcmKXn

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 2400 A°mUnb≥am¿ kptacnb≥amsc am‰n Xßsf ÿm]n°p∂p

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 2370 km¿K≥, A°mUv cmPmhv

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 2000 Iyq\nt^mw FgpØvhnZy kndnb, Xp¿°n, CuPn]vXv F∂nhnSßfnte°vhym]n°p∂p. {][m\s∏´ \mKcnItI{μßfmbn amcnbpw, _m_ntemWpw DZbwsNøp∂p

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 1800 KWnX {KŸßƒ cNn°s∏´p. kptadnb≥ mj ]n∂oSv kwkmcn°s∏ń√

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 1100 Akodnb≥ cmPhwiØns‚ ÿm]\w

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 1000 Ccpºns‚ D]tbmKw

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 720 - 610 Akodnb≥ km{amPyw

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 668 - 627 A ¿_m\n]mens‚ cWw

GI-tZiw _n.kn.C. 331 AeIvkm≠¿ _m_ntem¨ IogS°p∂p

GI-tZiw kn.C. H∂mw \q‰m≠v A°mUnb≥, IyqWnt^mw F∂n-h-bpsS D]tbmKw XpScp∂p

1850 Iƒ IyqWnt^mw en]n hmbns®Sp°p∂p

I I km{am-P y-ßƒ (EMPIRES)

aq∂v `qJ-fi-ß-fnembn hym]n®v InS∂ Hcp km{amPyw(An Empire Across Three Continents)

a[y C…m-anI {]tZ-i-ßƒ [The Central Islamic Lands]

\mtSmSn km{am-Py-ßƒ (Nomadic Empires)

64 temI-N-cn-{X-Ønse {]ta-b-ßƒ

km{am-Py-ßƒ

(EMPIRES)

saskm-s∏m-t´an-bbn¬ km{am-Py-ßfpsS ÿm]-\-Øns\ XpS¿∂ph∂ c≠v kl-

{km-_vZ-ßfn¬ B {]tZiw apgp-h\pw, AXn\p ]Sn-™mdpw Ing°pw InS-°p∂

{]tZ-iØpw km{amPycq]o-I-c-W-Øn-\p≈ \nc-h[n {ia-ßƒ \S-°pIbp≠m-bn.

_n.kn.C. Bdmw \q‰m-t≠msS, Ako-dn-b≥ km{am-Py-Øns‚ `qcn-`mKw

{]tZ-i-ß-fnepw Cdm-\n-b≥Im¿ \nb-{¥Ww ÿm]n-®ncp∂p. hym]mcirwJ-e-Iƒ

Ic-am¿Khpw AXp-t]mse Xs∂ saUn-‰-td-\n-bs‚ Xoc-{]-tZ-i-ß-fnepw ]cn-]p-jvS-am-bn.

Cu am‰-ß-fpsS e-am-bp-≠mb I®-h-Sm- n-hr≤n Ing-°≥ saUn-‰-td-\n-b-

\n-se, {Ko°v \K-c-ßƒ°pw Ah-cpsS tImf-\n-Iƒ°pw {]tbm-P-\-s∏- p. Icn-¶-S-

en\v hS-°v, \mtSm-Sn-I-fp-am-bp≈ Ah-cpsS ASpØ hym]m-chpw Ah¿°v t\´w

D≠m-°n-s°m-Sp-Øp. {Kokn¬ an°-t∏mgpw, ]ucPohn-X-Øns‚ {][m\ tI{μ-ßƒ

BX≥kpw, kv]m¿´bpw t]mse-bp≈ \Kc cmjv{S-ß-fm--bn-cp-∂p. {Ko°v cmPy-ß-

fn¬ \n∂v, _n.kn.-C. \memw \q‰m≠ns‚ Ah-km-\-tØmsS amkn-tUm¨ cmPy-

Ønse c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-bmb Ae-Ivkm-≠¿ ssk\nIm{I-a-W-ß-fpsS Hcp ]c-ºc

Xs∂ Agn-®p-hn-Sp-Ibpw, hSs° B{^n-°, ]›ntajy, Cdm≥ F∂n-hn-S-ß-fnse

{]tZ-i-ßƒ Iog-S-°p-Ibpw _nbmkv \Zn hsc FØnt®-cp-Ibpw sNbvXp. AhnsS

\n∂v IqSp-X¬ Ing-t°m v apt∂-dm≥ At±-l-Øns‚ ssk\yw hnk-Ω-Xn-®p. Ae-

Ivkm-≠-dpsS ssk\yw ]n≥hm-ßn-sb-¶nepw Ipsd-b-[nIw {Ko°p-Im¿ AhnsS

XßpIbp≠m-bn.

Ae-Ivkm≠-dpsS \nb{¥W-Øn-ep≈ {]tZ-i-ß-fn-ep-S-\ofw {Ko°p-Im-cpw,

{]mtZ-inI P\-Xbpw Xß-fpsS Bi-b-ßfpw, kmwkvIm-cnI ]mc-º-cy-ßfpw ]c-

kv]cw ]¶p-h-®p. Cu {]tZiw apgp-h-\mbn {Ko°v kwkvImcw hym]n-°p-I-bpw,

(sl√-ss\-kvUv- -{Ko-°p-Imsc hnfn-®n-cp-∂Xv sle-\kv F∂m-Wv). {Ko°p`mj Cu

taJ-e-bmsI Adn-b-s∏-Sp∂ mj-bmbnØocp-Ibpw sNbvXp. Ae-Ivkm-≠-dpsS ac-

W-tØmsS km{am-Py-Øns‚ cmjv{Sob sFIyw s]mSp-∂s\ XI¿s∂-¶nepw,

GXm≠v aq∂p \q‰m-≠p-Iƒ°p tijhpw sle-\n-Ãn°v kwkvImcw Cu {]tZ-

iØv {]m[m-\y-tØmsS \ne-\n-∂n-cp-∂p. Cu {]tZ-i-Øns‚ Ncn-{X-Øn¬ Cu Ime-

L- sØ ]e-t∏mgpw 'sle-\n-ÃnIv Ime-L´w' F∂mWv ]cm-a¿in-°p-∂-Xv. F∂m¬

a‰p kwkvIm-c-ßfpw (DZm-l-c-W-ambn ]pcm-X\ Cdm-\n-b≥ km{am-Py-hp-ambn _‘-

s∏´ Cdm-\n-b≥ kwkvIm-cw) {Ko°v kwkvIm-c-Øn-s\m-∏tam AXn-e-[n-Itam Cu

{]tZ-iØns‚ kwkvIm-csØ kzm[o-\n-®n-cp∂p. Cu hkvXp-Xsb Ah-K-Wn-°p-

∂-XmWv "sle-\n-Ãn°v Ime-L´w' F∂ {]tbm-Kw.

CtX XpS¿∂p-≠mb {][m\ kw -h-ß-sf-°p-dn-®mWv Cu mKØv {]Xn]mZn-

°p-∂Xv.

sNdpsX¶nepw, kpkw-L-SnXssk\nI i‡n-bmb a[y C‰m-en-b≥ \K-c-

amb tdmw, Ae-Ivkm-≠-dns‚ km{am-PyØns‚ inYn-eo-I-c-WsØ XpS¿∂p≈

cmjv{Sob n∂-X-Iƒ apX-se-Sp-Øp-sIm≠v t\ -ßƒ D≠m-°n. CXns‚ e-ambn

hSs° B{^n-°-bnepw, Ing-°≥ saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fpw _n.kn.-C. c≠mw

\q‰m≠p apX¬ tdmans‚ \nb-{¥Ww ÿm]n-°-s∏- p. A°m-eØv tdmw Hcp dn∏-

65aq∂v `qJ-fi-ß-fn-embn hym]n®v InS∂ Hcp km{amPyw

ªnIv Bbn-cp-∂p. c-W-{Iaw Hcp k¶o¿W kwhn-[m-\-Øn-eq-sS-bp≈ Xnc-s™-Sp-

∏ns\ ASn-ÿm-\-am°n D≈-Xm-bn-cp-∂p. F∂m¬ c-W-ÿm-]-\-ß-sf-√mw P∑w,

kzØv F∂n-hbv°v {][m\yw \¬In-bn-cp∂p. kaqlw ASna k{º-Zm-b-Øn¬

\n∂v t\´ap-≠m-°nbncp-∂p. tdma≥ ssk\yw Hcn-°¬ Ae-Ivkm-≠-dpsS km{am-

Py-Øns‚ mK-ambncp∂ cmjv{S-ß-fp-am-bp≈ Hcp hym]m-c irwJe Xs∂ ÿm]n-

°p-I-bp-≠m-bn. _n.kn.-C. H∂mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ a[y-Øn¬ Hcp D∂X Ipe-Pm-X-

\mb ssk\nI Iam≥U-dmb Pqen-bkv kok-dns‚ Iogn¬ Cu "tdmam-km-{amPyw'

C∂sØ {_n -\pw, P¿Ω-\nbpw hsc hym]n®p.

eØo≥ (tdman¬ kwkm-cn-®n-cp-∂) Bbn-cp∂p km{am-Py-Øns‚ apJy-

`m-j. F∂m¬ Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ [mcmfw t]¿ {Ko°p`mj XpS¿∂pw D]--

tbm-Kn®p t]m∂p. sl√-\nIv kwkvIm-c-tØmSv tdmam-°m¿°v henb BZ-chpw

D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. _n.kn.-C. H∂mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ Ah-km\ L -Øn¬ km{am-Py-Øns‚

cmjv{Sob LS-\-bn¬ am‰-ßƒ kw -hn-®p. kn.-C. \memw \q‰m≠n¬ tIm¨Ãss-

‚≥ N{I-h¿Øn {InkvXp-aXw kzoI-cn-®-tXmsS, km{amPyw KWy-ambn {InkvXo-b-

h¬°-cn-°-s∏-Sp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

`cWkuI-cym¿Yw, kn.-C. \memw \q‰m--≠n¬ tdmam km{am-PysØ Ing-

°pw, ]Sn--™m-dp-ambn hn -Pn-®n-cp-∂p. F∂m¬, ]Sn-™m-d≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬, tdmapw,

AXn¿Øn {]tZ-i-ß-fnse tKm{X-h¿K°mcpw (tKmØp-Iƒ, hnkn-tKm-Øp-Iƒ,

hm≥U-ep-Iƒ apXemb-h¿) XΩn¬ \ne-\n-∂n-cp∂ ]ckv]-c-[m-cW XI¿∂p. Cu

[mc-W-Iƒ hym]m-cw, ssk\nI \nb-a\w, A[n-hmkw F∂nhsb kw_-‘n-°p-

tImdn¥v F∂ {Ko°v\K-c-Øns‚ Ah-in-jvS-ßƒ

km{am-Py-ßƒ


∂-Xm-bn-cp-∂p. Cu tKm{X-ßƒ tdmam-`-c-WsØ IqSp-X¬ IqSp-X¬ B{I-an-®p

XpSßn. kwL¿j-ßƒ h≥tXm-Xn¬ h¿[n-®Xpw AtXm-sSm∏w km{am-Py-Øn¬

B`y-¥c Ielßƒ s]m´n-∏p-d-s∏-´Xpw, kn.-C. A©mw \q‰m-≠n¬ km{am-Py-

Øns‚ ]Sn-™m-d≥ {]tZ-i-ßsf ]X-\-Øn-te°v \bn-®p. ap≥ km-{am-Py-Øn-\-

IØv tKm{X-ßƒ Xß-fp-tS-Xmb cmP-hw-i-ßƒ ÿm]n-®p. -k- -bpsS t{]c-WbpsS

^e-ambn kn.-C. HºXmw \q‰m-≠n¬ Nne cmPy-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Hcp hnip≤ tdmam-km-

{amPyw cq]w sIm≠p. CXv tdmam km{amPy-Øns‚ XpS¿®bmsW∂v Ah-Im-i-s∏- p.

Ggmw \q‰m-≠n\pw, ]Xn-\©mw \q‰m-≠n\pw at[y, Ing-°≥ tdmamkm{am-

Py-Øns‚ an°-hmdpw F√m q{]-tZ-i-ßfpw (tIm¨Ãm‚n-t\m-∏nƒ tI{μ-am-bp≈)

Ad_v km{amPyw ]nSn-s®-Sp-Øp. Ggmw \q‰m-≠n¬ Ckvemw aXw ÿm]n® {]hm-

N-I-\mb apl-Ω-Zns‚, Zam-kvIkv tI{μ-ambn cn® A\p-bm-bn-Itfm ]n∂oSv _mKvZ-

Zn¬ \n∂v cn® ]n≥Km-an-Itfm BWv Cu {]tZ-i-ßƒ ]nSn-s®-Sp-Ø-Xv. Cu {]tZ-

isØ {Ko°v, C…m-anIv ]mc-º-cy-ßƒ XΩn¬ KmV-amb ]c-kv]-c-_‘w ]pe¿Øn-

bn-cp-∂p. Cu {]tZ-i-Øns‚ hmWnPyirwJ-e-Ifpw, kar-≤nbpw hS-t°m v CSbP\-

X-bp-sS-bpw, hnhn[ Xp¿°n tKm{X-ß-fp-sSbpw {i≤ BI¿jn-®p. Ch¿ ]e-t∏mgpw

Cu taJ-e-bnse ]´-W-ßsf B{I-an-°p-Ibpw \nb-{¥Ww Gs‰-Sp-°p-Ibpw

sNbvXp. Cu {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ Ah-km-\-ambn B{I-aWw \S-Øp-Ibpw, Chsb \nb-

{¥-W-Øn¬ sIm≠p-h-cm≥ {ian-°p-Ibpw sNbvX-h¿ sN¶nkv Jms‚bpw At±-l-

Øns‚ ]n≥ap-d--°m-cp-sSbpw Iogn-ep≈ awtKm-fn-b-cm-Wv. ]Xn-aq∂mw \q‰m-≠n¬

Ah¿ ]›n-tajy, bqtdm∏v, at[y-jy, ssN\ F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn-te°v apt∂‰w \S-

Øn.

km{amPyÿm]-\-Øn\pw Ah \ne-\n¿Øm-\p-ap≈ F√m {ia-ßƒ°pw

]n∂n¬ Cu taJ-e-bn¬ apgp-h≥ \ne-\n-∂n-cp∂ I®-hSirwJ-e-Isf Is≠Øn

AXn-eqsS hn -h-ßsf \nb-{¥n-°pI F∂ e£yw D≠mbn-cp∂p. Cu taJ-e-b°v

Uam-kv°-knse henb

]≈n, 714 ¬ \n¿ΩmWw

]q¿Øn-bm-bn.


a‰p {]tZ-i-ß-fp-am-bn˛ C¥y, ssN\ F∂n-h-sb-t∏m-se˛ D≈ _‘-ß-fn¬ \n∂pw

t\ -ap-≠m-°pI F∂ e£yhpw D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. Cu km{am-Py-ß-sf√mw hym]m-c-

Øn\v ÿncX \¬Im-\m-bn- c-W-kw-hn-[m-\-ßƒ cq]o-I-cn-°pIbpw sNbvXp. {Iam-

\p-K-X-ambn Ah¿ hnhn[Xc-Øn-ep≈ ssk\nIkwL-mS\hpw cq]-s∏-SpØnsbSp-

Øp. Hcp km{am-Py-Øns‚ t\´-ßƒ ]e-t∏mgpw AXns‚ ]n≥Km-an-Iƒ Gs‰-Sp-

°m-dp-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. Cu {]tZ-iØv \ne-hn-ep-≠m-bn-cp∂ kwkm-c, enJnX `mj-

Iƒ°p ta¬ Ime{Ia-Øn¬ t]¿jy≥, {Ko°v, eØo≥, Ad-_nIv mj-Iƒ Xß-

fpsS kzm[o\w {]I-S-am-°n.

km{am-Py-ßƒ hfsc kpÿn-c-am-bn-cp-∂n-√. CXv mKo-I-ambpw hnhn[ {]tZ-

i-ß-fnse hn -h-ßƒ°p-th-≠n-bp≈ X¿°-ßfpw, kwL- -\-ßfpw aqe-am-bn-cp-∂p.

km{am-Py-ßfpw, hS-°≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fnse CSbP\-Xbpw XΩn-ep≈ _‘-ß-fn¬

DS-se-SpØ kwL¿j-ßfpw CXn\v Imc-W-ambn. Cu CS-b-cn¬ \n∂p-amWv km{am-

Py-ßƒ°v Ah-cpsS kpK-a-amb hym]m-c-Øn\v ]n¥pW e`n-®n-cp-∂-Xv. Ch¿ Xs∂-

bmWv ssk\y-Øn\pw, D¬∏m-Z\ Bh-iy-ßƒ°p-ap≈ sXmgn-em-fn-Isf {]Zm\w

sNbvXn-cp-∂-Xpw. F√m km{am-Py-ß-fpw \K-c-tI-{μo-Ir-X-ambn-cp∂n-s√-∂Xv {it≤b-

am-Wv. Hcp CSb P\-Xbv°v Zo¿L-Im-em-Sn-ÿm-\-Ønepw, hnP-b-I-c-ambpw Hcp

km{amPyw Fßs\ ]cn-]m-en°m\mIp-sa∂Xns‚ DØa ZrjvSm-¥-amWv sN¶nkv

Jms‚bpw, ]n≥KmanI-fp-sSbpw t\Xr-Xz-Øn-ep≈ awtKmƒ km{am-Pyw.

]e-t∏mgpw n∂- m-j-Iƒ kwkm-cn-®n-cp-∂, hyXykvX hwi-P-cmb P\-ßsf

BI¿jn® aX-ßfpw _rl-Ømb km{am-Py-ß-fpsS cq]o-I-c-W-Øn¬ kp{]-[m-\-

am-bn-Øo¿∂p. CXv {InkvXp-a-X-Øn-s‚bpw (kn.C. H∂mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ Bcw- -Øn¬

]me-kvXo-\n¬ Bcw- n-®p), C…mw aX-Øn-s‚bpw (kn.C. Ggmw \q‰m-≠n¬ Bcw-

`n-®p) Imcy-Øn¬ icn-bm-bn-cp-∂p.

km{am-Py-ßƒ

Ime-tcJ II (Timeline II)

(GI-tZiw 100 _n.kn.C. apX¬ 1300 kn.C. hsc)

(C. 100 BCE TO 1300 CE)

Cu Ime-tcJ cmPy-ß-sfbpw, km{am-Py-ß-sfbpw Ipdn®mWv Xbm-

dm-°n-bn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. CXn¬ NneXv ˛ aq∂v `qJ-fi-ß-fn-embn

hym]n®p InS∂ tdmamkm{amPyw t]mep-≈-h ˛ hfsc hep-Xm-bn-

cp-∂p. Cu Ime-L-´-Øn-emWv temI-Ønse {][m-\-s∏´ aX˛

kmwkvIm-cnI ]mc-º-cy-ß-fn¬ NneXv hnI-kn-°-s∏- -Xpw _u≤nI

{]h¿Ø-\-ß-fpsS tI{μ-ßƒ Db¿∂p h∂Xpw. {KŸ-ßƒ Fgp-

X-s∏-´-Xpw, Bi-b-ßƒ `qJ-fi-ßƒ°-∏pdw {]N-cn-®Xpw Cu

Ime-L- -Øn-em-Wv. C∂v \ΩpsS ssZ\w-Zn\ Pohn-X-Øns‚ `mK-

amb ]e Imcy-ßfpw BZy-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-®Xv Cu Ime-L-´-

Øn¬ BWv.

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XobXn B{^n° bqtdm∏v

Ing-°≥ Gjy-bn¬ \n∂p-ap≈ hmg-∏-g-ßƒ IS¬-

am¿tKW Ing-°≥ B{^n-°-bn¬ ]cn-N-b-s∏-Sp-Øn

CuPn-]vXnse cm⁄n-bmb ¢ntbm-]m{S (51-30 _n.kn.C.)

AeIvkm-¨{Un-b-bnse lotcm \ocm-hn-bn¬ {]h¿Øn-°p∂ Hcp b{¥w \n¿Ωn-°p-∂p

AeIvkm-¨{Un-b-bnse tSmfan `qan-im-kv{X-Øn¬ Hcp{KŸw cNn-°p-∂p

AIvk-an¬ {InkvXp-a-X-Øns‚ hchv * (330)

Hcp e£-tØmfw hcp∂ ASn-a-Isf kv]m¿´-°kv Iem-]-Øn-te°v \bn-®p (73 _n.kn.C.)

tdman¬ sImtfm-knbw ]Wn Ign-∏n-®p

tdma≥ km{amPyw AXns‚ D®-ÿm-bn-bn¬*

tIm¨Ãss‚-≥ N{I-h¿Øn-bm-Ip∂p, tIm¨Ãm‚n-t\m-∏nƒ \Kcw ÿm]n-°p∂p

tdmamkm{amPyw Ing°pw ]Sn-™m-dp-ambn c≠mbn hn`-Pn-

°-s∏-Sp-∂p

bqtdm-∏nse hm≥U-ep-Iƒ DØc B^n-°-bn¬ HcpcmPyw ÿm]n-°p-∂p (429)

tdma≥ km{am-Pyw, hS-°≥ bqtdm-∏n-sebpw a[y bqtdm-

∏nsebpw tKm{X-h¿K°m-cm¬ B{I-an-°-s∏-Sp-∂p

Kufnse t¢mhn-kns\ ({^m≥kv) {InkvXpaX-Øn-te°v]cn-h¿Ø\w sNøp-∂p (496)

sk‚v s_\-UnIvSv C‰-en-bn¬ Hcp B{iaw ÿm]n-°p∂p(526), sk‚v AK-Ãn≥ Cw•-≠n¬ {InkvXpaXw {]N-cn-∏n-°p∂p (596), alm-\mb {KnKdn (590) tdma≥ ItØm-en°mk`bv°v i‡-amb ASn-Ød CSp-∂p

A_nko\n-b-bn-te°v Nne ap…o-ßƒ IpSn-tb‰w \S-Øp∂p. (lnPvd˛615)

CuPn-]vXnse sX°≥ {]tZ-i-amb \p_n-b-bp-ambn ap…owAd-_n-Iƒ Hcp Icm-dn¬ H∏phbv°p-∂p (652)

_oUv, "lnÃdn Hm^v Zn Cw•ojv N¿®v B≥Uv ]o∏nƒ' F∂]pkvXIw cNn-°p-∂p

Lm\-bn¬ cmP-hw-i-Øns‚ DZ-bw {^m¶p-I-fpsS cmPm-hmb Nm¿en-sa-bv≥, ]cn-ip≤ tdma≥N{I-h¿Øn-bmbn Inco-S-[m-cWw sNbvXp (800)

Iohn-epw, \mhvtKm-tdm-Unepw BZysØ djy≥ cmPy-ßƒÿm]n-°-s∏´p

ssh°n-ßp-Iƒ ]Sn-™m-d≥ bqtdm-∏n-ep-S-\ofw IS-∂m-{I-

aWw \S-Øn

C‰-en-bnse kse¿t\m-bn¬ saUn-°¬ kvIqƒ ÿm]n-°-s∏´p (1030).

Lm\ apX¬ sX°≥ kvs]bn≥ hsc A¬tam-d-hnUv

km{amPyw (1056˛1147) hym]n-°p-∂p

hneyw Hm^v t\m¿a≠n {_n´s\ B{I-an-°p-I-bpw cmPm-hm-Ip-Ibpw sNøp-∂p (1066); BZy Ipcnip bp≤-Øns‚ {]Jym-

]\w (1095)

knw_m_vsh (1120˛1450) Zo¿L-Zqc I®-h-S-Øn-s‚bpwkz-¿-Ww, sNºv F∂n-h- sIm≠v a\p-jy-I-c-ß-fm¬ \n¿-

Ωn-°p∂ hkvXp-°-fpsS D¬∏m-Z\tI{μ-ambpw Db¿∂p-h-cp-∂p

t\mÃ¿ Umanse IØo-{U¬ \n¿ΩmWw XpS-ßp∂p (1163)

FtXym-]y-bn¬ {InkvXy≥ ]≈n-I-ƒ ÿm]n-°-s∏- p. (1200)]›n-am-{^-n°-bnse amen cmPysØ Xnw_p‡p hn⁄m\tI{μ-ambn amdn

A o-kn-bnse sk‚v {^m≥kn-kv, B¿`mScmln-Xy-Øn-epw,A\p-I-ºbv°pw Du∂¬ \¬In-sIm≠v Hcp k\ymknaTwÿm]n-°p∂p (1209); Cw•-≠n¬ {]`p-°-∑m-cpsS I-em-]sØØpS¿∂v \nb-am-\p-krXw `cn-°m-\p-ff AwKo-Imcw\¬Ip∂ am·m-Im¿´-bn¬ cmPmhv H∏p-h-bv°p-∂p

ImetcJ - II

1918 hsc Bkv{Sn-bsb cn® l]vkv_¿Kv cmP-hw-i-Øns‚ÿm]-\w


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XobXn Gjy Z£ntWjy

sN¶nkv Jms‚ t]c-°p-ń-bmb Ipssª Jm≥ ssN\-bpsS N{I-h¿Øn-bm-bn-Øo-cp-∂p

ssN\-bn¬ lm≥ km{am-Pyw, Gjy-bn¬ \n∂v bqtdm∏vhsc kn¬°v dqńs‚ hnI-k\w

hS°p ]Sn-™m-d≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ _mIv{Sn-b≥ {Ko°p-Im-cpw, imI≥amcpw cmP-hw-i-ßƒ ÿm]n-°p-∂p; U°m-\n¬ iX-hm-l-\≥am-cpsS DZbw

]›ntajy, Z£ntWjy, ]q¿tΔjy, bqtdm∏v ˛ Ch°nS-bn¬ hym]mcw hf-cp-∂p

tbip {InkvXp tdma≥ km{amPy-Ønse {]hn-iy-bmbsblq-Zy-bn¬; Atd-_y-bn¬ tdma≥ B{I-a-Ww (24)

hS°p ]Sn-™md≥ Gjy-bnepw, at[yjybnepw Ipjm\cmP-hw-i-Øns‚ ÿm]\w

ssN\-bn¬ t]∏¿ I≠p-]n-Sn®p (118); BZysØ `qI-º-am-]n\n hnI-kn-∏n-®p (132)

lm≥ km{am-Py-Øns‚ A¥yw (221); t]¿jy-bn¬ kkm-\nZv `cWw (226)

ssN\-bnse cmP-k-Z- n¬ Nmb kXvImcw (262); ssN\-bn¬ hS°p t\m°n b{¥-Øns‚ D]-tbmKw (270)

IpXnc khm-cn-°m-c≥ Im¬ Nhn-´p∂ ]Sn-bpsS D]-tbmKw ssN\-bn¬* Kp]vX*cmP-hw-iØns‚ ÿm]\w (320)

^mkn-bm≥ ssN\-bn¬ \n∂v C¥y-bn-te°v k©-cn®p(399)

tPymXnimkv{X-⁄-\pw, KWnXmNm-cy-\p-am-bn-cp∂ Bcy-`-´≥

P∏m-\n¬ _p≤ aX-Øns‚ hchv (594); ssN\-bn¬ 34h¿jw sIm≠v A©v e£w sXmgn-em-fn -Iƒ [m\ywsIm≠p t]mIm≥ _rl-Ømb Pe-]mX \n¿Ωn -®p.(584˛618)

_Zm-anbnepw, sFtlm-fnepw NmeqIy t£{X-ßƒ

ssN\-bn¬ SmMv cmP-hwiw (618); {]hm-N-I-\mb apl-ΩZv aZo -\-bn -te°v t]mIp∂p; lnPnd h¿j-Øns‚Bcw`w (622); kkm-\n-b≥ km{am-Py-Øns‚ XI¿®(642)

kphm≥ kmMv ssN\-bn¬ \n∂v C¥y-bn-te°v k©-cn®p;\fμ Hcp {][m\ hnZym-`ymk tI{μ-ambn Db¿∂p hcp-∂p

Da-øZv Jeo^m `cWw (661˛750)

Da-ø-Zp-I-fpsS Hcp imJ kvs]bn≥ B{I-an®v Iog-S-°p-∂p; ssN\-bn¬ SmMv cmP-hw-iw ÿm]n-X-am-bn

Ad-_n-I-fpsS kn‘v B{I-aWw (712)

A∫m-knUv Jmen-t^‰v ÿm]n-°-s∏´p. _mKvZmZv Hcp{][m\ kmwkvIm-cnI, hmWnPy tI{μ-ambn amdp-∂p

Iwt_m-Un-b-bn¬ Ja¿ cmPyw ÿm]n-X-ambn (802)

ssN\-bn¬ BZysØ A®Sn {KŸw (868)

ssN\-bn¬ Id≥kn t\m´p-I-fpsS D]-tbm-Kw

t]¿jy≥ `nj-Kz-c-\mb C_n≥- kn-\, At±-l-Øn\ptijhpw \q‰m-≠p-Iƒ ]n≥Xp-S¿∂ Hcp sshZyimkv{X{KŸw cNn-°p-∂p

hS°p ]Sn-™m-d≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ al-ΩqZv Kkv\n-bpsSan∂-em-{I-aWw; A¬_dqWn C¥y-bnseØn-t®¿∂p; cmP-cm-tP-izct£{Xw X©m-hq-cn¬ ]Wn-I-gn-∏n-®p

A¬]v A¿k-e≥ Xp¿°n kmamPyw ÿm]n-°p∂p(1075)

tcJ-s∏-Sp-Ø-s∏´ BZy Icnacp∂v (shSnacp-∂v) {]tbm-K-Øns‚ {]Z¿i\w, ssN\-bn¬

Iwt_m-Un-b-bnse At¶m¿ km{amPyw AXns‚ D®ÿmbn-bn¬ (1180), At¶m¿ hmńse t£{X kap-®-bw

I¬JW cmP-X-cw-KnWn cNn-®p

sN¶nkv Jm≥ A[n-Imcw GIo-I-cn-°p∂p (1206) U¬ln kp¬Øm-t\‰v ÿm]n®p (1206)

Aao¿Jp-{kp (1253˛1325), kwKo-Xhpw*, Imhyhpw ]pXnbcq-]-ßfn¬ Bhn-jv°-cn®p; sImWm¿°nse kqcy-t£-{Xw


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{]h¿Ø-\w

`qJ-fi-ßƒ°pw {]tZ-

i-ßƒ°pw IpdpsI

P\-ßƒ \S-Øp∂

{]bm-W-ßƒ Dƒs∏´

A©v kw`h-ßƒ/

{]{In-- b-Iƒ Is≠X-

Øp-I. Cu kw`-h-ß-

fpSsS/{]{In-b-I-fpsS

{]m[m\yw F¥m --b ncp-

∂n-cn-°mw?

XobXn Atacn°Iƒ Bkvt{S-enb/]k- nIv Zzo]p-Iƒ

saIvkn -tIm-bn¬ sStbm-Xn -lm-Im≥ F∂\Kccmjv{Sw ÿm]n-X-am-bn. ChnsS amb≥ Bcm-[\m tI{μ-ßfmb ]ncn-anUv t£{X-ßƒ ÿnXn-sN-øp∂p,* tPymXn»mkv{Xw, Nn{X en]n* F∂n-h-bpsS hnIm-kw

hSt° Atacn -°-bn¬ BZysØ \Kcw

\n¿Ωn°-s∏-Sp-∂p (GI-tZiw 990)

t]mfn-t\-jy≥ Zzo]v kaq-l-ß-fn¬ a[p-c-°n-gßv

(D¬`hw Z£n-Wm-{^n-°-bn¬ \n∂v) Irjn sNøp-∂p

t]mfn-t\-jy-bn¬ \n∂p-ff atbmdn \mhn-I≥ \yqkn-

em≥Uv Is≠-Øp-∂p

ImetcJ - II


(AN EMPIRE ACROSS THREE CONTINENTS)

C∂sØ bqtdm-∏ns‚ qcn- mKw {]tZ-iØpw, s^¿ss´¬ s{Isk‚ v F∂-dn-b-s∏-

Sp∂ {]tZi-ßfnepw, hSs° B{^n-°≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn-ep-ambn hym]n-®p-In-S∂ km{am-

Py-amWv tdma≥ km{am-Pyw. GsXms° hgn-I-fn-eq-sS-bmWv km{amPyw kpkw-L-

Sn-X-am-bsX∂pw, AXns‚ hn[n \n¿W-bn® cmjv{Sob i‡n-Iƒ GsXm-s°-sb∂pw,

P\-ßƒ°nS-bnse kmaq-lnI hn`m-K-ßsf-°p-dn®pw Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬ \ap°v

N¿® sNømw. km{amPyw hyXykvX {]mtZ-inI kwkvIm-c-ß-sfbpw, mj-I-sfbpw

Dƒs°m-≠n-cp∂p F∂v ImWmw. C∂v ]e cmPy-ß-fnepw D≈-Xn-t\-°mƒ°qSp-

X¬ kv{XoIƒ°v i‡-amb \nb-a-]-cn-c-£-bp--≠m-bn-cp∂p. hen-sbmcp hn`mKw P\-

ßƒ°v kzmX{¥yw \ntj-[n-®p-sIm≠v ASn-a-th-e-bpsS _e-Øn-emWv kºZv

hyhÿ \ne-\n∂p t]m∂Xv. A©mw \q‰m≠v apX¬ ]Sn-™m-d≥ tdma≥

km{amPyw \mtim-∑p-J-am-sb-¶nepw, Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ km{amPyw {Z-ambpw,

Akm-[-mc-W-amwhn[w kº¬ kar-≤-am-bpw \ne-sIm≠p. Cu kº¬k-ar-≤n-bn-

epw, AXns‚ \mK-cn-I-hpw, aX-]-c-hp-amb ]mc-º-cy-Ønepw cq]-s∏´ Jeo^m c-

W-sØ-°p-dn-®mWv \nßƒ ASpØ A[ym-b-Øn¬ ]Tn-°m≥ t]mIp-∂-Xv.

Ncn-{X- c-N-\-bv°mbn tdmans‚ Ncn-{X-Im-c-∑m¿°v [mcmfw t{kmX- p-Iƒ D≠m-bn-

cp-∂p, Ahsb \ap°v aq∂v hn`m-K-ß-fmbn Xncn-°mw: (a) Ir-Xn-Iƒ (b) {]am-W-

ßƒ (c) uXn-Im-h-in-jvS-ßƒ. IrXn-Iƒ F∂ -t{km-X- p-I-fn¬ Dƒs∏- n-cp-∂-Xv,

ka-Im-enI Ncn-{X-Im-c-∑m-cpsS cN-\-Iƒ, (Ahsb A\m¬kv F∂mWv hnfn-®n-cp-

∂-Xv, ImcWw AXnse hnh-c-W-ßƒ Hmtcm h¿j-sØbpw ASn-ÿm-\-am-°n-bm-

Wv) IØp-Iƒ, {]kw-K-ßƒ, {]`m-j-W-ßƒ, \nb-a-ßƒ XpS-ßn-b-h-bm-bn-cp-∂p.

{]amW t{kmX- p-I-fn¬ Dƒs∏-´n-cp-∂Xv {][m-\-ambpw ine-bn¬ sImØn-sb-Sp-

Øn-cp∂ enJn-X-ßfpw ]m∏n-dkv Npcp-fnse enJn-X-ß-fp-amWv. enJn-X-ßƒ km[m-

c-W-bmbn ine-bn¬ sImØn-sb-Sp°s∏- -h-bm-bn-cp-∂p. AXn-\m¬Øs∂ {Ko°v,

eØo≥ mj-I-fn-ep-ff enJn-X-ßƒ [mcmfw C∂pw \ne-\n-¬°p-∂p. Cud t]mse-

bp-ff Hcp sNSn-bmb ]m∏n-dkv CuPn-]vXnse ss\¬ \Zn-bpsS XocØv hf¿∂n-cp-

∂p. \nXy Pohn-X-Øn¬ FgpØvkma-{Kn-bmbn kwkv°-cn-s®-SpØ ]m∏n-dkv Npcp-

fp-Iƒ hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-®n-cp-∂p. Bbn-c-°-W-°n\v Icm-dp-Iƒ, IW-°p-I-

ƒ, IØp-Iƒ, HutZym-KnI {]am-W-ßƒ F∂nh Fgp-Xnb ]m∏n-dkv Npcp-fp-Iƒ

]fin-X≥am¿ Is≠Øn {]kn-≤o-I-cn-®n-´p-≠v, Chsc “]m∏n-tdm-f-Pn-Ãp-Iƒ”(papyrologists) F∂v hnfn-®n-cp-∂p. J\\w \S-Ønb (J\-\-Øn-eq-sSbpw, o¬Uv

k¿sΔbneq-sSbpw)- ]p-cm-h-kvXp-°-fmWv uXn-Im-h-in-jvS-ß-fn¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-∂-Xv. DZm-

l-c-W-ambn sI´n-S-ßƒ, kvamc-I-ßƒ, a‰p \n¿ΩnXn-Iƒ, Ifn-a¨ ]m{X-ßƒ,

\mW-b-ßƒ, samssk-°v, Nne-t∏mƒ apgp-h≥ q{]-Ir-Xnbpw (Gcn-b¬ t^mt´m-

{Km^n hgn-sb-Sp-Ø-Xv) uXn-Im-h-in-jvS-ß-fn¬ Dƒs∏- n-cp-∂p. Hmtcm t{kmX p-w

`qX-Im-e-sØ-°p-dn®v hnhcw \¬Ip-∂p. Chsb ka-\z-bn-∏n®v e-h-Ømb {]bXv\-

Øn-eqsS bYm¿Y Ncn{Xw krjvSn-°pI F∂Xv Ncn-{X-Im-c-cpsS Ign-hp-Isf B{i-

bn-®n-cn-°pw.

]m∏n-dkv Npcp-fp-Iƒ

3{]tabw aq∂v `qJ-fi-ß-fn-embn hym]n®v

InS∂ Hcp km{amPyw


{InkvXp-hns‚ P\\w apX¬ Ggmw \q‰m-≠ns‚ {]mcw-`-Im-e-L´w hsc

(GI-tZiw 630 hsc) bqtdm-∏n-s‚bpw, hSs° B{^n-°-bp-sSbpw, at[yjy-bp-sSbpw

`qcn- mKw {]tZ-i-ßfpw cn-®n-cp-∂Xv c≠v {]_e km{am-Py-ßfm-Wv. tdma≥ km{am-

Py-hpw, Cdm≥ km{am-Py-hp-am-bn-cp∂p Ch. ]c-kv]c sshcn-I-fm-bn-cp∂ tdmam-°m-

cpw, Cdm≥Imcpw Xß-fpsS Ncn-{X-Øn¬ Gdnb ]¶pw \nc-¥cw t]mcm-Sn-bn-cp-∂p.

ASp-Ø-SpØv ÿnXn-sN-bvXn-cp∂ Cu km{am-Py-ßsf th¿Xn-cn-®n-cp-∂Xv bq{^-

´okv \Zn°v kam-¥-c-amb CSp-ßnb {]tZ-i-am-Wv. tdmam Ncn-{XsØ

t\m°n°mWp∂ Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬ Ah-cpsS Nnc-ssh-cn-I-fmb Cdm-s\-bpw ]cm-

a¿in-°p-∂p.

]Sn-™mdv kvs]bn≥ apX¬ Ing°v kndn-b- hsc hym]n®v InS-°p∂ Hcp

kap{Zw, qJ-fi-ß-fmb bqtdm-∏n-s\-bpw B{^n-°-sbbpw th¿Xn-cn-°p-∂Xv q]-S-

Øn¬ t\m°n -bm¬ \nßƒ°v ImWm≥ Ign -bpw. saUn -‰ -td\n -b≥

(Mediterranean) F∂v t]cp≈ Cu kap{Zw, tdmam km{amPyØns‚ lrZbw F∂-

dn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. saUn-‰-td-\n-b-\p-ta¬ B[n-]-Xy-ap-≠m-bn-cp∂ tdman\v, kap-{Z-Øns‚`q]Sw 1: bqtdm-∏pw

hSt° B{^n°bpw

hS-°v, sX°v Zni-I-fnse apgp-h≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fpsS taepw ta[m-hnXzw D≠m-bn-cp-

∂p. hS°v ssd≥, Um\yq_v \Zn-Ifpw, sX°v hnim-e-amb klmd acp- q-anbpamWvkm{am-Py-Øns‚ AXn-cp-Iƒ Xo¿Øn-cp-∂-Xv. Cu hnim-e-amb q{]-tZ-i-amWv tdma≥km{amPyw F∂-dn-b-s∏- n-cp-∂-Xv. Imkv]n-b≥ kap-{Z-Øns‚ sX°p apX¬ Ingt°

Atd-_y-h-sc-bp-ff apgp-h≥ {]tZ-i-hpw, Nne-t∏m-sgms° A vKm-\n-ÿms‚ hen-sbmcp mKhpw Cdms‚ \nb-{¥-W-Øn-em-bn-cp-∂p. temI-Øns‚ Gdnb mK-hpw,Cu h≥i-‡n-Iƒ hoXn-s®-Sp-Øp. Cu {]tZ-isØ s]mXpth ‘]Sn-™mdv’ F∂

A¿Y-Øn¬ ‘SmNn≥’ (Ta Ch’ in) AYhm t{K‰¿ Nn≥ (‘greater Ch’in’) F∂mWv

ssN\-°m¿ hnfn-®n-cp-∂Xv.


BZy-Ime km{amP yw (The Early Empire)kn.C. aq∂mw \q‰m-≠nse Ncn-{X-kw- h-ßfpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ tdma≥ km{am-

PysØ c≠p L -ß-fmbn Xncn-°mw B-Zy-Ime tdma≥ km{am-Pyhpw, ]nev°me

tdma≥ km{am-Py-hpw. as‰m-c¿Y-Øn¬ ]d-™m¬ kn. C. aq∂mw \q‰m≠p hsc-bp-

ff Ime-L-´sØ BZy-Ime km{am-Py-sa-∂pw, AXn-\p-ti-j-ap-ff L´sØ

]n¬°me km{amPyw F∂pw hnfn-°p-∂p.

tdma≥ km{am-Py-Øn\v Cdm-\n-ep-f-f-Xn-s\-°mƒ IqSp-X¬ kmwkv°m-cnI

sshhn[yw D≠m-bn-cp∂p F∂-XmWv Cu h≥i-‡n-Iƒ XΩn-ep-ff {][m\ hyXym-

kw. Cu Ime-L- -Øn¬ Cdm≥ cn-® ]m¿Yn-b-∑m-cpw, ]n¬°meØv kkm-\n-b≥am-

cpw, P\-kw-Jy-bn¬ qcn-]-£-amb Cdm-\n-b≥ h¿K°m-sc-bmWv cn-®-Xv. CXn\v

hncp-≤-ambn Hcp s]mXp- cW k{º-Zm-b-Øns‚ Iogn¬ hyXykvX {]tZ-i-ßfpw

kwkv°m-c-ßfpw ka-\z-bn-°-s∏´ c-W-co-Xn-bm-bn-cp∂p tdmam km{am-Py-Øn-t‚-

Xv. km{am-Py-Øn¬ ]e mj-Iƒ kwkm-cn-®n-cp-s∂-¶nepw {Ko°pw, eØo\pw am{X-

am-bn-cp∂p `c-W-Øn-\mbn hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°-s∏-´n-cp-∂-Xv. Ing°p `mK-

Øp-ff D]-cn-h¿K-°m¿ {Ko°v mj-bn-epw, ]Sn-™m-dp-f-f-h¿ eØo≥ mj-bnepw

Bi-b-hn-\n-abw \S-Øn-bn-cp-∂p. eØo≥ kwkm-cn-®n-cp∂ {Snt∏m-fn-‰m-\nbbnse

B{^n-°≥ {]hn-iy-Iƒ°pw, {Ko°v kwkm-cn-®n-cp∂ ssktd-\n-°bv°pw CS-bn¬

saUn-‰-td-\n-bs‚ \Sp-hn¬ Fhn-sStbm Bbn-cp∂p Cu c≠p mjm-{]-tZ-i-ßƒ

XΩn-ep≈ AXn¿ hc-ºv. tdmam km{am-Py-Øn¬ Pohn-®n-cp∂ P\-ßƒ tZi ˛

`mjm hyXym-k-ßƒ°-Xo-X-ambn Hcp GI c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-bpsS {]P-I-fm-bn-cp-∂p.

tdmam km{am-Py-Ønse BZy N{I-h¿Øn AK-Ãkv (27 _n.kn.C.)

ÿm]n® cWw ‘{]n≥kn-t∏‰v’ (Principate) F∂-dn-b-s∏- p. tdmam km{am-Py-Ønse

GI- -c-Wm-[n-Im-cnbpw bYm¿Y A[n-Imc tI{μhpw AK-Ãkv Bbn-cp-s∂-¶n-epw,

At±lw GIm-[n-]Xn A√m-bn-cp-s∂∂pw, "\mbI ]uc≥' ('leading citizen');AYhm eØo≥ mj-bn¬ {]n≥sk]vkv am{X-am-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂pw Hcp [mcW kPo-

h-am-bn-cp-∂p. tdmw dn∏-ªn-°m*-bn-cp∂ Imew apX¬ tdmans\ \nb-{¥n-®n-cp∂ sk\-

‰n-t\m-Sp-ff BZ-chpsIm≠mWv Aßs\ sNbvXn-cp-∂Xv. \q‰m-≠p-I-fmbn tdman¬

\ne-\n-∂n-cp∂ sk\‰v tdma≥ (]n∂oSv C‰m-en-b≥) hwi-P-cmb G‰hpw kº-∂-

cmb `qhp-S-a-Isf {]Xn-\n-[m\w sNøp∂ kan-Xn-bm-bmWv \ne-sIm-≠n-cp-∂-Xv.

{Ko°nepw, eØo-\nepw \ne-\n-¬°p∂ tdma≥ Ncn-{X-Øns‚ qcn- mKhpw Fgp-Xn-

bn-cn-°p-∂Xv sk\-‰ns‚ ]›m-Ø-e-ap-f-f-h-cm-Wv. CXn¬ \n∂pw hy‡-am-Ip-∂Xv

sk\-‰n-t\m-Sp-ff s]cp-am-‰-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn-emWv N{I-h¿Øn-am¿ hne-bn-cp-

Ø-s∏-´n-cp-∂Xv F∂m-Wv. sk\-‰n-t\mSv i{Xp-Xbpw, kwibhpw AXn-{I-ahpw

ImWn® N{I-h¿Øn-am-sc√mw G‰hpw tami-°m-cmbn Adn-b-s∏-´p. ]e sk\-

‰¿amcpw ]gb dn∏-ªn-°≥ Ime-L-´-Øn-te°v XncnsI t]mI-W-sa-∂m-{K-ln-s®-

¶nepw, AXv km[y-a-s√∂v qcn- mKw t]cpw Xncn-®-dn-™ncn-°mw.

N{I-h¿Ønbpw, sk\‰pw Ign-™m¬ cmP-Iob `c-W-Ønse {]apJ -

ÿm\w ssk\y-Øn-\m-bn-cp-∂p. \n¿_-‘n-X-am-bmWv ** Xß-fpsS FXn-cm-fn-bmb

t]¿jy≥ km{am-Py-Øn¬ ssk\n-Isc \nb-an-®n-cp-∂-sX-¶n¬ AXn¬ \n∂v hyXy-

kvX-ambn Npcp-ßn-bXv Ccp-]-Øn-b©v h¿j-sa-¶nepw tkh\w A\p-jvTn-t°≠n-

bn-cp-∂Xpw thX\w ssI∏-‰p-∂-Xp-amb s{]m -j-W¬ ssk\y-a-mbn-cp-∂p tdman-

t‚Xv. Xo¿®-bmbpw Cu thX\w ]‰p∂ ]´m-f-Øns‚ km\n[yw tdma≥ km{am-Py-

Øns‚ thdn´ khn-ti-j-X-bmWv. km{am-Py-Ønse G‰hpw henb kwL-SnX i‡n

*bYm¿Y A[n-Imcw

sk\-‰n¬ \n£n-]vX-amb

Hcp `c-W-kw-hn-[m-\-am-bn-

cp∂p dn∏-ªn-°v. sk\-‰n¬

B[n-]Xyw ÿm]n-®Xv

Hcp sNdnb hn`mKw

kº∂ IpSpw-_-ß-fm-Wv.

Ch¿ {]`p-h¿Kw F∂-dn-b-

s∏-Sp-∂p. {]mtbm-Kn-I-ambn

dn∏-ªn°v {]Xn-\n-[m\w

sNøp-∂Xv sk\-‰n-eqsS

\n¿h-ln-°-s∏-Sp∂ {]`p-

h¿K-Øns‚ c-W-sØ-bm-

Wv. _n.kn.C. 509 apX¬

_n.kn.C. 27 hsc \ne-\n-

∂ncp∂ dn∏-ªn-°≥

`cWsØ IS-]p-g-°n-

sb-dn-™Xv Pqen-bkv

kok-dns‚ ZØp-]p-{X-\pw,

A\-¥-cm-h-Im-in-bp-amb

HIvtS-hnb\m-Wv.

HIvtS-hn-b≥ ]n¬°m-eØv

AK-Ãkv F∂ t]cv

kzoI-cn-°p-I-bp-≠m-bn.

sk\-‰nse AwKXzw

BPo-h-\m-¥-am-bn-cp-∂p.

]Z-hn-bpw, kº-Øp-am-bn-

cp∂p P\-\-sØ-°mƒ

{][m-\-ambn ]cn-K-Wn-

®n-cp-∂-Xv.

**P\-ßsf _e-ambn

ssk\y-Øn¬ tN¿Øp-

≠m-°p∂ tk\-bmWv

\n¿_-‘nX tk\. kaq-

l-Ønse Nne hn`m-K-

ßƒ°v ssk\nI

tkh\w \n¿_-‘n-X-am-

bn-cp-∂p.


F∂v hnti-jn-∏n-°m-hp∂ kpkw-L-Sn-X-amb Cu

ssk\y-Øn\v (\memw \q‰m-≠n¬ Bdv e£w t]¿)

N{I-h¿Øn-am-cpsS hn[n \n¿W-bn-°m-\p-ff i‡n-

t]mepw D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. Xß-fpsS tkh-\- -th-X\

hyh-ÿ-Iƒ sa®-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xn\pth≠n-bp-ff

{]t£m-`-ßƒ CS-bv°nsS ssk\n-I¿ \S-Øn-bn-

cp-∂p. Xß-fpsS Bhiyw P\-d¬am-tcm, N{I-

h¿Øn-X-s∂tbm \ncm-I-cn-°p-tºmƒ Nne Ah-k-

c-ß-fn¬ Ah¿ ssk\nI Imem-]-Øn\v apXn¿∂n-

´p-≠v. sk\-‰n-t\mSv aa-X-bp-ff Ncn-{X-Im-c-∑m-cpsS

cN-\-I-fn¬ \n∂mWv ]e-t∏mgpw tdma≥ ssk\y-

sØ-°p-dn®v \ap°v Adn-bm≥ Ign-bp-∂-Xv F∂v

]d-tb-≠-Xp≠v. {]h-N-\m-Xo-X-amb AXn{I-a-ß-

fpsS Dd-hn-S-am-bn-cp∂ ssk\ysØ ]e-t∏mgpw

sk\‰v shdp-°p--Ibpw `b-s∏-Sp-Ibpw sNbvXp,

{]tXy-In®v h¿[n-®p- h-cp∂ ssk\nIs®e-hp-Iƒ

t\cn-Sp-∂-Xn-\mbn c-W-IqSw A[nI \nIpXn Npa-

Øm≥ \n¿_-‘n-X-amb aq∂mw \q‰m-≠n¬.

Npcp-°-Øn¬, N{I-h¿Øn, {]`p-h¿Kw, ssk\yw F∂n-h-cm-bn-cp∂p km{am-

Py-Øns‚ cmjv{Sob Ncn-{X-Ønse aq∂v {][m-\n-Iƒ. ssk\ysØ F{X-I≠v

\nb-{¥n-°m≥ km[n-®n-cp∂p F∂-Xns\ B{i-bn-®mWv Hmtcm N{I-h¿Øn-bp-sSbpw

hnP-bw. ssk\yw n-∂n-°-s∏-´-t∏m-sgms° AXns‚ ew B`y-¥c bp≤-ß-fm-

bn-cp-∂p.* \mev N{I-h¿Øn-am¿ H∂n\p ]pdtI H∂mbn A[n-Im-c-Ønte-dnb

kn.C. 69 F∂ Ip{]-kn≤ h¿jw am‰n \n¿Øn-bm¬, BZy c≠v \q‰m-≠p-Ifpw

s]mXpsh B`y-¥c bp≤-ßfn¬ \n∂v kzX-{¥hpw B A¿Y-Øn¬ kpÿn-c-

amb Ah-ÿ-bn-ep-am-bn-cp-∂p. IpSpw_ ]n≥Xp-S¿®-tbm, ZØ-h-Im-itam Bbn-cp∂p

A[n-Im-c-ssI-am-‰-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\w. ssk\yw t]mepw CXns\ ]n¥p-W-®n-cp-

∂p. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v c≠m-asØ tdma≥ N{I-h¿Øn-bm-bn-cp∂ ssS_o-cn-b-kv

(kn.C. 14˛37), {]n≥kn-t∏-‰ns‚ ÿm]-I-\mb AK-Ã-kns‚ kz¥w ]p{X-\m-bn-cp-

∂n√ adn®v ZØp]p{X\m-bn-cp-∂p. kpXm-cy-amb A[n-Imcss°am-‰w Dd-∏n-°m-\m-

bn-cp∂p AK-Ã-kns‚ Cu ZsØ-Sp-°¬.

BZy c≠v \q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬ sshtZ-inIm{I-a-W-ßƒ \t∂ Ipd-hm-bn-cp-∂p.

ssS_o-cn-b- n\v AK-Ãkv N{I-h¿Øn-bn¬ \n∂v ss]Xr-I-ambn In´nb km{amPyw

AXoh hnkvXr-X-am-bn-cp-∂-Xn-\m¬, ho≠pw km{amPyhym]-\-Øns‚ Bh-iy-I-

X-bn-√m-bn-cp-∂p. kXy-Øn¬ ]Xn-‰m-≠p-I-fmbn \S∂ B`y-¥c Ie-l-ßƒ°pw,

\q‰m-≠p-Iƒ \o≠ B{I-a-W-ßƒ°pw tijw ssIh∂ kam-[m-\-Øns‚ t]cn-

emWv ‘AK-Ãkv bpKw’ kvacn-°-s∏-Sp-∂Xv. bq{ - okv \Zn-I-S-∂p-ff {SmPs‚ hn -

e-amb B{I-a-W-am-bn-cp∂p BZy-Ime km{am-Py-Øns‚ Ime-L- -Øn-ep-≠m-b Htc-

sbmcp {][m\ B{I-a-Ww, kn.C. 113˛117 ImeØv At±-l-Øns‚ ]n≥Km-an-Iƒ

Cu DZyaw Dt]-£n-°pIbpw sNbvXp.

*Hcp cmPy-Øn-\p-f-fn¬

A[n-Im-c-Øn\p th≠n

]c-kv]cw \S-Øp∂

kmbp[ t]mcm´-ß-

sfbmWv B`y-¥c bp≤w

F∂Xv sIm≠v hnh-£n-

°p-∂-Xv. cmPy-ßƒ XΩn-

ep≈ bp≤-ß-fn¬ \n∂v

hyXy-kvX-am-Wn-Xv.

tdmanse t^mdw Pqen-b-

Ønse IS-Iƒ : _n.kn.C.

51 ¬ XqWp-I-tfm-Sp-Iq-Snb

Cu hym]mcNXzcw ]Wn-I-

g n -∏n -®Xv ]gb tdma≥

t^mdw hnI-kn -∏n -°m≥

th≠n-bm-Wv.


kp{]-[m-\-amb Hcp khn-ti-jX tdmans‚ t\cn- p-ff c-W-Øns‚ {Ita-

W-bp-ff hym]-\-am-Wv. Ht´sd B{in-X-cm-Py-ß-sf tdma≥ {]hn-iy-I-fnte°v ebn-

∏n-®mWv CXv ]q¿Øo-I-cn-®-Xv. Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-Øpw, bq{^-ókv \Zn-bpsS ]Sn-

™mdp `mK-Øp-ap-ff At\Iw cmPy-ßƒ * c≠mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ BZy Ime-L-´-

Øn¬ tdman-t\mSv Iqńt®¿°-s∏ v A{]-Xy-£-ambn. (kmμ¿`n-I-ambn CXn¬ Nne

cmjv{S-ßƒ AXn-c‰ kº-Øn\v DS-a-I-fm-bncp∂p. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v sltdm-Zns‚

cmPyw {]Xn-h¿jw 5.4 Zi-e£w Zn\m-dn°v Xpey-amb BZm-bap≠m-°nbncp∂p.

CXv 125000 Intem kz¿W-Øn\v Xpey-am-bn-cp-∂p. Zn\m-dn-bkv F∂Xv 4 12 {Kmw ip≤

sh≈n-b-S-ßnb tdma≥ \mW-b-am-bn-cp-∂p).

bYm¿Y-Øn¬ Cu Ime-L- -Øn¬ {]hn-iy-bm-bn IW°m°m-Xn-cp∂ C‰en

Hgn®v _m°n-bp-ff {]tZ-i-ßƒ F√mw Xs∂ {]hn-iy-I-fmbn (provinces) kwL-Sn-

∏n-°s∏´p, Ah \nIpXn°v hnt[-b-am-hp-Ibpw sNbvXp. c≠mw \q‰m-t≠msS hnkvXr-

Xn-bpsS D®-ÿm-bnemb tdmamkm{amPyw, kvtIm ve≠p apX¬ A¿ao-\n-b-mbpsS

AXn¿Øn-Iƒ hsc-bpw, klmd apX¬ bq{ - okv hscbpw, Nne Ah-k-c-ß-fn¬

AXn-\-∏p-d-tØ-°p-w hym]n-®p. Imcy-ßƒ kpK-a-ambn apt∂m´v \bn-°p∂ B[p-

\nI A¿Y-Øn-ep-ff Hcp `c-W-{Iaw C√m-Xn-cp-∂n´pw, c≠mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ a[y--

Øn¬ AXnhn]pehpw, sshhn-[y-am¿∂ At\Iw {]tZ-i-ßƒ Df-f-Xp-amb, 60 Zi-

e£w P\-ß-fp≈ tdmam-km-{am-PysØ \nb-{¥n-°m\pw cn-°m\pw N{I-h¿Øn°v

Ign-™-sX-ßs-\-bm-sW∂v \nßƒ tNmZn°pw. AXn-\p-ff DØcw km{am-Py-Øns‚

\K-c-h¬°-c-W-am-Wv.

saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ Xoc-ß-fnse

(Im¿ -tØPv, Ae-Ivkm -≥{Unb,

At¥ymIy) alm \Kc tI{μ-ß-fm-bn-

cp∂p bYm¿Y-Øn¬ km{amPy -hy-h-

ÿnXnbpsS Dd® ASn-Ø-d. km{amPy-

Øns‚ kº-Øn¬ Gdnb ]¶pw D¬∏m-

Zn-∏n-®n-cp∂ {]hn-iy-I-fpsS ta¬ \nIpXn

Npa-Øn-bn-cp-∂Xv Cu \K-c-tI-{μ-ßƒ

hgn-bm-bn-cp∂p. CXv A¿Y-am-°p-∂Xv

{]hn-iy-I-fnse D]-cn-h¿Kßƒ Xß-

fpsS {]tZ-i-ß-fnse cWw Imcy-£-a-

am-°p-∂Xn\pw \nIpXn ]ncn-°p-∂-

Xn\pambn tdma≥ `c-W-Iq-S-hp-ambn

{SmP≥ N{I-h¿Øn-bpsS kz]v\w C¥ysb Iog-S-°¬?

(The Emperor Trajan’s Dream - A conquest of India)

"Hcp `qI-º-Øm¬ kvacn-°-s∏-Sp∂ At¥ym-Iybnse ssiXy-Im-eØv (115/16),

116 ¬ {SmP≥ bq{^-ókv hgn ]m¿Yn-b≥ Xe-ÿm-\-amb sSkn-t^m-Wn-te°v apt∂-

dp-Ibpw, t]¿jy≥ Kƒ^ns‚ ap\-ºn¬ FØn-t®-cp-Ibpw sNbvXp. Xm≥ Ae-Ivkm-

≠-sd-t∏mse sNdp-∏-am-bn-cp-s∂-¶n¬ F∂p tamln-®p-sIm≠v, C¥y-bn-te°p ]pd-

s∏-Sm≥ Hcp-ßp∂ Hcp hym]mc°∏-ens\ At±lw Bim-]q¿hw t\m°n \n∂-

Xmbn (Ncn-{X-Im-c-\m-b) Imjykv Zntbm hnh-cn-°p-∂p.'

˛ s^¿Kqkv an√¿, Zn tdma≥ \nb¿ CuÃv.

*tdmans‚ CS-]m-Sp-Im-cmb

(clients) {]mtZ-inI cmP-hw-

i-ß-fm-Wn-h. bp≤ka-b-

ßfn¬ Xß-fpsS tk\sb

tdman\p th≠n hn´p-sIm-Sp-

Øn-cp∂ Ch¿°v, ]Icw

cmPy-ß-fmbn \ne\n¬°p-

∂-Xn-\p-ff kzmX{¥yw

tdmw A\p-h-Zn-®n-cp-∂p.

kao] ]uckvXyw

(The Near East) tdma≥

saUn-‰-td-\n-b\n¬

Pohn-®n-cp-∂ Bcp-

sStbm ImgvN-∏m-Sn¬

\n∂p-≠mb {]tbm-K-am-

Wn-Xv. saUn-‰-td-\n-

b\p Ing-°p-ff tdma≥

{]hn-iy-I-fmb kndn-b,

]me-kvXo≥, saskm-

t∏m-t´-anb XpS-

ßnbhbmWv bqtdm-

∏ns‚ sXm´p-In-g-°p-ff

(Near East) cmPy-ßƒ

F∂dn-b-s∏-Sp∂-Xv.

AXns‚ Np‰p-ap≈

Atd_y t]mse-bp-ff

{]tZ-i-ß-sfbpw

CXn¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-Øn-bn-

cp -∂p.

t]mÜp Uyp Km¿Uv,

{^m≥knse ss\wkn-\-SpØv,

_n.kn.C. BZy \q‰m≠v.

tdma≥ F©n-\o-b¿am¿ aq∂v

`qJ-fi-ß-fnepw sh≈w

sIm≠p-t]m-Im-\p-ff henb

I\m-ep-Iƒ \n¿Ωn-®n-cp-∂p.


ssItIm¿Øv {]h¿Øn-®ncp∂p F∂m-Wv. bYm¿Y-Øn¬ tdma≥ Ncn-{X-Ønse

{it≤-b-amb hkvXpX C‰-en-bpw, {]hn-iy-Ifpw XΩn-ep-ff \mS-Io-b-amb A[n-Im-

c-ss°-am-‰-am-Wv. c≠pw aq∂pw \q‰m-≠pIƒ apgp-h≥, {]hn-iy-I-fnse D]-cn-h¿K-

°m-cmWv {]hn-iym-`-c-W-Øn-\p-ff {][m-\n-I-sfbpw, ssk\nI ta[mhn-I-sfbpw

\¬Int∏m∂-Xv. N{I-h¿Øn-am-cpsS ]n¥p-W-bp-f-f-Xn-\m¬ sk\-‰¿am-sc-°mƒ Icp-

Øp-ff `c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-I-fp-sSbpw ssk\nI ta[m-hn-I-fp-sSbpw Hcp ]pXnb htc-

Wy-h¿Kambn Ah¿ amdp-Ibpw sNbvXp. K√o-\kv N{I-h¿Øn (253˛268) ssk\nI

ta[m-hn-Xz-Øn¬ \n∂v sk\-‰¿amsc Hgn-hm-°n, Cu ]pXnb D]-cn-h¿K-Øns‚ A[n-

Im-c-ßsf i‡n-s∏-Sp-Øn. sk\-‰¿amsc ssk\y-Øn-te-°p≈ {]th-i-\-Øn¬

\n∂pw, ssk\nI tkh-\-Øn¬ \n∂pw XS™ K√-o\kv {ian-®Xv km{am-Py-Øns‚

\nb-{¥Ww Ah-cpsS ssII-fn-em-hm-Xn-cn-°m-\m-Wv.

Npcp-°-Øn¬, H∂mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ Ah-km-\-hpw, c≠mw \q‰m-≠nepw, aq∂mw

\q‰m-≠ns‚ BZy Zi-bn-epw, c-W-Øn-epw, ssk\y-Øn-ep-ap-ff ]¶m-fnØw qcn-]-

£hpw {]hn-iy-Ifn¬ \n∂m-bn-cp-∂p, C‰-en-bn¬ \n∂v am{X-am-bn-cp-∂n√. aq∂mw

\q‰m-≠p-h-sc-sb-¶nepw C‰m-en-b≥ hwi-P¿ sk\-‰n-ep≈ B[n]Xyw \ne-\n¿Øn.

AXn-\p-tijw {]hn-iy-I-fn¬ \n∂p-f-f-h¿ sk\-‰n¬ qcn-]£w t\Sp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

ImcWw tdma≥ ]ucXzw Chn-S-ß-fn-te°v hym]n-®n-cp-∂p. km{am-Py-Øn-\-IØv

C‰-en-bpsS cmjv{So-bhpw kmº-Øn-I-hp-amb XI¿®-bmWv ChnsS {]Xn- -en-®-Xv.

H∏w Z£nW kvs]-bn≥, Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-ßƒ, B{^n° F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn¬ kº-

∂cpw, \Kc-h¬Ir-X-cp-amb ]pXnb htc-Wy-h¿KØns‚ Db¿®bpw I≠p. kz¥-

amb aPn-kvt{S- p-amcpw, \K-c-k- bpw Dff \K-c-tI-{μ-ßfpw, AXns‚ Iogn¬ hcp∂

{Kma-ßfpw Dƒs∏-Sp∂ {]tZ-i-ß-sf-bmWv tdmam-°m¿ ]´Ww F∂v hnfn-®n-cp-∂-

Xv. AXn-\m¬ Hcp \Kcw as‰mcp \K-c-Øns‚ cW ]cn-[n-bn¬ hcn-√. F∂m¬

{Kma-ßƒ CXv _m[-I-hpa-√. Kh¨sa‚ns‚ {]oXn-tbm, A{]o-Xntbm A\p-k-

cn®v {Kma-ßƒ ] -W-ß-fpsS ]Z-hn-bn-te°v Db-cpItbm adn®v ] -W-ßƒ {Kma-ß-

fmbn Xcw Xmgp-Itbm sNbvXn-cp-∂p. `£y-£m-a-Øns‚ ImeØv \K-c-ß-fnse

`£y-hn-X-cWw {Kma-ß-sf°mƒ sa®-s∏- -Xm-bn-cp∂p F∂-XmWv \K-c-ß-fn¬ Pohn-

®n-cp-∂-Xns‚ kp{]-[m\ t\´w.

{]h¿Ø\w 1

tdma≥ km{am-Py-

Øns‚ cmjv{Sob Ncn-

{X-Ønse aq∂v {][m-

\n-Iƒ Bscm-s°-bm-

bn-cp∂p? Ht∂m,

ct≠m hmIy-ß-fn¬

Ah-sc-°p-dn-s®-gp-Xp-

I. C{X hnim-e-amb

{]tZ-isØ cn°m≥

tdma≥ N{I-h¿Øn-

am¿°v Ign-™-sX-

ßs\? BcpsS kl-

I-c-W-amWv \n¿Wm-b-

I-am-bn-cp∂Xv?

tdma≥ \K-c-ßƒ {Kma-{]-tZ-i-ßsf ]cn-K-Wn-®n-cp-∂-sX-ß-s\-sb∂v

tUmIvS¿ Kme≥ hnh-cn-°p-∂p

(Doctor Galen on how Roman Cities Treated the Countryside)"tcmKw krjvSn-°p-∂-Xn¬ t]mj-Im-lm-c-°p-d-hns‚ ]¶v F¥m-sW∂v h¿j-ß-tfmfw

XpS-cp∂ £ma-ßƒ GXp km[m-c-W-°m-c\pw hy‡-am-°n-s°m-Sp-Øn-cn-°p-∂p. \K-c-hm-

kn-Iƒ°v, sImbvØv Ign-™mepS≥ Xs∂ ASpØ h¿j-tØ-°p-ff apgp-h≥ [m\y-

ßfpw kw`-cn-°p∂ ]Xn-hp-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. tKmXºv, _m¿en, _o≥kv, se‚n¬ F∂nh

apgp-h-\mbpw, ]bdp h¿Kß-fpsS \s√mcp ]¶pw \K-c-hm-kn-Iƒ sIm≠p-t]m-bn-cp-∂p.

_m°n-bp-ff ]b-dn-\-ßƒ am{X-amWv {Kma-hm-kn-Iƒ°p e`n-®n-cp-∂-Xv. ssiXy-Im-eØv

{Kma-hm-kn-Iƒ ssIbn¬ Ah-ti-jn-°p∂ Blmcw D]-tbm-Kn®p Xo¿°p-∂p. hk-¥-Im-

eØv A\m-tcm-Ky-I-c-amb `£W km[-\-ßsf Ah¿°v B{i-bn-t°≠n hcp∂p. ac-ß-

fpsS X≠p-I-fpw, Nn√-I-fpw, Ip‰n-s®-Sn-I-fpw, Ing-ßp-Ifpw, thcp-Ifpw XpS-ßn `£-W-

tbm-Ky-a-√mØ kky-ßƒ t]mepw Ah¿ Blm-c-am-°p-∂p...'

-˛ Kme≥, Hm¨ KpUv B≥Uv _mUv Ub-‰v.


s]mXp-Ip-fn-ap-dn-Iƒ tdma≥ \K-c-Po-hn-X-

Øns‚ as‰mcp {it≤-b-amb khn-ti-j-X-

bm-bn-cp-∂p. (Hcp Cdm-\n-b≥ c-Wm-[n-Imcn

CXv Xs‚ cmPyØv \S-∏n-em-°m≥ {ian-

®Xn\v ]ptcm-ln-X-∑m-cn¬ \n∂v i‡-amb

FXn¿∏v t\cn-tS≠n h∂p. sh≈w ]cn-]m-

h-\-am-sW∂pw s]mXp kv\m\-ØneqsS

AXns‚ ]cn-ip≤n \jvSam-hp-sa-∂m-bn-cp∂p

Ah-cpsS [mcW). tdma≥ \K-c-P-\X

Db¿∂ \ne-hm-c-Øn-ep-ff hnt\m-Z-ßƒ

Bkz-Zn-®n-cp-∂p. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v Hcp h¿j-

Ønse 176 Znh-k-ßfpw {]Z¿i-\-ßƒ°mbn

(kvs]Iv‰m-Iqf) \o°n-sh-®n-cp-∂p-sh∂v Hcp tdma≥ Ie-≠¿ ]d-bp∂p!

aq∂mw \q‰m-≠nse {]Xn-k‘n (The Third-Century Crisis)H∂pw c≠pw \q‰m-≠p-Iƒ s]mXpsh kam-[m-\-Øn-s‚bpw kº-∂-X-bp-sSbpw kmº-

ØnI hnIm-k-Øn-s‚bpw Ime-L-´-am-bn-cp-∂p. F∂m¬ aq∂mw \q‰m≠p apX¬

cmPyw B`y-¥c sRcp-°-Øns‚ BZy e£-W-ßƒ {]I-Sn-∏n-°m≥ XpS-ßn.

kn.C. 230 apX¬ ]e-X-c-Øn-ep-ff sNdp-Øp-\n-¬∏p-Ifpw Htc kabw km{am-Py-

Øn\v \S-tØ-≠n h∂p. 225˛¬ Cdm-\n¬ Hcp ]pXnb A{I-tam-’p-I-cmb cmP-

hwiw DZbw sNøp-I-bpw (-A-h¿ kzbw hnfn-®n-cp-∂Xv kkm-\n-b≥am¿ F∂mWv),

shdpw ]Xn-\©p h¿j-ßƒ°p-f-fn¬ bq{^-´o-kns‚ Zni-bn-te°v Ah¿ cmPy

hnkvXrXn h¿[n-∏n-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. aq∂v mj-I-fn¬ Fgp-X-s∏- - {]i-kvX-amb

Hcp inem-imk-\-Øn¬, Cdm-\n-b≥ cmPm-hmb jm]q¿ H∂m-a≥ 60,000 hcp∂ tdma≥

ssk\ysØ \in-∏n-®-Xmbpw Ing-°≥ Xe-ÿm-\-amb At¥ymIy ]nSn-s®-Sp-Ø-

Xmbpw Ah-Im-i-s∏-Sp-∂p-≠v. AtX-k-abw, Hcp henb Iq´w P¿am-\nIv tKm{X-

h¿K-°m¿ AYhm Ah-cpsS tKm{X-kw-Lßƒ ({][m-\-ambpw Ae-am-\n, {^m¶p-

Iƒ, tKmØp-Iƒ) ssd≥˛Um\yq_v AXn¿Øn-Iƒ°v t\sc \oßp-I-bpw, 233 apX¬

280 hsc-bp-ff Ime-L- -Øn¬ Icn-¶-S¬ apX¬ B¬]vknte°pw sX°≥ P¿Ω\n

hscbpw \o≠p-In-S-°p∂ tdma≥ {]tZ-i-ßsf XpS¿®-bmbn B{I-an-°p-Ibpw

sNbvXp. Um\yq_v \Zn-°-∏p-d-ap-ff {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ qcn- m-Khpw Dt]-£n-°m≥ tdmam-

°m¿ \n¿_-‘n-X-cm-bn. Cu ka-b-Øv, tdma≥ N{I-h¿Øn-am¿°v, tdmam-°m¿ ‘A]-

cn-jvIr-X¿’ (barbarians) F∂p-hn-fn® Cu P\-X-bvs°-Xnsc \nc-¥-c-ambn bp≤-°-

f-Øn-te-°n-d-tß-≠n-h∂p. aq∂mw \q‰m-≠n¬ N{I-h¿Øn-am¿ H∂n\p ]pdsI

H∂mbn {ZpX-K-Xn-bn¬ knwlm-k-\-Øn-se-Øn-bXv (47 h¿j-Øn-\p-f-fn¬ 25 N{I-

h¿Øn-am¿) km{amPyw C°m-eØv t\cn´ {]Xn-k-‘n-bpsS {]I-S-amb e£-W-

amWv.

enwK-t`Zw, km£-c-X, kwkv°mcw [Gender, Literacy, Culture]

tdma≥ kaq-l-Øn¬ ImWp∂ B[p-\n-I-amb Hcp khn-ti-j-X-bmWv [mcm-f-am-

bp≈ AWp-Ip-Spw-_-ß-fpsS hym]-\w. {]mb-]q¿Øn-bmb B¨a°ƒ Ah-cpsS

amXm-]n-Xm-°-tfm-sSm∏w Xma-kn-®n-cp-∂n√. {]mb-]q¿Øn-bmb ktlm-Z-c-≥am¿ Hcp-

an®v Xma-kn-®n-cp-∂Xv A]q¿h-am-bn-cp-∂p. AtX-k-abw IpSpw-_-ß-fn¬ ASn-a-

kn.C. H∂mw \q‰m-≠n¬

B[p-\nI kzn‰vk¿e‚nse

hn≥sUm-\ok ]´-W-Ønse

tdma≥ ]´mf°ymºn-ep-≠m-

bn-cp∂ \S-\-ime

(Amphi theatre). ssk\n-I-

]cn-io-e-\-Øn\pw Ah¿°v

th≠n hnt\m-Z- ]cn-]m-Sn-Iƒ

Ac-tß-dp-∂-Xn\pw D]-tbm-

Kn-®n-cp-∂p.


Isf°qSn Dƒs∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cp-∂p. ]n¬°me dn∏-ªn-°n¬ (_n.kn.C. H∂mw \q‰m-

≠n¬) \ne-\n-∂n-cp∂ amXr-Im-]-c-amb hnhm-l-co-Xn-bn¬, mcy ¿Øm-hns‚ A[n-

Im-c°ogn-te°v hcp-∂n-√. Ah-fpsS IpSpw_ kz-Øn≥taep-ff ]q¿W Ah-Imiw

Ahƒ kz¥-ambn \ne-\n-¿-Øn-t∏m-∂p. F¶nepw sshhm-lnI PohnX Ime-b-f-

hn¬ Ah-fpsS kv{Xo[\w ¿Øm-hn\v e`n-°pw. kz]nXm-hns‚ {]mY-anI Ah-Im-

in-bmbn XpS-cp∂ kv{Xo, ]nXm-hns‚ ac-WsØØpS¿∂v kzØp-°-fn¬ Hcp kzX-

{¥ -D-S-a-ÿ-bm-bn-Øo-cp-Ibpw sNbvXp. CØ-c-Øn¬ qan kz¥ambn hbv°m\pw,

ssIImcyw sNøm-\p-ap-ff \nb-a-]-c-amb Ah-Imiw kv{XoIƒ°v D≠m-bn-cp-∂p.

as‰m-c¿Y-Øn¬ ]d-™m¬, `mcym-`¿Øm-°≥am-cpsS kmº-ØnI \ne-\n¬∏vv

shtΔsd Bbn-cp-∂p. mcy ]q¿W-amb \nb-a-kzm-X{¥yw Bkz-Zn-®n-cp-∂p. hnhm-l-

-tam-N\w Xmc-X-tay\ Ffp-∏-am-bn-cp-∂p. XßfpsS Dt±iyw hy‡-am-°n-s°m-≠p-

ff Hcp t\mókv \¬In mcybvt°m ¿Øm-hnt\m hnhm-l-tam-N\w t\Sm-am-bn-cp-

∂p. AtXkabw Ccp-]-Xp-I-fpsS Ah-km-\-Øntem ap∏-Xp-I-fpsS XpS-°-Øntem

BWv ]pcp-j≥am¿ hnhmlw Ign-®n-cp-∂-Xv. s]Ïp- n-Isf Iuam-c-Øntem, Ccp-

]-Xp-I-fpsS XpS-°-Øntem hnhmlw Ign-∏n-°p-am-bn-cp-∂p. AXn-\m¬ ¿Øm-hn\pw

`mcy-bv°p-an-S-bn¬ Imcy-amb {]mb-hy-Xymkw D≠m-bn-cp-∂Xv Ah¿°n-S-bn¬ Nne

Ak-a-Xz-ßƒ krjvSn-®n-cp-∂ncn°mw. s]mXpth hnhm-l-ßƒ amXm-]n-Xm-°ƒ

Btem-Nn®v Dd-∏n-®-h -B-bn-cp-∂-Xn-\m¬ ]e-t∏mgpw mcy-bpsS ta¬ ¿Ømhv ta[m-

hnXzw ]pe¿Øn-bn-cp-∂p F∂-Xn\v kwi-b-an-√. Xs‚ amXm-

hns\ ]nXmhv ÿnc-ambn a¿Zn-®n-cp-∂p-sh∂pw, Xm≥ hf¿∂p-

h∂ B \K-c-Ønse an° kv{XoIƒ°pw Cu Ah-ÿ- D≠m-

bn-cp-∂p-sh∂pw hSs° B{^n-°-bn¬ Xs‚ Pohn-X-Øns‚ ap-

gph≥ ka-bhpw sNe-hgn-® ItØm-en° _nj∏v sk‚ v

AK-Ãn≥* ]d-™n- p-≠v. ]nXm-°≥am¿°v Ah-cpsS Ipń-I-fpsS

ta¬ KWy-amb \nb-am-[n-Imcw D≠m-bn-cp-∂p. Nne Ah-k-c-

Øn¬ CjvS-an-√mØ Ipń-Isf sImSpw XWp-∏n¬ ac-W-Øn\p

GtZ- -bnse samsskIv.

kn .C. c≠mw \q‰m -≠v .

A_vK¿ cmPm-hns‚ mcybpw

Ah-cpsS IpSpw-_-hp-amWv

Nn{X-Øn-ep-f-f-sX∂v kpdn-

bm\n enJn-X-ßƒ kqNn-∏n-

°p-∂p.

t]mws] : Hcp ho™v hym]m-

cn-bpsS `£-W-ap-dn. CXns‚

Nph-cp-I-fn¬ sFXnly-ß-

fnse (]pcm-hr-Ø-ßfnse)

arK-ßsf Nn{Xo-I-cn -®n -cn -

°p∂ cwK-ßƒ ImWmw.

*396 apX¬ hSt°

B{^n-°-bnse lnt∏m

F∂ \K-cØnse

_nj-∏m-bn-cp∂p sk‚ v

AK-Ãn≥ (354˛430).

k`-bpsS _u≤nI

Ncn-{X-Ønse AXn-Im-b--

\m-bn-cp∂p At±-lw.

_nj-∏p-am¿ ss{IkvX-h-

k-ap-Zm-b-Ønse {][m-\n-

I-fpw, AXoh i‡-cp-am-

bn-cp-∂p.


hn´p-sIm-Sp-°m-\p-ff \nb-am-[n-Imcw t]mepw ]nXm-°-∑m¿°p-≠m-bn-cp∂p F∂

hkvXpX sR -ep-f-hm-°p-∂-Xm-Wv.

C\n km£-cXtbm? km{am-Py-Øns‚ ]e- m-K-ß-fnsebpw {]mY-anI km£-

c-Xm-\n-c°n¬* henb hyXym-k-ap-≠m-bn-cp∂p. DZm-l-c-W-ambn kn.C. 79˛¬ A·n-

]¿hX kvt^mS-\-Øn¬ aä-d-™p-t]mb t]mws] F∂ \K-c-Øn¬ {]mY-anI

km£-cXm \nc-°v hym]-I-ambncp∂p- F∂-Xn\v i‡-amb sXfn-hp-Iƒ D≠v.

t]mws] \K-cØnse apJy sXcp-ho-Yn-I-fnse aXn-ep-I-fn¬ an°-bn-SØpw Npasc-

gp-Øp-Ifpw, ]c-kyhpw Is≠-Sp-°s∏- n- p-≠v.

CXn¬ \n∂v hyXykvXambn [mcm-f-ambn ]m∏n-dkv Npcp-fp-Iƒ Is≠-Sp-°-

s∏- n- p≈ CuPn-]vXn¬ Icm-dp-Iƒ t]mse-bp-ff Hu]-Nm-cnI {]am-W-ß-fn¬ qcn- m-

Khpw Fgp-Xn-bn-cp-∂Xv s{]m -j-W¬ Fgp-Øp-Im-cm-sW∂v a\- n-emhpw. Nne Bfp-

Iƒ \nc-£-c-cm-bn-cp∂p F∂pw Cu tcJ-Iƒ {]kvXm-hn-°p-∂p-≠v. F∂m¬ Chn-sS-

t∏mepw ]S-bm-fn-Iƒ, ssk\ntImtZym-K-ÿ-∑m¿, FtÃ‰v amt\-P¿am¿ XpSßn Nne

hn`m-K-ßƒ°n-S-bn¬ km£-cX Xo¿®-bmbpw hym]-I-am-bn-cp-∂p.

km{am-Py-Øns‚ kmw-kvIm-cnI sshhn[yw hep-Xm-bn-cp-∂p. AXv ]e coXn-

I-fnepw Xe-ß-fnepw {]Xn-^-en-®n-cp-∂p: AXy¥w sshhn-[y-am¿∂ aX-hn-izm-k-

ßfn¬, {]mtZ-inI Bcm-[\m aq¿Øn-Ifn¬, hnhn-[-Xcw mj-Ifn¬, hkv{Xm-e-

¶mc coXn-Ifn¬, £W coXn-Ifn¬, kmaqly LS\m coXn-Ifn¬ (tKm{X/tKmt{X-

Xc), Bhmk amXr-I-Ifn¬ F√m-‰nepw sshhn-[y-ap-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. kao] ]uckvXy

{]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ (near east), Ipd-™Xv bq{^-ó-kn\v ]Sn-™m-sd-¶nepw Adamb

Bbn-cp∂p {][m\ `mj. tIm]v‰nIv `mj CuPn-]vXnepw, ]yqWn°v, s_¿_¿

F∂nh hSs° B{^n-°-bnepw, sk¬‰nIv kvs]bn-\nepw, hS°v ]Sn-™mdpw

kwkm-cn-®n-cp-∂p. ]t£ ]n¬°m-eØv en]n Is≠-Øp-∂-Xp-hsc Ch-bnse an°

`mjm kwkv°m-c-ßfpw hmNnIw am{X-am-bn-cp∂p. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v A¿ta-\n-b≥

`mj enJn-X-cq-]-Øn¬ {]m_-ey-Øn¬ h∂Xv A©mw \q‰m-≠n¬ am{X-am-Wv.

F∂m¬ aq∂mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ a[yØn¬Øs∂ tIm]v‰nIv mj-bn¬ ss__nƒ

X¿Pna sNø-s∏-ńcp∂p. eØo≥ `mj-bpsS {]Nm-c-Øn-eqsS enJnX cq]-Øn-ep-

ff CXc mj-I-sf√mw ]pd-¥-f-f-s∏-´p. {]tXy-In-®pw, H∂mw \q‰m-≠n\v tijw,

sk¬‰nIv mj Xosc Fgp-X-s∏-Sm-sX-bm-bn.

kmº-ØnI hn]p-eo-I-c-Ww (Economic Expansion)km{am-Py-Øn¬ ASn-ÿm\ kuI-cy-ß-fmb Xpd-ap-J-ßƒ, J\n-Iƒ, Izmdn-Iƒ,

CjvSn-I°-f-ßƒ, Hen-shÆ \n¿Ωm-W-im-e-Iƒ XpS-ßn-bh [mcmfw D≠m-bn-cp-

∂p. h≥tXm-Xn¬ hn¬°-s∏-Sp-Ibpw, D]-tbm-Kn-°-s∏-Sp-Ibpw sNbvXn-cp∂ tKmX-

ºv, ho™v, Hen-shÆ F∂nh {][m-\-ambpw h∂n-cp-∂Xv Cu hnf-Iƒ kar-≤ambn

Irjn sNbvXn-cp∂ kvs]bn≥, KmenIv {]hn-iy-Iƒ, hSs° Ata-cn°, CuPn]vXv,

Hc-f-hp-hsc C‰en F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn¬ \n∂m-bn-cp-∂p. {ZmhI Ah-ÿ-bn-ep-≠m-bn-

cp∂ ho™pw, Hen-sh-Æbpw sIm≠p-h-∂n-cp-∂Xv Awt^msd- (amphorae) F∂v

hnfn-°-s∏-Sp∂ henb a¨ -c-Wn-I-fn-em-Wv. CØcw c-Wn-I-fpsS Xp≠p-I-fpw, Ah-

in-jvS-ßfpw (tdmanse tam¨sU sSÃm-jn-tbm-bn¬ 50 Zi-e£w c-Wn-I-fpsS

Ah-injvSw Ds≠∂v ]d-b-s∏-Sp-∂p) [mcm-f-ambn Is≠-Øn-bn- p-≠v. CØcw Ah-

in-jvS-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Cu `c-Wn-I-fpsS bYm¿Y cq]w ]p\¿\n¿Ωn-°m≥ ]pcm-h-

kvXp-K-th-j-I¿°v km[n-®n- p-≠v. F¥mWv Cu c-Wn-I-fn¬ sIm≠p-h-∂-sX∂pw,

{]h¿Ø\w 2

tdma≥ Ime-L- -

Ønse kv{XoIƒ

F{X-am{Xw kzX-{¥-

cm-bn-cp∂p? tdma≥

IpSpw-_-Øns‚

kml-N-cy-ßsf

C∂sØ C¥y≥

IpSpw-_-hp-ambn Xmc-

Xayw sNøp-I.

*ssZ\w-Zn\ PohnXkml-N-

cy-ß-fn¬ ˛ {]tXy-In®v

\n m-c-Im-cy-ß-fn¬ ˛

hmb-\-bp-sSbpw Fgp-Øn-

s‚bpw D]-tbm-Kw.

t]mws]-bn¬ Is≠-

Ønb AXoh ck-I-

c-amb Hcp Nph-scgp-

Øn¬ ]d-bp-∂p:

"C{X--tbsd hnc-k-

amb Fgp-Øp-Iƒ

Xmtß≠n h∂n´pw

Xhn-Sp-s]m-Sn-bm-ImsX

\ne-\n¬°p∂

`nØo, \ns∂ Rm≥

kΩ-Xn®p

X∂n-cn-°p-∂p.'


Fhn-sS-bm-Wh \n¿Ωn-°-s∏-´-

sX∂pw Ah¿ I-s≠-Øn-bn-´p-≠v.

saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fnse

Ifn-a¨ Ipgn-I-fnse aÆpambn Cu

]m{X-ß-fpsS Ifn-aÆv Xmc-X-ay-]-

T\w \S-Øn-bmWv ]pcm-hkvXp

Kth-j-I¿ Cu Is≠-Ø¬ \S-Øn-

b-Xv. CXn¬ \n∂v \ap°v Dd-∏n®v

]d-bm≥ Ign-bp-∂Xv kv]m\njv Hen-

shÆ hym]mcw (Hcp DZm-l-cWw

am{X-am-Wn-Xv) anI® ]ptcm-KXn

t\Sn-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂pw kn.C. 140˛160Ime-Øv CXns‚ hym]mcw

AXns‚ hf¿®-bpsS D®-ÿm-bn-

se-Øn-t®¿∂p-sh-∂p-am-Wv. C°m-e-

L-´-Øn¬ kv]m\njv Hen-shÆ

sIm≠p-t]m-bn-cp-∂Xv ‘s{U ¬

20’(AXns‚ cq]w BZy-ambn

ÿm]n-s®-SpØ ]pcm-hkvXp Kth-

j-Is‚ t]cn¬) F∂ Ifn-a¨ c-

Wn-I-fn-em-sW∂v a\- n-em-°mw.

saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬

\n∂v [mcm-f-ambn s{U ¬ 20 s‚

Ah-injvSw e`n-®-Xn¬ \n∂v

kv]m\njv Hen-shÆ hym]-I-ambn

hnX-c-Ww- sN-ø-s∏-´n-cp-∂p-sh∂v A\p-am-\n-°mw. Cu sXfn-hp-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn®v

(hyXykvX -Xcw c-WnI-fpsS Ah-in-jvS-ß-fpw, Ah-bpsS hnX-cW am∏p-I-fpw)

kvs]bn-\nse D¬∏m-Z-I¿°v Ah-cpsS {]Xn-tbm-Kn-I-fmb C‰-en-°m-cn¬ \n∂v Hen-

sh-Æ-bpsS hn]-Wn-Iƒ ]nSn-s®-Sp-°m≥ Ign-™p-sh∂v ]pcm-h-kvXp-K-th-j-I¿

ka¿Yn-°p-∂p. Ipd™ hn-ebv-°v, KpW-ta-∑-bp-ff Hen-shÆ hnX-cWw sNbvXXp

sIm≠v am{X-amWv kv]m\njv D¬∏m-Z-I¿°v CXv km[yambsX∂v A\p-am-\n-°mw.

as‰m-c¿Y-Øn¬ ]d-™m¬, Xßƒ D¬∏m-Zn-∏n-°p∂ hkvXp-°-fpsS hn]WnIƒ

]nSn-s®-Sp-°m≥ kº∂ qhp-S-a-Iƒ a’-cn-®n-cp-∂p. kv]m\njv Hen-shÆ D¬∏m-Z-

I-cpsS hnPbw ]n∂oSv hSs° B{^n°-bnse D¬∏m-Z-I¿ Bh¿Øn-°p-I-bp-≠mbn.

aq∂pw \mepw \q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬ hn]Wn Iø-S-°n-bXv Cu mK-Øp-ff FtÃ-‰p-I-fm-

Wv. ]n∂oSv kn.C. 425 \v tijw hSs° B{^n-°≥ ta[m-hnXzw Ing-°≥ cmPy-

ß-fmb CuPn-b≥, Z£nW Gjy-mssa-\¿ (-Xp¿°n), kndn-b, ]me-kvXo≥ F∂nh¿

XI¿°p-Ibpw A©pw Bdpw \q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬ ho™n-s‚-bpw, Hen-sh-Æ-bp-sSbpw

{][m\ Ib-‰p-a-Xn-°m-cm-hp-Ibpw sNbvXp. CXns‚ e-ambn B{^n-°≥ c-Wn-I-

fpsS km∂n[yw saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ Itºm-f-ß-fn¬ \mS-Io-b-ambn Ipd-™p. D¬∏-

∂-Øns‚ e-{]-Z-amb \n¿Ωm-W-hpw, hnX-c-Whpw KpW-ta-∑bpw B{i-bn-®m-bn-

cp∂p ]e {]tZ-i-ß-fp-sSbpw A`n-hr-≤n-bpsS Db¿® XmgvN-Iƒ \n¿W-bn-°-s∏- n-

cp-∂-Xv.

{^m≥kns‚ sX°≥XocsØ

I∏¬t®Xw˛_n.-kn.-C. H∂mw

\q‰m≠v. C‰m-en-b≥ Awt^m-

sdIfmWv. AXn-t∑¬ te°v

Hm^v t^m≠n-bnse D¬∏m-Z-

Is‚ ap{Z ]Xn-∏n-®n-cn-°p-∂p.


AXn- -e- q-bn-jvT-X-sIm≠v {]kn-≤-amb At\Iw {]tZ-i-ßƒ km{am-Py-

Øn-ep-≠m-bn-cp-∂p. C‰-en-bnse Iºm-\n-b-bpw, knkn-enbpw, CuPn-]v‰nse s^b-

apw, Keo-en, ss_km-kn-bw (-Sp-Wo-jy) Z£nW Kuƒ (-Kmenb \m¿s_msW≥-kn-

kv), t_‰n-° (-Z-£nW kvs]bn≥) F∂nhbpw km{am-Py-Ønse P\-km-{μ-X-bp-

ff G‰hpw kº-∂-amb mK-ß-fm-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂v Fgp-Øp-Im-cmb kv{Smt_m-bpw

(Strabo) πn\nbpw (Pliny) tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂p. G‰hpw sa®-s∏´ ho™v Iºm-\n-b-

bn¬ \n∂mWv FØn-bn-cp-∂-Xv. knkn-enbpw, ss_km-kn-bhpw tdman-te°v h≥tXm-

Xn¬ tKmXºv Ib-‰p-aXn sNbvXn-cp-∂p. Keo-en-b-bn¬ kar-≤ambn Irjn sNbvXn-

cp-∂p. ("-Hmtcm C©p `qanbpw P\-ßƒ Irjn sNbvXn-cp∂p' F∂v tPmk-^kv

(Josephus) F∂ Ncn-{X-Im-c≥ Fgp-Xn-bn-cn-°p-∂p). kv]m\njv Hen-shÆ {][m-\-

ambpw h∂n-cp-∂Xv Z£nW kvs]bn-\nse KzmU¬Izn-h¿ (Guadalquivir) \Zn-bpsS

Xoc-Øp-ff FtÃ-‰p-I-fn¬ (fundi) \n∂m-Wv.

AtX-k-abw, tdma≥ km{am-Py-Ønse ]e {]tZ-i-ßfpw sa®-s∏´

hnImkw t\Sn-bn-cp-∂n-√. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v \ypao-Un-bm-bn¬ (-B-[p-\nI A¬Po-cn-

b-bn¬) hym]-I-ambn \ne-\n-∂n-cp∂ coXn-bmWv {Sm≥kvlyq-a≥kv (transhumance)*.

CS-b≥am-cpw, A¿[ \mtSm-Sn-I-fp-am-bn-cp∂ Ch¿ an°-t∏mgpw Afim-Ir-Xn-bn-ep-

ff Ah-cpsS IpSn-ep-Ifpw (a]m-en-b) hln-®p-sIm≠v Xß-fpsS I∂pIm-en-∏-‰-

ßƒ°mbp≈ ta®n¬∏p-d-ßƒ tXSn k©-cn-®p sIm≠n-cp∂p. tdma≥ FtÃ-‰p-

Iƒ hSs° B{ n-°-bn-te°v hym]n-®-t∏mƒ, Ch-cpsS ta®n¬ ÿe-ß-fpsS hep∏w

{Iam-Xo-X-ambn Ipd-bp-Ibpw, Ah-cpsS Ne-\-ßƒ I¿i-\-ambn \nb-{¥n-°-s∏-Sp-

Ibpw sNbvXp. kvs]bn-\n¬ t]mepw hS-°≥ mK-ß-ƒ ]ptcm-K-Xn-bn¬ ]n∂n-em-

bn-cp-∂p. hS-°≥ kvs]bn-\nse Ip∂n≥ apI-fn-ep-ff {Kma-ß-fmWv ImÃ-√Iƒ

(Castella). Gsd hnI-kn-°mØ Cu {Kma-ß-fn¬ A[n-h-kn-®n-cp-∂Xv sk¬‰nIv

`mj kwkm-cn-®n-cp∂ I¿j-I-cm-Wv. tdma≥ km{am-Py-sØ-°p-dn®v Nn¥n-°p-tºmƒ,

Cu A¥-c-ßƒ \mw Hcn-°epw hnkva-cn-°m≥ ]mSn-√.

CsXm-s°-bm-sW-¶nepw tdmam km{amPyw ]pcm-X\ temI-am-b-Xns‚ t]cn¬

Ahn--SsØ kmwkv°m-cnI kmº-ØnI PohnX coXn-Iƒ A]-cn-jvIr-Xtam ]nt∂m-

°m-h-ÿ-bn-ep-f-ftXm Bbn-cp-s∂∂p \Ωƒ Icp-X-cp-Xv. adn®v saUn-‰-td-\n-b-bn¬

sshhn-[y-ap≈ co-Xn-Ifn¬ Ptem¿PØns‚ D]-tbm-Kw, Ptem¿Pw D]-tbm-Kn®p

sIm≠p≈ an√p-Iƒ {]h¿Øn-°p∂ kmt¶-XnI hnZy, kvs]bn-\nse kz¿Æ- -sh≈n

J\n-I-fn¬ Ptem¿Pw D]-tbm-Kn®v J\\w \S-Øp∂ kmt¶-XnI hnZy, H∂pw c≠pw

\q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬ Cu J\n {]h¿Øn-®n-cp∂ hºn® hmWnPy \ne-hm-cw, kpk-÷-

amb hmWnPy˛_m¶nwKv irwJ-e-I-fpsS hym]-\w, ]W-Øns‚ hym]-I-amb D]-

tbmKw F∂n-h-sb√mw tdma≥ kmº-ØnI taJ-esb hne-Ip-d®v ImtW-≠-Xn-√m-

sb-∂-Xns‚ kqN-I-ß-fm-Wv. (Cu t\ -ß-fn¬ ]eXpw ]n∂oSv 1700 h¿j-ßƒ Ignbpw

htc°v FØn-∏n-Sn-°m≥ Ign-bm-Ø-h-bm-bncp∂p.) CXv sXmgn¬ {]iv\-ßƒ°pw ASn-

a-I-fpsS D]-tbmKw kw_-‘n® hnj-b-ßƒ°pw Imc-W-am-bn.

sXmgn-em-fn-Isf \nb-{¥n-°¬ (Controlling Workers){]mNo\ temIØv saUn-‰-td-\n-b-\n-epw, kao] ]q¿h tZiØpw Bg-Øn¬ thtcm-

Sn-bn-cp∂ Hcp ÿm]-\-amWv ASn-a-Øw. {InkvXp-aXw Bhn¿`-hn-°p-Ibpw cmPy-

Øns‚ HutZym-KnI aX-ambn amdp-Ibpw sNbvXn´v (\memw \q‰m-≠n¬) t]mepw

A-Sn-a-ØsØ sh√p-hn-fn-°m≥ {]m]vX-am-bn-√. F∂n-cp--∂mepw tdma≥ kº-Zvhy-h-

*CS-b≥am¿°v Ah-cpsS

I∂p-Im-en-∏-‰-ßƒ°v

ta®n¬∏pd-ßƒ tXSn-

s°m≠v Db¿∂ ae-{º-tZ-

i-ßƒ°pw, Xmgvhc-

Iƒ°pw CS-bn¬ h¿jw

tXmdpw bm{X sNtø-≠-

Xmbn h∂p. Cu k{º-Zm-

bsØ BWv

{Sm≥kvlypa≥kv F∂v

hnfn-®n-cp-∂-Xv.

{]h¿Ø\w 3

a¨]m-{X-ß-fpsS

Ah-in-jvS-

ßsf°pdn®v ]Tn-

°p∂ ]pcm-hkvXp

Kth-j-I¿ Hcp Xc-

Øn¬ Ip‰m-t\z-j-I-

sc-t∏m-se-bm-Wv.

F¥p-sIm≠msW∂v

\nßƒ°v hni-Zo-I-cn-

°m-tam? tdma≥

Ime-L- -Ønse

saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ P\-

X-bpsS kmº-ØnI

Pohn-X-sØ-°p-dn®v

Awt^msd-I-fn¬

(amphorae) \n∂v

\ap°v Fs¥ms°

hnh-c-ßƒ e`n°pw?


ÿ-bnse F√m A[zm-\hpw \n¿hln-®n-cp-∂Xv ASn-a-I-fmWv

F∂v IcpXp∂Xv icn-b-√. dn∏-ªn-°≥ Ime-L- -Øn¬ C‰-

en-bpsS qcn- mKw {]tZ-i-ß-sf kw_-‘n®v Cu hkvXpX

icn-bm-Wv. (C‰-en-bpsS P\-kw-Jy 7.5 Zi-e-£am-bn-cp∂

AK-Ã-kns‚ Ime-L- -Øn¬ AhnsS aq∂v Zie£w ASn-

a-I-fp-≠m-bn-cp-∂p F∂-sXmcp hkvXp-X-bm-Wv). F∂m¬

km{amPyw apgp-h-\mbn FSp-°p-I-bm-sW-¶n¬ Cu hkvXpX

icn-b-s√∂v ImWm≥ Ign-bpw. ASn-a-Isf Hcp \nt£-]-am-

bn- mWv I≠n-cp-∂-Xv. F∂m¬ IqSp-X¬ t]cpsS A[zm\w

Bh-iy-ap-ff sImbvØp-t]m-ep-ff sXmgn-ep-I-fn-epw, Ah-

cpsS BtcmKyw XI-cp∂ kml-N-cy-ß-fnepw (DZm-l-c-Ww,

atednb _m[n-®v) ASn-a-Isf D]-tbm-Kn-°-cp-sX∂v Hcp

Im¿jnI Fgp-Øp-Im-c≥ qhp-S-a-I-tfmSv D]-tZ-in-°p-∂p-≠v.

ASn-a-I-tfm-Sp≈ Cu ]cn-K-W\ Ah-tcm-Sp≈ kl-Xm]w

sIm≠√ adn®v IrXy-amb kmº-ØnI IW--°p-Iq- -ep-Iƒ

sIm≠m-bn-cp-∂p. AtX-k-baw adp-h-iØv tdma≥ D]-cn-

h¿K°m¿ an°-t∏mgpw arKo-b-ambmWv ASn-a-I-tfmSv s]cp-

am-dn-bn-cp-∂-sX¶n¬ km[m-cW P\w Ah-tcmSv Nne-t∏m-

sgms° Atß-b‰w Zbm-hmbv]v ImWn-®n-cp-∂p. \otdm N{I-

h¿Øn-bpsS ImeØv \S∂ {]kn-≤-amb Hcp kw`hw Hcp

Ncn-{X-Im-c≥ hnh-cn-°p-∂Xv ImWp-I.

H∂mw \q‰m-≠n¬ cmPyØv kam-[m\w ]pe¿∂-

tXmsS bp≤-Øns‚ km[y-X-Ip-d-bp-I-bpw, CXv ASn-a-I-fpsS

e`y-X-Ip-d-bm≥ Imc-W-am-hp-Ibpw sNbvXp. Cu kml-N-

cy-Øn¬ H∂p-In¬ ASn-a-Iƒ°n-S-bn¬ inip D¬∏m-Z\w

h¿[n-∏n-°pI* As√-¶n¬ ASn-a-Iƒ°p ]Icw ssIImcyw

sNøm≥ Ffp-∏-Øn-ep-ff Iqen-th-e-°msc D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-

ØpI F∂o c≠v am¿K-ßƒ am{Xta ASn-a-I-fpsS A[zm\w D]-tbm-Kn-®n-cp-∂-

h¿°v D≠m-bn-cp-∂p-f-fq. bYm¿Y-Øn¬, ASn-a-∏Wn Gsd sNe-th-dn-b-Xn-\m¬

tdmanse s]mXp-a-cm-aØv ]Wn-I-fn¬ Iqenthe-°m-sc-bmWv hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-

Kn-®n-cp-∂-Xv. Iqen the-°m-cn¬ \n∂v hyXy-kvX-ambn ASn-a-Isf Xo‰n-t∏m-‰p-Ibpw,

h¿jw apgp-h≥ \ne-\n¿Øp-I-bpw thW-am-bn-cp-∂p. AXv IqSp-X¬ sNe-th-dnb

Imcy-am-W-t√m. Hcp ]t£, CXp-sIm-≠mhmw ]n¬°m-eØv Ing-°≥ {]hn-iy-I-

fnse¶nepw Im¿jnI taJ-e-I-fn¬ ASn-a-I-fpsS D]-tbmKw KWy-ambn Ipd-™-

Xv. ASn-a-Isf Xo‰n-t∏m-‰m≥ A[n-I-s®-e-hm-b-Xn-\m¬ Iptd-bm-fp-Iƒ Ahsc tamNn-

∏n-®p. Cßs\ kzmX-{¥-cm-b-h-cn¬ ]e-scbpw _nkn-\kv t\m°n\S-Øn-∏p-Im-cmbn

\nb-an-®p. AØ-c-Øn¬ \nb-an-°-s∏-tS≠-h-cpsS FÆw Ipd-hm-bn-cn°p-at√m. kz¥-

amtbm, Xß-fpsS t]cntem _nkn-\- p-Iƒ XpS-ßm-\p-ff aqe-[\w bPam-\≥am¿

]e-t∏mgpw ASn-a-Iƒ°pw, kzmX-{¥-cm-°-s∏- -h¿°pw \¬In-bn-cp-∂p.

sXmgn¬ \S-Øn-∏n\v tdmanse Im¿jnI Fgp-Øp-Im-¿ henb {i≤-]-Xn-∏n-

®n-cp-∂p. Bh-iy-ap-f-f-Xns‚ Cc- n-tbmfw kma-{Kn-Ifpw ]Wn-bm-bp[-ßfpw qhp-S-

a-Iƒ Icp-Xn-h-bv°-W-sa∂v H∂mw \q‰m-≠nse tImfp-a√ (Columella) F∂ sX°≥

kv]m\njv Fgp-Øp-Imc≥ ip]m¿i sNøp-∂p. Imc-Ww, ]Wn-bm-bp-[-an-√msX

ASnasØmgn-em-fn-I-fpsS ]Wn apS-ßn-bm¬ D]-I-c-W-s®-e-hn-s\-°mƒ I\Ø

*kv{Xo ASn-a-I-sf-bpw,

Ah-cpsS ]¶m-fn-I-sfbpw

IqSp-X¬ Ipń-Isf

P\n-∏n-°p-∂-Xn\v

t{]m’m-ln-∏n-°p∂

coXn. Xo¿®-bmbpw

Cßs\ P\n-°p∂

IpńIfpw

ASn-a-I-fm-bn--Øo-cpw.

ASn-a-I-tfmSp≈ s]cp-am-‰-sØ-°p-dn®v

(On the Treatment of Slaves)

"\Kc taep-tZym-K-ÿ-\mb eqkn-bkv s]Sm-

\n-bkv skIqÜkns\ (Lucius PedaniusSecundus) At±-l-Øns‚ Hcp ASna Xs∂

h[n-®p. h[-Øn\p ]n∂n¬ {]h¿Øn® ASn-

a-tbm-sSm∏w Hcp Iqcbv°v Iosg Ign-™n-

cp∂ F√m ASn-a-I-sfbpw h[n-°-W-sa-∂mWv

{]mNo\ BNmcw \njvI¿jn-°p-∂-Xv.

F∂m¬ Hcp P\m-hen HØp-Iq-Sp-Ibpw,

\njvI-f-¶-cmb ASn-a-Isf c£-s∏-Sp-ØW-

sa∂v B{K-ln°pIbpw sNbvXp. CXn-

s\Øp-S¿∂v Iem]w Bcw-`n-°p-I-bpw, P\-

ßƒ sk\‰v lukv D]-tcm-[n-°p-Ibpw

sNbvXp. ISpØ Xocp-am-\-ßƒ FSp-°p-∂-

Xns\ Nne¿ FXn¿sØ-¶n-epw, qcn-]-£hpw

\ne-hn-ep-ff k{º-Zmbw XpS-c-W-sa∂v sk\-

‰n¬ A`n-{]m-b-s∏-´p. h[in£ \¬I-W-

sa∂v Bh-iy-s∏-´ sk\-‰-am¿ ta¬ss°

t\Sn. CXn-s\-Xnsc h≥ P-\-°q´w I√p-I-

fpw, Xo∏-¥-ß-fp-ambn \ne-bp-d-∏n-®p. DØ-

chv \S-∏m-°p-∂-Xns\ Ah¿ FXn¿Øp. cmP-

im-k-\-Øn-eqsS \otdm P\-°q- sØ imkn-

°p-I-bpw, Ip‰m-tcm-]n-Xsc h[-in£ \S-∏n-

em -°m≥ sIm≠p-t]m -Ip∂ hgn\osf

ssk\ysØ \ne-bp-d-∏n-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp.'

‰mkn-‰kv (55˛117) BZy-Ime km{am-Py

Ønse Ncn-{X-Im-c≥.


\jvSw t\cn-Spw. ta¬t\m-

-an-s√-¶n¬ Hcp ]Wn-bpw

\S-°n-s√∂v sXmgn-ep-S-a-

Iƒ hniz-kn-®n-cp-∂p. -kz-

X-{¥-sXmgn -em-fn -I-fm -

bmepw, ASn-a-I-fm-bmepw

ta¬t\m- w ]c-a-{]-[m-\-am-

sW∂v Ah¿ Icp-Xn-bn-cp-

∂p. ta¬t\m´w Ffp-∏-am-

°p-∂-Xn-\p-th≠n sXmgn-

em-fn-Isf -kw-L-ß-fm-

bpw, sNdp-So-ap-I-fmbpw

Xncn-®n-cp-∂p. tImfp-a√

ip]m¿i sNøp -∂Xv

] Ø p - t ] - c - S - ß n b

k w L s Ø b m W v .

Cßs\ Xncn-®m¬ Hmtcm

kwL-Øn-sebpw F{X

t]¿ ]Wn-sb-Sp-°p-∂p-

s≠∂pw, F{X-t]¿ shdp-

sX-bn-cn-°p-∂p-s≠∂pw

a\- n-em-°m≥ Ign-bp-

sa∂v At±lw Ah-Im-i-

s∏-Sp-∂p. sXmgn¬ \S-Øn-

∏n\v hniZamb ]cn-K-W\

\¬In-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂v CXv

ImWn-°p-∂p. {]kn-≤-amb ‘\m®p-d¬ lnÃdn’('Natural History') bpsS cN-bn-Xm-

hmb πn\n D¬∏m-Z-\Øn-\mbn ASn-a-I-fpsS kwL-ßsf D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xns\

G‰hpw tami-amb coXn F∂v A]-e--]n-°p-∂p-≠v, ImcWw kwL-ß-fmbn tPmen

sNbvXn-cp∂ ASn-a-I-fpsS Imep-I-fn¬ Nß-e-bn v ]c-kv]cw _‘n-∏n-®n-cp-∂p.

Ch-sbms° {Umt°m-bpsS \nb-a-ßsf* A\p-kva-cn-∏n-t®-°mw. ]t£

C∂pw temI-Ønse hyh-kmb ime-I-fn¬ CØ-c-Øn-ep-ff sXmgn-emfn \nb-{¥W

hyh-ÿ-I-fp-s≠∂v \mw hnkva-cn-°-cp-Xv. Xo¿®-bmbpw, km{am-Py-Ønse Nne hyh-

kmb ÿm]-\-ß-fn¬ Iptd-°qSn ISp-∏-ta-dnb \nb-{¥-W-ßƒ G¿s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cp-

∂p. Ae-Ivkm-≥{Unbm-bnse Ip¥n-cn°** \n¿ΩmWime-bnse Ah-ÿsb°pdn®v

πn\n hni-Zo-I-cn-°p-∂p-≠v. AhnsS ta¬t\m´w I¿i-\-am-bn-cp-∂p. "sXm-gn-em-fn-I-

fpsS D]-cn-h-kv{X-Øn¬ Hcp ap{Z-]-Xn-∏n-®n-cp-∂p. apJwaqSn-tbm, kp£n-c-ß-tfm-Sp-

Iq-Snb hetbm Ah¿ inc- n¬ [cn-°-W-am-bn-cp-∂p; Xß-fpsS F√m hkv{Xhpw

Agn®p \o°n-bm¬ am{Xta Ahsc mIvSdn ]cn-kcw hnSp-∂-Xn\v A\p-h-Zn-°p-am-

bn-cp-∂p-f-fq'. Im¿jn-I-tPmen ITn-\hpw, apjn-∏n-°p-∂Xpw Bbn-cp-∂n-cn-°-Ww.

‘Im¿jn-I-hr-Øn-bn¬ G¿s∏-SmXncn-°m-\mbn’ CuPn-]vjy≥ I¿j-I¿ {Kma-ßƒ

Dt]-£n®v t]mIp-∂p-sh∂v aq∂mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ BZyw Fgp-X-s∏´ Hcp enJnXw

kqNn-∏n--°p-∂p. `qcn-]£w hyh-km-b-im-e-I-fpsSbpw, sXmgn¬ ime-I-fp-sSbpw

Ahÿ kam-\-am-bn-cp∂ncn°mw. 398˛se Hcp \nbaw sXmgn-em-fn-I-fpsS tZlØv

*{UmtIm-Wn-b≥ :

I¿°iw. (_n.kn.C.

Bdmw \q‰m-≠ns‚ {]mcw-

`- Ime-L-´-Øn¬ Pohn-®n-

cp∂ {Ko°v \nb-a-⁄-

\mb {UmtIm-bpsS

t]cn¬ \n∂mWv Cu

hm°p-≠m-Ip-∂-Xv.

an°hmdpw

Ip‰-ßƒ°v h[-in-£-

bmWv At±lw hyhÿ

sNbvXn-cp-∂-Xv!).

**Ip¥n-cn°w : km{ºm-

Wn-Ifnepw, kpK‘te]-

\-ß-fnepw tN¿Øn-cp∂

Hcp Xcw ac-°-d-bpsS

bqtdm-]y≥ t]cv.

t_mkvsh√nb ac-ß-fpsS

tXmSv Iodn-bmWv Cu ac-

°d tiJ-cn-®n-cp-∂-Xv. Cu

Id Dd™v I´n-bm-Ip-ambn-

cp∂p. G‰hpw KpW-ta-∑-

bp-ff Ip¥n-cn°w Atd-

_y≥ D]-Zo-]n¬ \n∂mWv

h∂n-cp-∂-Xv.

AƒPo-cn-b-bnse N¿s®¬

F∂ {]tZ-isØ

samssk°v ---˛kn.C. aq∂mw

\q‰m-≠ns‚ XpS-°-Ønse

Im¿jnI cwK-ßƒ.

apI-fn¬ : Dgp-∂Xpw

hnX-bv°p-∂Xpw

Xmsg : ap¥n-cn-tØm-´-

Øn¬ ]Wn-sb-Sp-°p-∂-Xv.


ap{Z-Ip-Øn-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂v kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p. hyh-kmb ime-I-fn¬ \n∂v HmSn-t∏m-bm-

tem, Hfn-°m≥ {ian-®mtem Xncn-®-dn-bp-∂-Xn-\p-th-≠n-bm-bn-cp∂p CXv. ]e kzIm-

cy-sXm-gn-ep-S-a-Ifpw IS-_m-[yX ImWn-°p∂ Icm-dp-Iƒ sXmgn-em-fn-I-fpsS ta¬

ASn-t®¬∏n-°p-Ibpw Ahsc AXp hgn \nb-{¥n®p hcp-Xn-bn¬ \n¿Øp-Ibpw

sNbvXncp∂p. ‘kzX-{¥-cm-bn-cp-∂n´p t]mepw, ASna∏Wn sNøm≥ Bbn-c-ßƒ kzta-

[bm Iog-Sßn’ F∂v c≠mw \q‰m-≠nse Hcp Fgp-Øp-Im-c≥ Nq≠n-°m-Wn-°p-

∂p. \ne-\n¬∏n-\mbn At\Iw Zcn-{Z-Ip-Spw-_-ßƒ sXmgnep-S-a-I-fpsS IS-s°-Wn-

bn¬s∏- p. kao-]-Im-eØv Is≠-Ønb AK-Ãns‚ IØp-I-fn¬ H∂n¬ \n∂v a\-

n-em-°p-hm≥ Ign-bp-∂Xv amXm-]n-Xm-°ƒ Nne-t∏mƒ Ah-cpsS a°sf 25 h¿jw

hsc Imem-h-[n-bn¬ ASn-a-I-fmbn hn‰n-cp-∂p-sh-∂m-Wv. ]nXm-hns‚ ac-W-tØmsS

Cu Ip´n-Iƒ kzX-{¥-cm-°-s∏Sptam F∂v AK-Ãn≥ Xs‚ h°o¬ kplr-Øn-

t\mSv Bcm-bp-∂p-≠v. {KmaoW EW-_m[y-Xbpw Atß-b‰w hym]-I-am-bn-cp-∂p.

Hcp DZm-l-c-Ww ]d-bp-I-bm-sW-¶n¬ kn.C. 66 se PqX-I-em-]-Øn¬*, Iem-]-Im-

cn-Iƒ P\-]n-¥pW t\Sp-∂-Xn-\mbn ]Ww hmbv] sImSp-°p-∂-h-cpsS IS-∏-{X-ßƒ

\in-∏n-°p-I-bp-≠m-bn.

AtX-k-abw sXmgn-em-fnIfn¬ `qcn-`m-K-sØbpw _e{]tbm-K-Øn-eq-sS-

bmWv \nb-{¥n-®n-cp-∂-sX∂ \nK-a-\-Øn¬ \mw FØp-∂Xpw IcpXtemsS thWw.

ImcWw A©mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ Ah-km\w N{I-h¿Øn-bmb A\-kvtX-jykv Ing-

°≥ AXn¿Øn-bn¬ Zmc Fs∂mcp \Kcw aq∂m-gvN-°p-f-fn¬ ]Wn-I-gn-∏n-®Xv

Db¿∂ thX\w hmKvZm\w \¬In Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fnse P\-ßsf BI¿jn-

®m-Wv. ]m∏n-dkv Npcp-fp-I-fn¬ \n∂v e`n® hnh-c-ß-fpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ Bdmw

\q‰m-≠n¬ saUn-‰-td-\n-b≥ `mK-ß-fn¬, {]tXy-In®v Ing-°v, Iqen-the hym]-I-

ambn \ne-\n-∂n-cp-∂p-sh∂v a\- n-em-°mw.

kmaqly t{iWn-Iƒ (Social Hierarchies)hni-Zmw-i-ß-fn-te°v t]mImsX tdmam-km-{am-Py-Øns‚ kmaqly LS-\-Isf-°p-dn®v

Hcp s]mXp-[m-cW ssIh-cn-°m≥ \ap°v {ian-°mw. Ncn-{X-Im-c-\mb ‰mkn-‰kv BZna

km{amPyØnse {][m\ kmaq-ly-hn- m-K-ßsf Xmsg-]-dbpw hn[w hnh-cn-®n-cn-°p∂p:

sk\-‰¿am¿ (]mXvdv = ]nXmhv F∂¿∞w) Aizm-cqV h¿K-Ønse {]ap-J¿; P\-ß-

fnse BZ-c-Wob hn`m-Kw, kº∂ hoSp-I-fp-ambn _‘-s∏- -h¿; cwK-I-e-I-tfmSpw,

k¿°-kn-t\mSpw Bk-‡-cmb Xmtg-Ø- n-ep-f-f-h¿ (sπ_vkv tkm¿Un-U); Ah-

km-\-ambn ASn-a-I-fpw. aq∂mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ XpS-°-Øn¬ Bbncw sk\-‰¿am¿ D≠m-

bn-cp-∂-Xn¬, ]Ip-Xn-tbmfw t]¿ At∏mgpw C‰m-en-b≥ IpSpw-_-ß-fn¬ \n∂v h∂-h-

cm-bn-cp-∂p. tIm¨Ãss‚-≥ H∂m-a≥ N-{I-h¿Øn-bpsS cWw Bcw- n® ]n¬°me

tdma≥ km{am-Py-Øns‚ Ime-Øv, (\memw \q‰m-≠ns‚ XpS-°-Øn¬) ‰mkn-‰kv

]cm-a¿in® BZy-c≠v hn`m-K-ßfpw (sk\-‰¿am-cpw, CssIz-‰p-Ifpw)* ebn®p tN¿∂v

Hcp GIo-IrX {]`p-h¿K-ambn amdn. Ah-cn¬ GI-tZiw ]Ip-Xn-tbmfw IpSpw-_-

ßƒ B{^n-°-bn¬ \nt∂m, Ing-°≥ {]tZ-iØp \nt∂m Df-f-h-cm-bn-cp-∂p. Cu

"]n¬°me tdma≥' {]`p-h¿Kw hºn® kºØp-ffhcm-bn-cp-s∂-¶n-epw, ]e-hn-[-Ønepw

Ah¿°v kº-∂-c-√mØ ssk\nI htc-Wy-h¿K-Øns‚b{X i‡n D-≠m-bn-cp-∂n-

√. km{am-Py-Øns‚ DtZym-Kÿ hrμw, ssk\yw F∂n-h-bnse KWy-amb Hcp hn`m-

K-tØm-sSm∏w, Ing-°≥ {]hn-iy-I-fn¬ [mcm-f-ap-≠m-bn-cp∂ kº-∂-cmb hym]m-cn-

Iƒ, I¿j-I¿ F∂n-h-cmWv a[y-h¿KØn¬ Dƒs∏- n-cp-∂-Xv. Cu IpSpw-_-ß-fn¬

*tdma≥ B[n-]-Xy-Øn-

s\-Xnsc PqsU-bn¬ \S-

∂ Iem]w. "PqX-

bp≤w' \S-Øn-s°m≠v

Cu Iem-]sØ tdmam-

°m¿ \njv°-cpWw

ASn-®-a¿Øn.

*CssIz-‰p-Iƒ (ss\‰p-

Iƒ AYhm Aizm-cq-

V¿) ]c-º-cm-K-X-ambn

c≠m-asØ i‡hpw

kº-∂-hp-amb h¿Kambn-

cp-∂p. t]cp-t]mse Xs∂

kzØns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-

Øn¬ IpXn-c-∏-S-bn¬

tkh\w \S-Øn-bn-cp∂

IpSpw-_-ß-fm-bn-cp∂p

Ah¿. sk\‰v AwK-

ßsf t]mse ss\‰p-

Ifpw `q{]-`p-°≥am-cm-bn-

cp-∂p. sk\-‰¿amcn¬

\n∂v hyXy-kvX-ambn

Ch¿ I∏¬ DS-a-ÿcpw,

hWn-°p-Ifpw, _m¶p-S-a-

Ifpw, AXm-bXv I®-hS

{]h¿Ø--\-ß-fn¬ G¿s∏-

Sp-∂-h-cp-am-bn-cp-∂p.

{]h¿Ø\w 4

Cu ]mT-`m-KØv ]cm-

a¿in-°p∂ aq∂v Fgp-

Øp-Im-cpsS cN-\-I-fn-

eqsS tdmam-°m¿ Xß-

fpsS sXmgn-em-fn-Isf

Fßs\ ssIImcyw

sNbvXn-cp∂psh∂v

Hc-f-hn¬ \ap°v

]d-bm≥ Ign-bpw.

Ahsc Is≠-

Ømtam? ]mT`mKw

]p\¿hm-bn®v tdmam-

°m¿ sXmgn-em-fn-Isf

\nb-{¥n-°m≥ D]-tbm-

Kn® c≠v coXn-I-sf-

°p-dn®v hnh-cn-°p-I.


]e-Xn-s\bpw \ne-\n¿Øn-t∏m-∂Xv k¿°m¿ tkh-\hpw, cmPy-Øn-

\p-ta-ep-ff B{i-b-Xz-hp-ambncp∂p. Cu BZ-c-Wo-b-cmb a[y-h¿Kw

henb sk\-‰¿ IpSpw-_-ß-fpsS kwc-£-W-bn-em-bn-cp-∂p-sh∂v ‰mkn-

‰kv hnh-cn-°p-∂p. a[y-h¿K-Øn-s‚bpw Xmsg-bmWv lyqan-en-tbm-d-kv

(-Xm-gv∂) F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp∂, qcn-]£w hcp∂ Xmgv∂ P\-hn- m-K-ß-

fpsS ÿm\w. ÿnc-ambn henb FtÃ-‰p-I-fn¬ ]Wn-sb-SpØncp∂

{Kmao-W¿, hyh-km-b-ß-fn-sebpw J\n-I-fn-sebpw sXmgn-em-fn-Iƒ, Hen-

hn-s‚bpw [m\y-ß-fp-sSbpw a‰pw -hn-f-sh-Sp∏v \S-Øms\Øn-bn-cp∂

IpSn-tb-‰-°m-cmb sXmgn-em-fn-Iƒ, \n¿Ωm-W-sØm-gn-em-fn-Iƒ, kzbw

sXmgn-en¬ G¿s∏- n-cp∂ Iqen-sØm-gn-em-fn-I-tf-°mƒ sa®-s∏´

PohnXw \bn® ssIth-e-°m¿, h≥InS \K-c-ß-fn¬ ]Wn-sb-Sp-Øn-

cp∂ henb hn mKw Xm¬°m-enIsØmgn-em-fn-Iƒ, {]tXy-In®v km{am-

Py-Øns‚ ]Sn-™mdp mK-ß-fn¬ ImW-s∏- n-cp∂ ASn-a-I-fmb Bbn-

c-ßƒ F∂n-h¿ AS-ßn-b-XmWv Xmgv∂ h¿Kw.

A©mw \q‰m-≠ns‚ XpS-°-Øn¬ Pohn-®n-cp∂ Ncn{X-Im-c-

\pw, cmPy-{]-Xn-\n-[n-bp-amb (Aw_m-kn-U-¿) Hfnw-]n-tUm-dkv -hnh-cn-

°p-∂-Xv, tdmam-\-K-c-Ønse {]`p-°ƒ°v Ah-cpsS FtÃ-‰p-I-fn¬

\n∂v hm¿jnI hcp-am-\-ambn 4000 ]u≠v kz¿Ww e`n-°p-∂p-sh-

∂m-Wv. Ah¿ kzbw sNe-h-gn-®Xv IqSmsXbmWv Cu hcp-am\w IW-

°m-°n-bn-cp-∂-Xv.

kvs]bn-\nse sh≈n J\n-Iƒ iq\y-am-b-tXmsS, kpÿn-c-

am-sbmcp sh≈n-\m-Wb hyhÿ \ne-\n¿Øm-\m-h-iy-amb teml-

ti-Jcw k¿°m-cn\v C√m-Xm-bn. CXv ]n¬°me tdmam km{am-Py-

Øns‚ BZy-aq∂v \q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬ \ne-\n-∂n-cp∂ sh≈n ASn-ÿm-

\-am-°n-bp-ff \mWb kº-Zvhy-h-ÿ-bpsS XI¿®bv°p hgn-sbm-cp-

°n. tIm¨Ã‚-bn≥ N{I-h¿Øn kz¿WsØ ASn-ÿm-\-am-°n ]pXn-sbmcp \mWb

hyhÿ Bcw- n-®p. tdmam km{am-Py-Øns‚ A¥na L -Øn¬ apgp-h≥ Cu kz¿W

\mW-b-ßƒ cmPy-ØpS\ofw {]N-cn-®n-cp-∂p.

Db¿∂-hcpw CS-Ø-c-°mcpw Dƒs∏´ A¥na tdma≥ Ime-L- -Ønse DtZym-

K-ÿ¿ Xß-fpsS iº-f-Øns‚ apJy-`m-Khpw kz¿W-Øns‚ cq]-Øn¬ hmßp-

Ibpw, Ch D]-tbm-Kn®v ÿnc- k-ºm-Zy-ambn qan- AS°-ap≈ kzØp-°ƒ hmßn-

Iq- p-Ibpw sNøpI hgn Xmc-X-tay\ kº-∂-cm-bn-Øo¿∂p. F∂m¬ Xo¿®-bmbpw

\oXn-\ymb hyh-ÿ-bnepw, ssk\nI kma-{Kn-I-fpsS hnX-c-W-Ønepw h≥ Agn-

aXn \ne-\n-∂n-cp-∂p. D∂X DtZy-K-ÿ-cpsS ]nSn®p ]dnbpw, {]hn-iym- K-h¿W¿am-

cpsS AXym¿Ønbpw Ip{]kn-≤-am-bn-cp-∂p. F√mØc-Øn-ep-ap-ff hym]-I-amb Agn-

a-Xnsb C√m-Xm-°p-∂-Xn\v c-W-IqSw XpS¿®-bmbn CS-s]- n-cp-∂p. Agn-a-Xn- C√m-

Xm-°m-\mbn \nb-a-ßƒ ]m m-°n-bXpw, Ncn-{X-Im-c-∑mcpw a‰v _p≤n-Po-hn-Ifpw

Agn-aXn t]mep-ff {]h¿Ø-\-ßsf X≈n∏d-™-Xp-amb Imcy-ß-fmWv Cu hnj-

b-sØ-°p-dn®dnbm≥ \sΩ klm-bn-®-Xv. CØcw hna¿i-\-ßƒ ¢m n°¬ temI-

Øns‚ Hcp {it≤-b-amb khn-ti-j-X-bm-Wv. tdma≥ c-W-IqSw Hcp tkzm—m-[n-

Imc c-W-Iq-S-am-bn-cp-∂p. as‰m-c¿Y-Øn¬ ]d-™m¬ FXn-c- n-{]m-b-ßsf AwKo-

I-cn-°mØ, {]Xn-tj-[-ßsf lnwk-sIm≠v t\cn-Sp∂ cmjv{Sw ({]tXy-In®pw N{I-

h¿Øn-amsc ]cn-l-kn-°m≥ `b-s∏-SmØ P\-ß-fp≈ Ing-°≥ \K-c-ß-fn¬).

F∂n´pw \memw \q‰m-≠n¬ tdma≥ \nb-a-Øns‚ i‡-am-sbmcp ]mc-ºcyw Db¿∂p-

tdma≥ {]`p-h¿K-Øns‚

hcp-am-\w, A©mw \q‰m-≠ns‚

BZy L´-Øn¬(Incomes of the Roman Aristocracy,

Early Fifth Century)

"CS-Øcw hep-∏-Øn-ep-ff Hcp ]´-

W-Øn¬ Dƒs°m-≈m-hp∂ F√m

kuI-cy-ßfpw tdma≥ kº∂

`h-\-ß-fn¬ Zriy-am-Wv. IpXn-c∏-

¥bssaXm-\w, kky-Pm-e-ßƒ,

t£{X-ßƒ, Pe-[m-cm-b-{¥-ßƒ,

hyXykvXXcw Ipfn-∏p-c-Iƒ F∂n-

ßs\ F√mw... tdmanse ]e

IpSpw-_-ßƒ°pw 4000 ]u≠v

kz¿Ww hm¿jnI hcp-am-\-ambn

`qkz-Øn¬ \n∂v In´nbncp∂p.

[m\y-ßƒ, ho™v, a‰p¬∏-∂-

ßƒ F∂nh hn¬°p-I-bm-sW-

¶n¬ CXns‚ aq∂n¬ H∂v hcp-

am\wIqsS D≠m-Ipw. c≠mw\nc

IpSpw-_-ß-fpsS hcp-am\w Bbncw

As√-¶n¬ 1500 ]u≠v kz¿W-am-

bn-cn-°pw.'-˛ Xo_vknse Hfnw-]n-tUm-d-kv


h-∂p. CXv {Iqc≥am-cmb N{I-h¿Øn-am-cpsS {]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ°v t]mepw hnLm-X-

ambn \n∂p. Ah-cpsS N{I-h¿Øn-am¿°v X∂njvS {]Im-c-ap-ff \S-]-Sn-Iƒ FSp-

°m≥ Ign-™n√; F∂v am{X-a√, ]ucm-h-Im-i-ßƒ kwc-£n-°p-∂-Xn\v tdma≥

\nbaw kPo-h-ambn \ne-sIm-f-fp-Ibpw sNbvXp. AXp-sIm-≠mWv \memw \q‰m-

≠ns‚ Ah-km-\-tØmsS ]uc∑m-tcmSv {Iqc-ambn s]cp-am-dp-I-bpw, Ahsc ASn-®-

a¿Øm≥ {ian-°p-Ibpw sNbvX N{I-h¿Øn-amsc t\cn-Sm≥ Awt{_m-kns\t∏mse-

bp-ff Icp-Ø-cmb _nj-∏p-am¿°v km[n-®-Xv.

]n¬°me ]ucm-Wn-IX (Late Antiquity)tdma≥ km{am-Py-Øns‚ A¥n-a-Im-e-L-´-Ønse

kmwkv°m-cnI am‰sØ t\m°n-°-≠psIm≠v \ap°v Cu

A[ymbw D]-kw-l-cn-°mw. GI-tZiw \memw \q‰m≠v

apX¬ Ggmw \q‰m-≠p-hsc \o≠p-\n∂ Ime-L-´-sØ-

bmWv ]ne-°me ]ucm-Wn-IX F∂v hnh-£n-®n-cn-°p-∂-

Xv. Cu Ime-L´w tdma≥ km{am-Py-Øns‚ ]cn-Wm-a-Øn-

\pw, hnL-S-\-Øn\pw km£yw hln-®p. \memw \q‰m≠v

kmwkvIm-cn-I, kmº-ØnI Xe-ß-fn¬ BsI CfIn

adn™ Hcp Ime-L- -am-bn-cp∂p. kmwkv°m-cnI Xe-Øn¬

Cu Ime-L´w AXn-{]-[m-\-amb am‰-ßƒ°v km£yw hln-

®p. tIm¨Ãss‚≥ (Constantine) N{I-h¿Øn {InkvXp-a-

XsØ cmjv{S-Øns‚ HutZym-KnI aX-ambn {]Jym-]n-®p.

am{X-a√ Ggmw \q‰m-≠n¬ C…mw aXw DZbw sNøp-Ibpw

sNbvXp. CXn-t\m-sSm∏w Utbm-¢o-jy≥ (Diocletian,284˛305) N{I-h¿Øn-bpsS Iogn¬ cmjv{S-Øns‚ LS-\-

bnepw Xpey{]m[m-\y-ap≈ am‰-ßƒ D≠m-bn. Cu Imcy-

ß-fn¬ \n∂v XpS-ßp-∂-Xm-bn-cn°pw \√-Xv.

X{¥-]-c-a-√mØXpw, kmº-ØnI aqey-an-√m-Ø-Xp-

amb {]hn-iy-Isf ‘AS¿Øn-am‰n’ Utbm-¢o-jy≥,

km{amPy hnkvXrXn Ipd-®p. Utbm-¢o-jy≥ AXn¿Øn-

Isf tIm´ sI´n kwc-£n-°p-Ibpw, {]hn-iy-I-fpsS AXn-

cp-Iƒ ]p\-kw-L-Sn-∏n-°p-I-bpw, ]uc-∑msc ssk\nI Npa-X-e-I-fn¬ \n∂v Hgn-hm-

°p-I-bpw, ssk\nI Iam-‚¿am¿°v (-Uyq-k-kv, A∂sØ i‡-amb hn`m-Kw) KWy-

amb kzbw`c-Wm-[n-Imcw \¬Ip-Ibpw sNbvXp. CtXmsS Cu ssk\nI Iam-

‚¿am¿ hfsc i‡-cmbn. tIm¨Ã‚-bn≥ Cu am‰-ß-fn¬®neXns\ Dd-∏n-°p-

Ibpw ]pXnbh kz¥w \nebv°v Iq´n-t®¿°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. [\-]-c-amb taJ-e-

bn-em-bn-cp∂p {][m-\-ambpw tIm¨Ã-‚-bns‚ ]cn-jvIm-c-ßƒ. 4½ {Kmw Xq°-ap≈

ip≤-amb kz¿W-a-S-ßnb skmfn-Ukv (Solidus) F∂ ]pXnb \mWbw At±lw

]pd-Øn-d-°n. Cu \mWbw tdmam km{am-Py-Øns‚ XI¿®bv°p tijhpw \ne-\n-

∂pt]m∂p. tkmfnUn [mcm-f-ambn ASn-®n-d-°p-Ibpw, Zi-e-£°-W-°n\v kz¿W-

\m-W-b-ßƒ cmPyØv {]Nm-c-Øn-ep-≠m-hp-Ibpw sNbvXp. Xp¿°n-bnse B[p-\nI

CkvXmw_qfns‚ ÿm\Øv (]gb ss_km≥jyw) tIm¨Ãm‚n-t\m-∏n-fn¬,

km{am-Py-Øns‚ c≠mw Xe-ÿm\w ÿm]n-®Xmbn-cp∂p as‰mcp ]pXnb \S-]Sn.

aq∂p hihpw kap-{Z-Øm¬ Np‰-s∏-´-Xm-bn-cp∂p Cu ÿew. ]pXnb Xe-ÿm-\-

Øn\v Hcp ]pXnb sk\‰v Bh-iy-am-bn-cp-∂p. CXv c-W-h¿K-Øns‚ {ZpX-K-Xn-bn-

tIm¨Ãss‚≥ N{I-h¿Øn-

bpsS henb {]Xn-a-bpsS Hcp

`mKw, 313 kn.C.


ep-ff hnIm-k-Øn\v hgn-sX-fn-®p. [\-]-camb ÿnc-X-bpw, hf¿∂p-sIm-≠n-cn-°p∂

P\-kw-Jybpw kmº-ØnI hf¿®bv°v DtØ-P\w \¬In. {KmaoW taJ-e-I-fn¬

KWy-amb \nt£-]-ßƒ D≠m-b-Xmbn ]pcm-hkvXp ]T-\-ßƒ sXfn-bn-°p∂p ˛

FÆ an√p-I-fn-epw, ÿSnI \n¿ΩmW mIvS-dn-I-fn-epw, ]pØ≥ kmt¶-XnI hnZy-

I-fmb kv{Iq s{]- p-I-fn-epw, [mcmfw Pe-an-√p-I-fn-epw, IqSm-sX, Ing-°p-am-bp≈

hnZqc hmWn-Py-Øns‚ hos≠-Sp-°-enepw F√mw CXp Zriy-am-bn.

Ch-sb√mw \K-c-ß-fpsS i‡-amb kº-∂-Xbv°v Imc-W-am-bn. CXv \qX-

\-amb hmkvXp hnZym coXn-I-fn-epw, AXy-[n-I-amb BUw-_-c-Ønepw Zriy-am-bn.

`c-W-h¿Kw F∂-sØXn-ep-a-[nIw kº∂cpw Icp-Ø-cp-am-bn-cp-∂p. CuPn]vXn¬

\n∂pw Is≠-Sp-°-s∏´ Cu Ah-km\ \q‰m-≠p-I-fnse \qdv IW-°n\v ]m∏n-dkv

Npcp-fp-I-fn¬ \n∂v kaq-l-Øn¬ ]Ww hym]-I-ambn D]-tbmKn-®n-cp-∂p-sh∂pw,

{Kma-Ønse FtÃ-‰p-Iƒ henb hcp-am\w kz¿W-Øns‚ cq]-Øn¬ D≠m-°n-bn-

cp-∂p-sh∂pw hy‡-am-Ip-∂p. DZm-l-c-W-Øn\v PÃo-\n-b≥ cn® Bdmw \q‰m-≠n¬

\nIpXn C\-Øn¬ CuPn-]vXns‚ kw`m-h\ h¿j-Øn¬ 2½ Zi-e£w tkmfn-Un

(-G-I-tZiw 35000 ]u≠v kz¿Ww) Bbn-cp-∂p. bYm¿Y-Øn¬ Ccp-]Xmw \q‰m-

≠n¬ t]mepw D≠m-Im-hp-∂-Xn-t\-°mƒ tdmans‚ Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-ßƒ A©pw

Bdpw \q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬ h≥tXm-Xn¬ hnI-kn-X-hpw, P\-km-{μ-X- Iq-Sn-b-Xp-am-bn-cp-

∂p. Cu kmaq-lnI ]›m-Ø-e-Øn¬ \n∂psIm≠p thWw C°m-e-L-´-Ønse

kmwkv°m-cnI ]ptcm-K-Xn-Iƒ \mw hne-bn-cp-Øm≥.

¢mkn-°¬ temI-Ønse ({Ko°pw, tdma\pw) ]c-º-cm-KX aX-kw-kv°mcw

Hcp-t]mse, _lp-ssZ-h-mcm-[-\-bm-bn-cp-∂p. tdma≥, C‰m-en-b≥ ssZh-ß-fmb Pq∏n-

‰¿, PqtWm, an\¿h, amgvkv XpS-ßnb At\Iw ssZh-ßsf Bcm-[n-®n-cp∂

hnhn[Xcw aX-hn-izm-k-ß-fpƒs∏´ Ah¿ Bbn-c-I-W-°n\v t£{X-ßfpw, tZhm-

e-b-ßfpw, kt¶-X-ßfpw km{am-PyØnep-S -\ofw ]Wn-I-gn -∏n -®n -cp -∂p.

sImtfm-knbw-˛kn.C. 79˛¬

]Wn-I-gn-∏n-®-Xv. •mUn-tb-‰¿

(Zzμ-bp≤w \S-Øp∂ t]mcm-

fn) h\y-ar-K-ß-tfmSv G‰p-ap-´p-

∂Xv ChnsS h®m-bn-cp-∂p.

60,000 P\-ßsf Dƒs°m-

ffm≥ CXn\v Ign-bpw.


_lp-ssZ-hm-cm-[-I-cpsS aX-hn-izm-k-Øn\v s]mXp-hm-sbmcp t]tcm, te_-tem

(-A-S-bm-fw) D≠m-bn-cp-∂n-√. km{amPy-Øn¬ D≠m-bn-cp∂ as‰mcp aX-]m-c-º-cy-amWv

blq-Z-a-Xw. A°m-esØ PqX kap-Zm-b-ßƒ°n-S-bn¬ At\Iw sshhn-[y-ßƒ

\ne-\n-∂n-cp-∂-Xn-\m¬ PqX-a-Xhpw GI-in-em-fl-Iw* B-bn-cp-∂n-√ . AXn-\m¬ km{am-

Py-Øns‚ {InkvXobh¬°-cWw** \mepw A©pw \q‰m-≠p-I-fn¬ {Iam-\p-K-X-

hpw, AXoh k¶o¿W-hp-am-bmWv kw`-hn-®-Xv. ss{IkvXh _nj-∏p-am¿ Xßƒ

FXn¿Øn-cp∂ hnizm-k-ßƒ°pw BNm-c-ßƒ°p-sa-Xnsc t]mcm-Sn-bn-cp-∂ ]Sn-™m-

d≥ {]hn-iy-I-fn¬ H‰ cm{Xn-sIm≠v _lp-ssZ-hm-cm-[\ A{]Xy-£-am-bn-√. \memw

\q‰m-≠n¬ aX kap-Zm-b-ß-fpsS AXn-cp-Iƒ I¿°-i-am-bn-cp-∂n-√. F∂m¬ XpS¿∂v

]≈n-Iƒ cn® i‡-cmb _nj-∏p-am¿ Ah-cpsS A\p-bm-bn-Isf (sebn-‰n)***\nb-

{¥n-®p cn-°p-∂-Xn\p th≠n I¿°-i-amb hnizm-k-ß-fpw, A\p-jvTm-\-ßfpw \S-

∏n-em-°n.

540 Ifn¬ saUn-‰-td-\n-bs\ _m[n® tπKns\t∏mepw AXn-Po-hn®v Ing-

°≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn¬ {]Xy-£-amb kar≤n \ne-\n-∂n-cp-∂psh∂p am{X-a√ AhnsS

P\-kwJy hf¿∂p sIm≠p-an-cp-∂p. F∂m¬ ]Sn-™mdp Zn°n¬ CXn\p hncp-≤-

ambn km{am-Py-Øns‚ hSt° AXn¿Øn-bn-ep-ff P¿Ωm-\nIv hn`m-K-ßƒ (-tKm-Øp-

Iƒ, hm≥U-ep-Iƒ, semw_m¿Up-Iƒ XpS-ßn-b-h¿) ]›n-a-tdmam km{am-Py-Øns‚

{][m\ {]hn-iy-I-sf√mw B{I-an®v ssIh-i-s∏-Sp-Øp-I-bpw, ‘DØc tdma≥ F∂p-

hn-ti-jn-∏n-°-s∏-Sp∂ Nne cmP-hw-i-ßƒ’ ÿm]n-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. CXn¬ {][m-

\-s∏- h hnkn-tKm-Øp-Iƒ kvs]bn-\n-epw (CXv 711˛720 Ime-L- -Øn¬ Ad-_n-Iƒ

]q¿W-ambn \in-∏n®p), {^m¶p-Iƒ Kufnepw (kn. 511˛687), semw_m¿Up-Iƒ C‰-en-

bnepw (568˛774) ÿm]n® cmPy-ß-fm-Wv. s]mXpth a[y-bpKw F∂p hnh-£n-°-s∏-

Sp∂ thdn-s´mcp Ime-L´Øns‚ XpS-°-amWv Cu cmPy-ßƒ Ipdn-®-Xv. Ing-°≥

tdmam-km-{amPyw GIo-Ir-X-ambn \ne-sIm-≈p-Ibpw, PÃo-\n-b≥ N{I-h¿Øn-bpsS

Iogn¬ A`n-hr-≤n-s∏ v km{am-Py-Xz-tam-l-ßƒ bmYm¿Yy-am-°p--Ibpw sNbvXp. PÃo-

\n-b≥, hm≥U-ep-I-fn¬ \n∂v B{^n° Xncn®p ]nSn-®p (533). F∂m¬ At±lw C‰-

ensb Xncn-®p-]n-Sn-®Xv (Hmkvt{Sm-tKm-Øp-I-fn¬ \n∂v) B cmPy-Øns‚ \mi-Øn-te-

°pw, semw_m¿Up-I-fpsS B{I-a-W-Øn-te-°p-amWv hgn-sX-fn-®-Xv. Ggmw \q‰m-≠ns‚

XpS-°tØmsS, tdmapw Cdm\pw XΩn-ep-ff bp≤-ßƒ ]p\-cm-cw- n-®ncp∂p. Cdm-\n¬

aq∂mw \q‰m≠p hsc `cn-®n-cp∂ kkm-\n-b≥am¿ hym]-I-amb Hcp B{IaWw

CuPn]vXv Dƒs∏-sS-bp-ff Ing-°≥ {]hn-iy-I-fn¬ Agn®p hnSp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

‘ss_km‚bn≥ km{amPyw’ F∂-dn-b-s∏´ tdmam km{amPyw 620 Ifn¬ Cu {]tZ-i-

ßsfms° Xncn-®p-]n-Sn-s®-¶n-epw, A[nIw sshImsX Xs∂, B km{am-Py-Øn-\v,

sX°p- -In-gt° tZiØp \n∂pw i‡-amb Ah-km\ {]lcw t\cn-tS≠n h∂p.

“{]mNo\temIØv kw -hn® kam-\-X-I-fn-√mØ G‰hpw henb cmjv{Sob

hnπ-h-am-bmWv”Atd-_y-bn¬ Bcw- n® C…m-ans‚ hnIm-ksØ hnti-jn-∏n-°p-∂-

Xv. kn.C. 642˛¬, {]hm-N-Is‚ ac-W-Øn\p IjvSn®v ]Øv h¿j-Øn-\p-ti-jw,

AXn-ibIc-amb G‰p-ap- -ep-Iƒs°m-Sp-hn¬ Ing-°≥ tdma≥ km{am-Py-Øn-s‚bpw,

kkm-\n-b≥ km{am-Py-Øn-s‚bpw hen-sbmcp mKw Ad-_n-I-fpsS \nb-{¥-W-Øn≥

Iogn¬ h∂p. Cu bp≤-ßƒ, HSp-hn¬ kvs]bn≥, kn‘v, at[yjy F∂n-hn-S-ß-fn-

te°v hym]n®p. ]t£ Hcp hkvXpX \Ωƒ Hm¿°-Ww. ]pXp-Xmbn cq]w sIm≠

C…m-anI cmPyw, Atd-_y-bv°-I-Øpw, ]n∂oSv kndn-b≥ acp`qan-bn-epw, CdmJv hsc-

bpw, Ad_v tKm{X-h¿K-ßsf A[o\-X-bn¬ sIm≠p h∂-tXm-sS-bmWv Cu B{I-

a-W-ß-fpw, Iog-S-°-ep-Ifpw XpS-ßn-b-Xv. Cu GIo-I-c-W-Øn-eqsS C…m-anI cmjv{S-

Øns‚ DZ-b-Øn\v hgn sXfn-°p-Ibpw sNbvXp. Atd-_y≥ D]-Zzo-]n-s‚-bpw, hyXykvX

tKm{X-hn- m-K-ß-fp-sSbpw GIo-I-c-W-amWv C…m-anI cmjv{S-Øns‚ hnIm-k-Øn\v

{][m-\ -Im-c-W-ambn h¿Øn-®-sX∂v {]tabw 4˛¬ \ap°v ImWm≥ Ign-bpw.

*samtWm-enØv (GI-in-

em-fl-Iw) ˛ A£-cm¿Y-

Øn¬ Hcp henb I√v.

F∂m¬ sshhn-[y-an-

√mØXpw Htc t]mse

Ccn-°p-∂-Xp-amb

F¥ns\ kqNn-∏n-

°m\pw Cu hm°v

D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

(DZm : Hcp kwkvIm-cw

As√-¶n¬ kaq-lw)

***sebn‰n --˛ (kmam\y

P\-ßƒ)˛ kap-Zm-b-Øn-

\p-f-fn¬ HutZym-KnI

ÿm\-am-\-ß-fp-ff

]ptcm-lnX h¿K-Øn¬

\n∂v hn`n-∂-ambn Hcp

aX-Øn-ep-ff km[m-c-W-

°m-cmb AwK-ß-fm

-Wn-h¿.

**{InkvXobh¬°-

cWw ˛ {InkvXp-aXw

P\-kw-Jy-bpsS

hnhn[ hn`m-K-ßƒ°n-

S-bn¬ hym]n®v ta[m-

hn-Xz-ap-ff {][m\

aX-ambn amdnb

{]{In-b.


`q]Sw 2 : ]›n-tajy


kw`-h-ßƒ

27 _n.kn.C. HIvtS-hn-b≥ {]n≥kn-t∏‰v ÿm]n®p, At∏mƒ apX¬ AK-Ãkv F∂v kzbw hnfn®pkn. 24˛79 πn\n-bpsS Pohn-X-Imew; shkq-hn-b- nse A·n]¿hXkvt^mS-\-Øn¬ At±lw

ac-W-a-S-™p, Cu kvt^mS-\-Øn¬ tdma≥ ]´-W-amb t]mws]bpw aä-d-™p-t]m-bn

66˛70 PqX hnπ-hw, tdma≥ ssk\yw Pdp-ktew ]nSn-s®-Sp-°p∂pkn. 115 Ing-°≥ {]tZ-i-ß-fn-te-°p-ff {SmPs‚ B{I-a-WsØ XpS¿∂v tdmam-km-{am-Py-Øns‚

hnkvXrXn G‰hpw h¿[n-®-Im-ew

212 km{am-Py-Øn-\-I-Øp-ff kzmX-{¥-cmb P\-ßsfsb√mw tdma≥ ]uc-∑m-cm-°p-∂p224 Cdm-\n¬ ]q¿hn-I-\mb kkms‚ t]cn-e-dn-b-s∏-Sp∂ ]pXnb cmP-hw-i-P-amb "kkm-

\n-b≥am¿' A[n-Im-c-Øn¬ hcp-∂p250 Iƒ bq{^-ó-kn\v ]Sn-™m-dp-ff tdma≥ {]tZ-i-ßƒ t]¿jym-°m¿ B{I-an-°p-∂p

258 Im¿tØ-Pnse ssk{]n-b≥ _nj∏v h[n-°-s∏-Sp-∂p260 Iƒ K√-o\kv ssk\ysØ ]p\ wL-Sn-∏n-°p-∂p

273 ]¬aocbnse Imc-h≥ \Kcw tdmam-°m¿ \in-∏n-°p-∂p

297 Utbm-¢o-jy≥ km{am-PysØ 100 {]hn-iy-I-fmbn ]p\ wL-Sn-∏n-°p-∂p

kn. 310 tIm¨Ãss‚-≥ ]pXnb kz¿W\mWbw Cd-°p-∂p ("tkmfn-Ukv')312 tIm¨Ãss‚≥ {InkvXp-a-X-Øn-te°v ]cn-h¿Ø\w sNøp-∂p

324 tIm¨Ãss‚≥, km{am-Py-Øns‚ GI `c-Wm-[n-Imcn, tIm¨Ãm‚n-t\m-∏nƒ F∂\Kcw ÿm]n-°p∂p

354-˛430 lnt∏m-bnse _nj∏v sk‚ v AK-Ãns‚ PohnXImew378 tKmØp-Iƒ A{Un-bm-t\m-∏n-fn¬ h®v tdma≥ ssk\ysØ Atº ]cm-P-b-s∏-Sp-Øp-

∂p

391 AeIvkm≥{Un-b-bnse skdm-]nbw (skdm-]nkns‚ t£{Xw) XI¿°s∏Sp-∂p410 hnkn-tKm-Øp-Iƒ tdmans\ XI¿°p-∂p428 hm≥U-ep-Iƒ B{^n° ]nSn-s®-Sp-°p-∂p434-˛53 lqW-\mb B‰n-e-bpsS km{amPyw

493 Hmkvt{Sm-tKm-Øp-Iƒ C‰-en-bn¬ cmPyw ÿm]n-°p-∂p

533-˛50 PÃo-\n-b≥ B{^n-°bpw C‰enbpw hos≠-Sp-°p-∂p541˛70 _yq_-WnIv tπKv s]mń-∏p-d-s∏-Sp-∂p568 semw_m¿Up-Iƒ C‰-ensb B{I-an-°p-∂p

kn. 570 {]hm-N-I-\mb apl-Ω-Zns‚ P\\w614˛19 t]¿jy≥ cmPm-hmb Jpkvtdm c≠m-a≥ Ing-°≥ tdma≥ {]tZ-i-ßƒ B{I-an®v Iogvs∏-

Sp-Øp-∂p622 apl-ΩZpw A\p-bm-bn-Ifpw a°-bn¬ \n∂pw aZo-\-bn-te°v ]em-b\w sNøp-∂p633˛42 Ad_v B{I-a-W-ßfpsS BZy, \n¿Wm-bI L´w; kndn-b, ]me-kvXo≥, CuPn-]vXv,

Cdm-Jv, Cdms‚ `mK-ßƒ F∂nh ap…ow ssk\yw A[o-\-s∏-SpØp∂p661˛750 kndn-b-bn¬ Da-øZv hwiw698 Ad-_n-Iƒ Im¿tØPv ]nSn-s®-Sp-°p-∂p711 Ad-_n-Iƒ kvs]bn≥ B{I-an-°p-∂p

`c-Wm-[n-Im-cn-Iƒ

27 _n.kn.C. ˛14 kn.C.AKÃkv, BZy tdma≥N{Ih¿Øn

14˛37ssS_o-cn-bkv98˛117{SmP≥

117˛38lm{Un-b≥

193 ˛ 211sk]vSn-an-bkvskh-dkv241 ˛ 72jm∏q¿ H∂mas‚ cWwCdm-\n¬253 ˛ 68K√-o\kv

284 ˛ 305sS{Sm¿°n{][m\ cmPmhv Utbm-¢o-jy≥

312 ˛ 37tIm¨Ãss‚≥309 ˛79Cdm-\n¬ jm∏q¿II˛mas‚ c-W-Imew

408˛50Xntbm-tUm-jnbkv II({]kn-≤-amb Xntbm-tUm-jy≥ tImUn(\nba {KŸw)s‚ kam-l¿Ømhv)

490 ˛ 518A\-kvtX-jykv527 ˛ 65PÃo-\n-b≥531 ˛79Cdm-\n¬ JpkvtdmI mas‚ c-W-Imew

610 ˛ 41sldm¢n-bkv


A`ym-k-ßƒ [Exercises]

Npcp°n DØ-cw F-gp-XpI [Answer in Brief]1. \nßƒ tdmam-km-{am-Py-Øn¬ Pohn-®n-cp-∂p-sh-¶n¬ \K-c-ß-fn-em-tWm, {Kma-

{]-tZ-i-ß-fn-emtWm Pohn-°m≥ B{K-ln-°p-I? F¥p-sIm-≠m-Wv? hni-Zo-

I-cn-°p-I.

2. Cu A[ym-b-Øn¬ ]cm-a¿in-°p∂ Ipd®v \K-c-ßƒ, ]´-W-ßƒ, \Zn-Iƒ,

kap-{Z-ßƒ, {]hn-iy-Iƒ F∂n-h-bpsS Hcp ]ńI tiJ-cn-°p-I. `q]-S-Øn¬

\nßƒ Xbm-dm-°nb ]ń-I-bnse ÿe-ßƒ Is≠-Øp-I. \nßƒ ]ń-I-

s∏-Sp-Ønb ÿe-ß-fn¬ GsX-¶nepw aqs∂-Æ-sØ-°p-dn®v hni-Zmw-i-ßƒ

Ah-X-cn-∏n-°mtam?

3. Km¿lnImh-iy-ß-fpsS ]ńI Xbm-dm-t°≠nhcp∂ Hcp tdma≥ ho -Ω-bmWv

\nß-sf∂v k¶-¬∏n-°p-I. Fs¥ms°bmbn-cn°pw \nßƒ ]ń-I-bn¬

Dƒs∏-Sp-Øp-I?

4. sh≈n \mW-b-ßƒ ]pd-Øn-d-°p-∂Xv tdma≥ Kh¨sa‚ v \n¿Øn h®-

sX-¥p-sIm≠v? ]Icw, \mW-b-ß-fp-≠m-°m≥ GXp teml-amWv D]-tbm-

Kn®p XpS-ßn-bXv?

eLp D]-\ymkw Fgp-XpI [Answer in a short essay]5. bYm¿Y-Øn¬ {SmP≥ N{I-h¿Øn°v C¥y Iog-S-°m≥ Ign™p F∂pw,

tdmam-°m¿ A\-h[n \q‰m-≠p-Iƒ C¥y-bn¬ D≠m-bn-cp∂p F∂pw k¶¬∏n-

°p-I. Aßs\sb¶n¬ C∂v C¥y, GsX√mw Imcy-ß-fn¬ hyXy-kvX-am-bn-

cn°pw?

6. A[ymbw {i≤m-]q¿Δw hmbn®v tdmans‚ kmaq-ln-I, kmº-ØnI khn-ti-

j-X-Ifn¬ XnI®pw B[p-\n-I-sa∂v tXm∂p-∂h Xnc-s™-Sp-°p-I.

cmsh-Æ-bnse samsskIv

kn.C. 547 , PÃo -\n -b≥

N{I-h¿Øn-bpsS Nn{Xw.

BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ - scert.kerala.gov.in · I Ime-Øns‚ Bcw`w apX¬ (From the Beginning of Time)...

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Transcript of BZy-Ime kaq-l-ßƒ - scert.kerala.gov.in · I Ime-Øns‚ Bcw`w apX¬ (From the Beginning of Time)...