Brief Introduction to Biophysical Principles Posted on January 31, 2011 by Chris Maser

All physical and biophysical principles function simultaneously not only with an

underpinning of commonalities but also with the novelty of varying emphasis at different

times, scales, and places.

The functionality of these principles is archived in the repetitive cycles of cause and effect,

as seen through all the reaches and scales of time, space, and the events entrained in them.

This seeming duality gives rise to both the generic and unique attributes of every system,

whether purely physical or biophysical. In a sense, these principles act like a cosmic spider

web, with ever-shifting points of contact and emphasis, all being intrinsically equal and

complementary with one another within the context of systems supporting systems

supporting systems supporting systems ad infinitum, from the sub-atomic to the galactic.

Although I have done our best to present the principles in a logical order, it is difficult to be

definitive because each principle forms an interactive strand in the multi-dimensional web

of energy interchange that constitutes the universe and our world within it. Moreover, I see

the possibility of a different, yet “valid” order each time I read them, and each arrangement

seems logical because each principle affects all principles. Therefore, every arrangement is

equally correct in a functional sense—much like the a waterbed in that you cannot touch

any part of it without affecting the whole of it—the overarching “Waterbed Principle,” of

which the biophysical principles are constituents:

1. Everything in the universe is a relationship supporting relationships, thus precluding the

existence of an independent variable, absolute freedom, or a constant value beyond the

number one (the universal common denominator); everything else is an additive of one.

2. All relationships are productive, because all relationships produce an outcome.

3. The only true investment of energy on Earth is solar energy from sunlight; everything

else is a reinvestment of existing energy—including all market dynamics, such as the

energy that drives the stock market.

4. All systems are defined by their function—not their pieces in isolation of one another.

5. All relationships result in a transfer of energy, and everything we humans ever do is a

manipulation of energy.

6. All relationships are self-reinforcing feedback loops; whether feedback loops are

“positive” or “negative” depends on whether or not they satisfy a human desire.

7. All relationships—usually experienced in the form of decisions and actions—have one or

more tradeoffs.

8. Change is a constant process, which, by definition, can produce only novel outcomes.

9. All relationships are irreversible because all outcomes are novel, and we cannot go back

in time to recapture a past outcome.

10. All systems are based on composition, structure, and function, where composition

determines structure, and structure allows function.

11. All systems have cumulative effects, which compound unnoticed through time until a

visible threshold is cross, making the cumulative outcome apparent.

12. All systems are open to cosmic energy; consequently, closed-loop of anything (be it an

economic system or technology) is a physical impossibility because, while energy can be

constrained, it cannot be contained.

13. All systems function in curvilinear cycles, like a coiled spring wherein each cycle

approximates—but only approximate—its neighbor through the ever-changing process of

novel outcomes, but each cycle is simultaneously linear because the coils never touch.

14. Systemic change is based on self-organized criticality, which simply means that an

internal shift in one or more components of the system ultimately caused a dramatic shift

of systemic proportions.

15. Dynamic disequilibrium rules all systems, which negates the romantic notion of the

“balance of nature.”

Every one of the fifteen principles came into being with the birth of the cosmos. If the first

two physical things were chemicals, then the initial relationship (principle 1) between those

two chemicals produced the initial chemical reaction (principle 2), which in turn produced

something else (principle 4). This means that a third thing—a chemical compound—arose

out of the initial chemical reaction (principles 6, 9, and 10). That chemical compound

simultaneously created the possibility of new relationships and a new definition of

relationship (principle 5). Thus, the result of the interaction between the two chemicals—

the compound—becomes an integral part of the definition of each parent chemical. At some

point, in the classic concept of cause and effect, the growth of possible

physical-chemical relationships becomes exponential, which means that one thing’s hidden

potential to become something else takes it beyond what it seems to be (principles 8 and

12).

At this juncture, the chemical composition or makeup of a compound (such as carbon

dioxide) determines its structure, which in turn determines how it functions (principles 9

and 10). Because the composition of something refers to the way in which its various parts

are put together and arranged, a change in the composition simultaneously alters both its

structure and its function (principle 11). Once the composition is in place, however, the

structure and function are set—unless, of course, the composition changes, at which time

both the structure and function are altered accordingly (principles 5, 7, and 14). This

dynamic is an ongoing process of every system (principles 13 and 15).

The malleability of an object’s composition and the subsequent fixity of its structure and

function move inevitably toward a critical state in which a minor event sooner or later leads

to a catastrophic event, one that alters the system in some dramatic way, such as the birth

of a star and its ultimate demise (principle 10).1 In this sense, all systems are dissipative

structures in that energy is built up through time only to be released gradually or in a

major event of some kind, such as a fire, flood, or landslide, in some scale, ranging from a

freshet in a stream to the eruption of a volcano, after which energy begins building again

toward the next release of pent-up energy somewhere in time (principles 1, 2, and 4

through 14).

Such disturbances, as ecologists think of these events, can be long term and chronic, such

as large movements of soil that take place over hundreds of years (termed an earth flow),

or acute, such as the crescendo of a volcanic eruption that sends a pyroclastic flow

speeding down its side. (A pyroclastic flow is a turbulent mixture of hot gas and fragments

of rock, such as pumice, that is violently ejected from a fissure and moves with great speed

down the side of a volcano. Pyroclastic is Greek for “fire-broken.”)

As with the rest cosmos, these principles were primarily physical in nature when planet

Earth was young because one essential ingredient for most life was missing—oxygen.

Nevertheless, Earth, like the rest of the universe, was physically bound to the functional

integrity of these fifteen principles. And since we humans are an inseparable part of

Earth’s biophysical systems, we ignore these principles at our peril, which is clearly

evident worldwide—from air pollution; to global warming; to deforesting the tropics; to

overfishing the oceans; to acidification of the oceans; to massive, marine oil spills, all of

which negatively affect every living thing on our home planet.

To achieve the level of consciousness and the balance of energy necessary to maintain the

sustainability of ecosystems, we must focus our questions—social and scientific—toward

understanding the biophysical principles inherent in the governance of those systems and

our place within that governance. Then, with humility, we must develop the moral courage

and political will to direct our personal and collective energy toward living within the

constraints defined by those principles—not by our economic/political ambitions. The

decision we make today and the subsequent consequences of the actions we take based on

those decisions become the legacy we leave to all generations unto evermore.2

ENDNOTES

1.Per Bak. and Kan Chen. Self-organizing Criticality. Scientific American, January

(1991):46-53.

2.The foregoing discussion is largely excerpted from: Chris Maser. Social-Environmental

Planning: The Design Interface Between Everyforest and Everycity. 2009. CRC Press, Boca

Raton, FL. 321 pp.

Text © by Chris Maser, 2011. All rights reserved.

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Biography: Chris Maser

Chris Maser has over 40 years of experience in ecological research in agricultural, alpine, coastal, desert, forest, marsh,

valley grassland, riverine, shrub steppe, and subarctic settings. He has lived, worked, consulted, and lectured in: Austria,

Canada, Chile, Egypt, France, Germany, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Slovakia, Switzerland, and the United States. He

has spent many years developing new ways of understanding social-environmental sustainability. He has over 285

publications, including 34 books.

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MODULE 5: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

5.1 Introduction

Radiation is one of the best-investigated hazardous agents. Because of the vast accumulation of

quantitative dose-response data, specialists are able to set environmental radiation levels so that

applications of nuclear technologies may continue at a level of risk that is much less than with many

other technologies.

5.2 Acute and Delayed Effects

A single accidental exposure to a high dose of radiation during a short period of time is referred to as

an acute exposure, and may produce biological effects within a short period after exposure. These

effects are:

o Nausea and vomiting

o Malaise and fatigue

o Increased temperature

o Blood changes

o Bone marrow damage

o Damage to cells lining the small intestine

o Damage to blood vessels in the brain

The above list is given for information purposes only. The doses that can produce such effects are

extremely unlikely even in the event of an accident at the U of T.

The delayed effects of radiation are due to low-level exposure that is called continuous or chronic

exposure. In this case, the results may not be apparent for years. This type of exposure is likely to be

the result of improper or inadequate protective measures.

In the case of inhalation or ingestion of radioactive materials, a single "acute" event may cause a long

period "chronic" internal body exposure due to irradiation of tissue where radioactive material has

been fixed.

The most common delayed effects are various forms of cancer (leukaemia, bone cancer, thyroid

cancer, lung cancer) and genetic defects (malformations in children born to parents exposed to

radiation). In any radiological situation involving the induction of cancer, there is a certain time period

between the exposure to radiation and the onset of disease. This is known as the "latency period"

and is an interval in which no symptoms of disease are present. The minimum latency period for

leukaemia produced by radiation is 2 years and can be up to 10 years or more for other types of

cancer.

5.3 Dose-Effect Relationship

The connection between effects of exposure to radiation and dose (i.e., dose-response relationship)

is classified into 2 categories, non-stochastic, and stochastic.

Non-stochastic effects, also referred to as deterministic, are specific to each exposed individual. They

are characterised by:

i. A certain minimum dose must be exceeded before the particular effect is observed. Because of

this minimum dose, the non-stochastic effects are also called Threshold Effects. The threshold

may differ from individual to individual

ii. The magnitude of the effect increases with the size of the dose received by the individual

iii. There is clear relationship between exposure to radiation and the observed effect on the

individual

Stochastic effects are those that occur by chance, appearing among unexposed people as well. The

main stochastic effects are cancer and genetic defects. According to current knowledge of molecular

biology, a cancer is initiated by damaging chromosomes in a somatic cell. Genetic defects are caused

by damage to chromosomes in a germ cell (sperm or ovum). There is no known existing threshold for

stochastic effects. One single photon or electron can produce the effect. For this reason, a stochastic

effect is called a Linear or Zero-Threshold Dose-Response Effect.

Stochastic effects can also be caused by many other factors, not only by radiation. Since everybody

is exposed to natural radiation, and to other factors, stochastic effects can arise in all of us regardless

of the type of work (working with radiation or not). Whether or not an individual develops the effect is

simply a question of chance.

There is a stochastic correlation between the number of cases of cancers or genetic defects

developed inside a population and the dose received by the population at relatively large levels of

radiation. Attempts have been made to extrapolate the data from these levels of dose to low levels of

dose (close to the levels received from background radiation). There is no scientific evidence to prove

the results of these attempts.

Since there is no evidence of a lower threshold for the appearance of Stochastic Effects, the prudent

course is to ensure that all radiation exposures follow a principle known as ALARA (As Low As

Reasonable Achievable). We will be referring to the application of this principle at U of T in

subsequent modules.

5.4 Effects of Radiation on Foetus

It is well known that the foetus is more sensitive to the effects of radiation than the adult human. If an

irradiation occurs in the first two months of pregnancy, Delayed Effects may appear in the child.

These include mental and behaviour retardation, with a delay period of approximately 4 years.

Because of these possible effects, dosimetry during pregnancy differs from the usual protocol.

Special attention is paid to both external and internal irradiation. A Radiation Safety Officer of the U of

T must review procedures for handling radioactive materials when a pregnant worker performs such

work.

It is not possible to accurately measure the dose to the foetus and so it must be inferred from the

exposure to the mother. Radiation protection principles limit exposure to the mother in order to

achieve minimum risk to the foetus.

5.5 Effects of very Low Radiation Levels

Exposure to very low levels of radiation is a controversial issue, originating many debates throughout

the scientific community. What happens at very low levels of radiation exposure? As was explained

earlier, everybody is exposed to a level of radiation called the natural radiation or background

radiation. Also, was proved that the background levels vary on earth by a factor greater than 10. What

happens when somebody is exposed to levels of radiation within a few percentage of the background,

on top of the day to day background irradiation?

As stated above, current knowledge in molecular biology shows no evidence of a threshold effect for

Stochastic Effects. Therefore, any level of radiation may be considered to cause them. Conversely,

some studies show that low levels of irradiation are in fact beneficial to the health (Radiation

Hormesis). However, in the absence of clear scientific evidence, the regulators adopted a

conservative approach and consider all levels of radiation as being potentially damaging to the

human body. Because of this, any procedure that involves radioactive materials must abide by the

ALARA principle.

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