Civil Engineering Materials

Engr Abdul Qadeer Afridi

Department of Civil Engineering

IQRA NATIONAL UNIVERSITY PESHAWAR

BUILDING STONES

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Building Stone

• Stone: A construction material derived

from rocks in the earth’s crust and mixture

of two or more minerals.

• Mineral is a substance which is formed by

the natural inorganic process and

possesses a definite chemical composition

and molecular structure.

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Building Stones

• Stones used in most historical places

– Pyramids of Egypt

– Taj Mahal of Agra, India

– Great wall of China

– Greek and Roman structures

– Quaid’s Mausoleum in Karachi

– Shahi mosque in Lahore

– Forts at Rohtas, Lahore

– Grand Trunk Road

– Lloyd’s Barrage at Sukkur

History

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Taj Mehal ??

The Great Pyramids

??

History

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The Roman Colosseum Badshahi Musjid

Lake Vyrnwy

Dam , England

Modern Use

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Civil Engineering Uses

• Construction of residential and public buildings

• Construction of dams, weirs, harbors, bridge abutments, etc

• Face work of structures for appearance and ornamental value

• Road metal and railway ballast

• Aggregate for concrete

• Stone dust as substitute for sand

• Thin slabs for roofing, flooring and pavements

• Limestone for manufacture of lime, cement, etc

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Building Stones

• Stone as building material lost its

importance due to

– Advent of cement and steel – less bulky,

stronger and more durable

– Structural strength can not be rationally

analyzed

– Transportation difficulties

– Dressing problems

Stone Balast

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Classification of Rocks

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Classification of Rocks

Rocks

Geological Physical Chemical

Igneous

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Stratified

Un-Stratified

Foliated

Argillaceous

Siliceous

Calcareous

Practical

Granite,

Basalts

Marble

Limestone,

Sandstone,

Slate

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Classification of Rocks

• Geological classification

– Igneous rocks (primary, un-stratified, eruptive) – cooled down molten volcanic lava (magma). Basalts and granites.

– Sedimentary rocks (aqueous, stratified) – gradually deposited disintegrated rocks. Sand stones and lime stones

– Metamorphic rocks – transformed due to great heat and pressure. Granite to gneiss, lime stone to marble, shale to slate

Igneous Rock

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Sedimentary Rocks

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Metamorphic Rocks

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Classification of Rocks

• Physical classification

– Stratified rocks – separable distinct layers.

Cleavage plane of split visible. Slate,

sandstone, lime stone

– Un-stratified rocks – no sign of strata, cannot

be easily split into slabs. Granite, basalt, trap

– Foliated rocks – having tendency to split up

only in a definite direction

Stratified Rocks

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Un-stratified Rocks

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Foliated Rocks

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Classification of Rocks

• Chemical Classification

– Siliceous rocks – containing silica SiO2 (sand)

and silicates. Granite, basalt, trap, quartzite,

gneiss, syenite, etc

– Argillaceous rocks – containing clay or

alumina Al2O3. Slate, laterite, etc

– Calcareous rocks – containing calcium

carbonate or lime. Limestone, marble,

dolomite, etc

Calcareous Rocks

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Argillaceous rocks

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Siliceous rocks

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Classification of Rocks

• Practical Classification

– Granites

– Basalts

– Marbles

– Sandstones

– Slates

– Etc, etc

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Stone Mountain, Atlanta, USA

Igneous Rocks

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Red Granite

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Vesicular Basalt

Sedimentary Rocks

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Old Red Sandstone

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Red Devonian Sandstone

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Basalt and Sandstone

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Limestone and Slate

Metamorphic Rocks

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Green Slate

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Metamorphic Rocks

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Metamorphic Rocks

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Gneiss

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Granitic Gneisses

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Granitic Gneisses

Miscellaneous Sedimentary

Material

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Glacially Transported Potpourri

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Glacially Transported Potpourri

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Chert Nodules (Flints)

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Chert Nodules (Flints)

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Chert Nodules

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Cenzoic Coral

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Stone Masonry

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Characteristics of Good

Building Stones • Appearance & color – uniform color, lighter shades

preferred, free from clay holes, bands or spots

• Structure – Not dull in appearance, crystalline homogenous close grained is good, stratification should not be visible, fine grained for carving

• Weight – heavier are compact, less porous, good for hydraulic structures

• Strength – generally compressive strength needed, igneous rock stones are stronger

• Hardness– resistance to abrasion, friction and wear. Hardness scale 1 to 10

• Toughness – Withstand impact, vibrations, moving loads

• Dressing – uniform texture and softness for fine surface finish

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Characteristics of Good

Building Stones • Porosity and Absorption – exposed surface absorbs rain

water forming acids causing crumbling action. Cyclic freezing and thawing of pore water

• Seasoning – hardening and weathering affect due to evaporation of quarry sap and formation of crystalline film. 6 to 12 months for proper seasoning

• Weathering – resistance to action of weather

• Resistance to fire – free from calcium carbonate or oxides of iron

• Durability – compact, homogenous and less absorptive is more durable

• Cost – quarrying, transportation, dressing and installation

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Moh’s Hardness Scale

• 1 Talc, scratched easily by thumb nail

• 2 Gypsum, scratched by thumb nail

• 3 Calcite, scratched not by thumb nail but by knife

• 4 Fluorite, cut by knife with difficulty

• 5 Apatite, cut by knife with difficulty more than 4

• 6 Orthoclase, cut by knife with great difficulty

• 7 Quartz, not scratched by steel, scratches glass

• 8 Topaz

• 9 Corundum

• 10 Diamond

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Moh’s Hardness

Scale

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Talc Gypsum Calcite Flourite Apatite

Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond

Minerals

Quarrying of Stones

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Quarrying and Dressing

• Quarrying: An art of extracting stones from

the rock beds of different varieties used for

general building work and broken stones

for roads and concrete work, etc

• Quarry: The place from stone is obtained

by digging or blasting etc

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Quarrying Methods

• Digging or Excavating Method. Stones occurring as detached nodules may be dug using manual methods like crowbars etc

• Heating Method. Rock surface is heated for several hours resulting into unequal expansion and crushing of rock into small pieces

• Wedging Method. Layered rock is split at cleavage or seam using steel wedges and pins

• Blasting Method. Hard and compact rock is blasted out using explosives techniques comprising boring, charging, tamping and firing

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Quarrying

Tools

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Blasting Procedure

• Boring. Drilling of holes in rock using jumper, manual drilling or machine drilling using pneumatic or mechanical power

• Charging. Placing of required quantity of explosive charge in the hole at desired location. Quantity depends upon explosive strength, blasting method, number of holes, type and mass of rock – Gunpowder or Dynamite explosive (gms) = Square of length of

line of least resistance (m) / 0.008

• Tamping. Placing of priming charge, detonation cable (cordite), and sealing off the escape of gases

• Firing. detonation mechanism (electrical or non-electrical detonators) or fuse ignition

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Blasting Precautions

• Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or early morning. Blasting should be made public with sufficient time allowed to retire to safe distance

• 200 m radius danger zone should be marked with red flags

• First aid should be made available

• Proper record of number of charges prepared, fired and exploded to account for misfires

• Explosive should be handled carefully

• Detonators and explosive should not be stored and kept together

• Cartridges should be handled with rubber gloves

• Maximum of 10 bore holes should be exploded at a time and that too successively and not simultaneously

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Stone Dressing

• Pitched faced dressed – 2.5 cm edges dressed and made square

• Hammer dressed, hammer faced, quarry faced or rustic faced – dressed like a brick with 2.5 cm rough edges for use in masonry

• Rock faced and chisel drafted – chisel draft of 2.5 cm along edges

• Rough tooled – edges and corners made perfect square and true

• Punched dressed – rough tooled improved up to 2 mm

• Fine tooled – fair smooth surface for ashler masonry

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Dressed Stone Surfaces

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Dressed Stone Surfaces

Stone Care

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Deterioration of Stones

• Rain. – Physical Action. Disintegration, erosion,

transportation due to alternate wetting and drying

– Chemical Action. Decomposition, oxidation and hydration of minerals due to acids formed with rain water

• Frost. Pierces the pores, freezes, expands and creates cracks

• Wind. Abrasion due to wind carried dust

• Temperature Changes. Expansion and contraction affects on minerals of different coefficients of linear expansion

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Deterioration of Stones

• Vegetable growth. Roots of trees and

weeds in cracks and fissures

• Mutual decay

• Chemical Agents. Smokes, fumes, acids

and acid fumes from atmosphere

• Lichens. Destroy lime stones. Molluses

make series of parallel vertical holes

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Avoiding Deterioration

• Initial selection – use compact, crystalline stones instead of porous material

• Seasoning – Seasoned stones are less liable to deterioration due to frost and acids

• Size – it does matter – bigger is more durable than smaller ones

• Natural bed – placing on natural bed provides greater strength and is detrimental to rain and frost

• Surface finish – well dressed, smooth finished and polished is more durable

• Workmanship – all joints filled leaving no cavities in masonry

• External rendering – pointing or plastering to stop rain penetration

• Proper maintenance – washing, removing dirt and dust

• Application of preservatives – eliminate cause of deterioration

• Cure is better than medicine

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Natural Bed

of Stones

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Preservation of Stones

• Stones should be kept dry with blow lamp and applied coat of paraffin, linseed oil, light paint, etc

• Stones should be washed with water and steam to remove dirt and salt

• In industrial towns stones are preserved by application of solution of baryta, Ba(OH)2 to form insoluble barium sulphate

• Preservative treatment only slows down the decay but does not stop it. All have harmful side effects also

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Selection of Stones

• Cost – quarrying and cutting, dressing,

transportation charges, etc

• Fashion & Ornamental value including

color, shade, etc specially after prolong

usage

• Durability (usually overlooked and

disregarded), resistance to fire and

weathering

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Selection of Stones

• Heavy engineering works bridges, piers, abutments, break waters, docks, light houses – granite (biotite, hornblende, tourmaline)

• Buildings facing the sea – granite, fine grained sandstone

• Buildings in industrial area – granite, compact sandstone

• Arches – fine grained sandstone

• Building face work – marble, close grained sandstone

• Fire resisting structure – compact sandstone

• Road metal and aggregate for concrete – granite, basalt, quartzite

• Railway ballast – coarse grained sandstone, quartzite

• Electrical switch board – slate, marble

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Artificial Stone

• Definition - Building material made with cement, sand and natural aggregates of crushed stone for use in place of natural stone

• Properties – Made with white cement, sand and natural

aggregates of crushed stone

– Moulded into most intricate forms

– Cast into any size

– Reinforced to desired higher strength

– Desired coloring may be achieved

– Desired finish may be achieved

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Artificial Stone

• Concrete block. Cast in moulds for steps,

window sills, masonry work, etc

• Ransom stone. Soda silicate plus cement

for decorative flooring

• Victoria stone. Granite pieces immersed in

soda silicate for two months

• Bituminous stone. Provide noise, wear and

dust resistant stone surfaces

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Artificial Stone

• Imperial stone. Crushed granite plus cement, moulded, steam cured

• Artificial marble. Pre-cast or cast-in-situ. Portland gypsum cement and sand. Cast blocks treated with magnesium fluorite, washed, paper wrapped, machine emery ground, polished and finally rubbed with ball of wool moistened with alum water

• Garlic stone. Iron slag and cement mixture molded into flag stones, surface drains, etc

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Any Questions ???

Evaluation of Stones