Breadwinning Mothers, Then and Now

8/21/2019 Breadwinning Mothers, Then and Now

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Breadwinning Mothers,

Then and NowBy Sarah Jane Glynn June 2014


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Breadwinning Mothers,Then and Now

By Sarah Jane Glynn June 2014


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1 Introduction and summary

5 Changes in family type and employment patterns

4 Distribution of families by type over time

5 Distribut ion of married couple families with

children under age 18 by employment status

6 Breadwinning mothers

6 Share of mothers who are breadwinners or co-breadwinners, 19672012

7 Married mothers contribution to family earnings, 2012

8 Mothers breadwinning status by income quintile

10 Mothers breadwinning status by race and ethnicity, 2012

11 Mothers breadwinning status by education, 2012

12 Mothers breadwinning status by age, 2012

13 Mothers breadwinning status by age of youngest child, 2012

14 Conclusion

17 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Breadwinning Mothers, Then and Now

Introduction and summary

Te movemen o women ou o he home and ino he paid labor orce has

changed he way amilies live and work oday. Te role o working mohers as

breadwinners has received increased media and scholarly atenion since he

Cener or American Progress firs released Te New Breadwinners, a chaper

in 2009s Te Shriver Report: A Womans Nation Changes Everything.1Trough

groundbreaking research, economis Heaher Boushey empirically illusraed

how womens labor-orce paricipaion has grown dramaically over he pas 50

years and ha mohers are more likely o provide significan financial suppor oheir amilies han ever beore.

In his repor, we updae Bousheys analysis using he mos recen daa available

on he saus o working mohers as breadwinners or co-breadwinners.2We offer

new insighs ino he demographics o mohers whose earnings help keep heir

amilies afloa. We find ha he rends firs idenified in Te New Breadwinners

remain in effec bu ha breadwinning mohers are no all cu rom he same

cloh. We compare mohers who are single breadwinners, married breadwin-

ners, married co-breadwinners, and married wih no earnings along a number

o demographics in order o beter undersand he paterns and conex wihin

which mohers combine wage earning wih caregiving. We find noable differ-

ences among he groups in erms o amily income, race and ehniciy, educaional

atainmen, age, and he age o he younges child.

Despie hese nuances and differences, one sriking ac remains: Te days o he

ull-ime, say-a-home mom are long in he pas or mos amilies, and here is

no indicaion ha paterns will rever back o hose o he 1960s. Te ac ha

so many women are economically responsible or hemselves and heir amilies

shows how ar women have come in erms o educaion, career advancemen, andheir own economic independence. Bu we sill have a long way o go.


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Programs ha would provide universal access o workplace policies such as paid

sick days and paid amily and medical leave would help ensure ha working

mohers have he necessary ools o suppor heir amilies economically while

sill being able o provide care. Passing legislaion such as he Family and Medical

Insurance Leave Ac, or FAMILY Acwhich would creae a ederal paid amily

and medical leave social insurance programand he Healhy Families Acwhich would guaranee workers he righ o accrue paid sick dayswould be an

imporan way o begin updaing our labor sandards or he 21s cenury.

Undersanding who breadwinning mohers are and wha heir amilies look like

is an imporan firs sep o work oward a beter uure, one in which our policies

align wih he lives o working amilies.


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Changes in family type

and employment patterns

Te composiion o American amilies has changed over he course o he pas

hal cenury. (see able 1) In a firs noable shif, married couples are more likely

no o have children oday han hey were in he pas. In 1974, 45.5 percen o

all amilies were married couples wihou children or wihou children living a

home; oday, ha number has grown o 52.5 percen. Tis is likely due o wo ac-

ors. Firs, as our populaion ages, here are more empy nes amilies.3Second,

he average age o marriage and he average age o firs birh have increased over

he pas several decades, paricularly among women wih more educaion.4Tismeans ha in any given year, here will be ewer married couples wih children

han here were a generaion or wo ago, in spie o he ac ha he majoriy o

women will marry and have childrenhough no necessarily in ha ordera

some poin in heir lives.5

A more noable shif is in he composiion o amilies ha have children under

age 18. In 1974, a single paren headed only 16 percen o amilies wih children,

and single ahers were exremely rare. In 2012, single mohers were a he head

o one in our amilies wih children26.1 percenand single ahers headed

nearly anoher 1 in 108.2 percen. oday and or he firs ime, he age o firs

birh or women25.8 years6is younger han he age o firs marriage26.5

years.7Nearly hal o firs birhs are o unmarried women,8wih even higher raes

o single parening or younger mohers.9While married couples sill make up he

majoriy o amilies raising children, single parenhood is much more common

oday han i was in he pas.


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TABLE 1

Distribution of families by type over time

All families

All families with children under age 18

Married couples

with no children

Married couples

with childrenSingle mothers Single fathers

2012

Share of all families 52.5% 31.2% 12.4% 3.9%

Share of all families

with children65.7% 26.1% 8.2%

2000




1990




1980

Share of all families 48.2% 41.3% 9.3% *


with children79.8% 18.0% *

1974



with children

84.0% 14.6% 1.4%

Note: * indicates data is not available for this year.

Source: Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2013),

available at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/.

When one paren is raising children on his or her own, he or she auomaically

becomes he main source o economic suppor or he amily, and wages rom

employmen are he mos common orm o income.10Married couples, however,

may more easily choose o have one paren ener he workorce while he oher

says home o provide amily care. Hisorically, ahers have ended o ener he

workorce, while mohers were more likely o devoe heir ime and energy owardraising children and caring or elders. However, paterns have shifed over he pas

several decades. (see able 2)


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TABLE 2

Distribution of married couple families with children under age 18 by

employment status

Married-couple families

Only husband works Only wife works Both work

2012 28.3% 4.5% 63.9%

2000 24.0% 3.0% 70.7%

1990 25.7% 2.2% 69.5%

1980 34.4% 2.0% 61.1%

1976 41.0% 2.0% 54.4%

Source: Bureau of the Census, Current Population Survey, Annual Social and Economic Supplements (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2013),

available at http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/.

In 1976, he firs year or which daa are available, 41 percen o married-couple

amilies had a say-a-home moher. By 2000, when he economy was booming, ha

share ell o 24 percen. In 2012, he percenage o married couples where he aherworked and he moher sayed a home had increased o 28.3 percen, hough his

is no necessarily a reflecion o women choosing no o work. In 2000, he monhly

unemploymen rae or married womenhose who were no working bu were

acively looking or a jobaveraged 2.7 percen.11In 2012, in he ongoing wake o

he Grea Recession and sill-epid recovery, married womens monhly unemploy-

men averaged 5.2 percennearly double wha i was in 2000.12

Te effecs o high unemploymen raes on he employmen paterns o married-

couple amilies can urher be seen in he raes o married amilies where only he

moher works. In 2012when he average monhly unemploymen rae or mar-

ried men was 4.9 percen4.5 percen o married-couple amilies wih children

had a say-a-home aher.13Te sligh upick in 2012 in he share o married-

couple amilies wih children ha had a male breadwinner and emale homemaker

is hereore more likely o be a reflecion o he economic landscape, raher han a

reurn o more radiional homemaking arrangemens.


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Breadwinning mothers

Women make up roughly hal o all workers on U.S. payrolls, and regardless o

amily ype, he majoriy o mohers work ouside he home.14Tis is rue or boh

married and unmarried mohers and or amilies wih children under age 6 and

amilies wih school-age children, regardless o marial saus. No surprisingly,

single mohers are even more likely o be employed han married mohers, and

employmen raes increase as children age and ener school, regardless o mohers

marial saus.15

In 2010he year we analyzed breadwinning raes in our las updaeor he

firs ime in decades, unemploymen was more common among husbands raher

han wives.16oday, however, ha patern has shifed, and among married couples

he unemploymen rae or husbands and wives is abou he same.17Despie hese

shifs in employmen paterns, he rend o breadwinning mohers coninues.

FIGURE 1

Share of mothers who are breadwinners or co-breadwinners,

19672012

Source: Author and Jeff Chapman's analysis of Miriam King and others, "Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, CurrentPopulation Survey: Version 3.0," available at https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml.

11.6%

15.9%

27.5%total

63.3%total

22.4%

40.9%

Breadwinner mothers

Co-breadwinner mothers


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In 2012, he laes year or which daa are available, 40.9 percen o mohers were

sole or primary breadwinners, bringing in a leas hal o amily earnings. (see

Figure 1) Anoher one in our22.4 percenwere co-breadwinners, bringing

home beween 25 percen and 49 percen o earnings. Tis is a coninuaion o he

same patern seen in 2010, he las year ha we ran hese analyses.18

While aggregae comparisons are useul o ge a sense o overall paterns among

mohers wih children living a home, deeper analysis is necessary o pain a more

complee picure o who hese women are and how hey compare o one anoher.

Te remainder o his repor explores he earnings conribuions o married moh-

ers and how hey compare o single-moher breadwinners by amily income, race,

educaion, moherhood, and age.

Working mothers income contributions

Te erm breadwinning mohers reers o single working moms and married

mohers who earn as much as or more han heir husbands.19In he iniial 2009

research firs published in Te Shriver Report, co-breadwinning mohers were

defined as married women earning less han heir husbands bu bringing home a

leas 25 percen o amily income.20Bu wha is he disribuion o married moh-

ers earning less han 25 percen o amily income?

Te majoriy o mohers work and hus conribue o heir amilies economic

securiy. (see Figure 2) Te moher brings home a leas some income in 70 per-

cen o all married couples wih children under age 18 living a home. One in ouramilies24.1 percenhave a breadwinning moher who earns a leas as much

as her husband and may be bringing in he sole income. An addiional one in hree

amilies28.8 percenhave a co-breadwinning moher who makes less han her

husband bu sill conribues significanly o he amilys botom line. Only 17.4

percen o amilies have mohers bringing home beween 1 percen and 24 percen

o oal amily earnings, while anoher 29.7 percen have mohers wih no earnings.

FIGURE 2

Married mothers' contribution to family earnings, 2012

Breadwinner Co-breadwinner 1% to 24% of earnings Zero earnings

Source: Author and Jeff Chapman's analysis of Miriam King and others, "Integrated P ublic Use Microdata Series, Current

Population Survey: Version 3.0," available at https:// cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml.

24.1% 28.8% 17.4% 29.7%


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I is imporan o noe ha hese daa represen one momen in ime or working

amilies. Some amilies where mohers earnings are low or where he moher does

no work a all may see hose dynamics change as children age or as he economy

recovers. In many amilies, mohers scale back heir paid employmen afer having

children, no only ou o personal choice bu also because he high coss o child

care can make dual employmen among married couples difficul o manage. In anera when he cos o child care exceeds he cos o uiion in 31 saes, some amilies

find ha hey simply canno afford o have boh aduls working.21Bu given his

disribuion, how do married mohers wih differing levels o conribuion o heir

amily income compare o each oher, as well as o single breadwinning moms?

Family income

Our 2010 updae ound ha married breadwinning mohers are common across

all income groups bu are more common in lower-income amilies.22We alsoknow ha amilies headed by a single moher are more likely o be low income

han married-couple amilies, in no small par because hese amilies by definiion

only conain one working adul.23

FIGURE 3

Mothers' breadwinning status by income quintile

Married mothers with zero earnings

Married mother co-breadwinners

Married mother breadwinners

Single mother breadwinners

Source: Author and Jeff Chapman's analysis of Miriam King and others, "Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, Current

Population Survey: Version 3.0," available at https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml.

2.9%

Lowest income quintile

Fourth income quintile Top income quinitle

Second income quintile Third income quintile

14.8%46.7% 29.4% 6.3%

20.9%8.5% 14.6% 25.7% 30.2%

21.5%18.3% 23.4% 18.1% 18.8%

21%2.3% 10% 32.1% 34.6%


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Te 2012 daa confirm wha previous research has also ound. (see Figure 3)

Single breadwinning mohers are more han five imes as likely46.7 percen

o be in he botom income quinile han are married breadwinning mohers8.5

percen.24Comparaively, married co-breadwinning mohers are he leas likely

o be in he botom quinile, wih only 2.3 percen alling ino his caegory. Tis

difference in amily income disribuions is likely due o he ac ha hese amilieshave wo earnersmarried breadwinning mohers may have husbands who do

no workso he second paycheck may push hese amilies ino higher income

brackes. I may also be ha working women wih high-earning husbands choose

o scale back heir work hours o a greaer exen han oher mohers, or hey may

work in less remuneraive careers han heir parners.

While he dominan culural image o a married moher wihou earnings is

ha o a wealhy housewie, his is no alwaysor even commonlyhe case.

Married mohers wih zero earnings are he mos likely o all married moms

o be in he lowes income quinile. Tis may be because depending on a soleearnerin his case, he husbandsimply makes amilies in his economy more

likely o be low income. Previous research, or example, has shown ha he only

amilies ha have seen real, inflaion-adjused income growh since he 1970s are

hose wih wo working parens.25I may also be ha, because people are likely

o marry parners ha are similar o hem, his group o women have low earn-

ings poenial hemselves and hus orego paid employmen in order o provide

oherwise cosly child and amily care.26

Te same patern holds rue a he op o he income specrum as well. Only

abou 3 percen2.9 perceno working single mohers have earnings ha

place hem in he op income quinile. Married breadwinning mohers are 10

imes more likely o have he highes amily incomes30.2 percenas are

married co-breadwinning mohers34.6 percen. Married mohers wih zero

earnings have he mos even amily income disribuion o any o he groups

profiled here, being approximaely as likely o all ino he op earnings quin-

ile18.76 percenas hey are o all ino he botom quinile18.31 per-

cen. Tese mohers hus represen a much more economically heerogeneous

group han he popular image o highly educaed mohers in wealhy amilies

oping ou would imply.27


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Race and ethnicity

While women o color are more likely o be single mohers, he majoriy o all

single moms, working or no, are whie.28Single breadwinning mohers are mos

likely o be whie, a 44.3 percen, ollowed by Arican Americans a 26.91 percen,

Lainas a 22.52 percen, and hose o anoher race or ehniciy a 6.26 percen.(see Figure 4) Abou wo-hirds o married breadwinning mohers63.31

percenand co-breadwinning mohers68.66 percenare whie, as are 57.48

percen o mohers wih zero earnings.

Lainas make up more married breadwinning mohers16.03 percenand

co-breadwinning mohers15.62 percenhan Arican American women do;

Arican American women make up 12.06 percen and 8.18 percen, respecively.

Lainas also comprise five imes as many married mohers wih zero earn-

ings26.35 percencompared wih Arican American women, who comprise

5.98 percen. Again, his may have less o do wih women orgoing work han wih

poenial earnings, as Lainas have he lowes wages among working women.29

Tis also reflecs Arican American womens hisorically high labor-orce parici-

paion raes, as women o color have always been more likely o work in he paidlabor orce han whie women.30

FIGURE 4

Mothers' breadwinning status by race and ethnicity, 2012

White







Black Hispanic Other race/ethnicity

6%57.5% 26.4% 10.2%

8.2%68.7% 15.6% 7.5%

12.1%63.3% 16% 8.6%

26.9%44.3% 22.5%

6.3%


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Educational attainment

While women have been oupacing men in educaional atainmen or several

decades now, here are noable differences in he educaional atainmen o moh-

ers by amily saus and earnings conribuions.31Single mohers, on average, end

o have less ormal educaion compared wih married mohers. Tus, i is nonecessarily surprising o see ha 1 in 10, or 11.8 percen o, single breadwinning

mohers have no received a high school diploma. (see Figure 5)

All o he groups profiled here are abou equally likely o have a high school

diploma bu no urher educaion, in each insance comprising approximaely

one-quarer o mohers. However, single breadwinning mohers are less likely o

have compleed a college degree35.59 percenhan married breadwinners a

45.88 percen, married co-breadwinners a 52.51 percen, and married mohers

wih zero earnings a 45.23 percen. Bu single working mohers are more likely

o have compleed some college wihou ataining a degree, a 25.47 percen, han

married breadwinners a 16.42 percen, married co-breadwinners a 16.45 per-

cen, or mohers wih zero earnings a 13.76 percen. Tis may reflec he difficul-

ies o compleing an educaion while single parening,32

or i may be he resul osingle mohers younger relaive age compared wih married mohers.33

FIGURE 5

Mothers' breadwinning status by education, 2012







Less than high school High school Some college College degree

13.8%16.1% 24.9% 45.2%

16.5%6.6% 24.5% 52.5%

16.4%9.1% 28.6% 45.9%

25.5%11.8% 27.2% 35.6%


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Mothers ages

Te majoriy o mohers in our sample, like he majoriy o mohers wih children

living a home overall, are in heir 30s or early 40s.34However, here are some di-

erences among mohers by share o heir economic conribuion o he house-

hold. Single breadwinning mohers are he mos likely o be under age 30, wihone in our, or 24.6 percen, alling ino his age range. (See Figure 6) Conversely,

only 1 in 10, or 10.3 percen, o married breadwinning mohers are under age 30.

Tis is o be expeced given he ac ha he curren average age o firs marriage is

approximaely 27 or women.

Married breadwinning mohers are also he mos likely o be beween he ages o

45 and 60. Tis is no surprising given ha earnings end o increase as workers

age, due o he accumulaion o job experience and enure. Married women end

o skew older han single women and hus are more likely o be in heir prime

earning years. Tis is refleced by he ac ha married people overall, and mar-

ried women in paricular, have higher earnings han hose wih a differen marial

saussingle, divorced, separaed, or widowed.35

FIGURE 6

Mothers' breadwinning status by age, 2012

Source: Author and Jeff Chapman's analysis of Miriam King and others, "Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, CurrentPopulation Survey: Version 3.0," available at https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml.





Under age 30 3044 4560

60.6%17.9% 21.6%

63.1%12.6% 24.3%

61.7%10.3% 28%

55.7%24.6% 19.7%


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Age of youngest child

Because single breadwinning mohers end o be younger han he oher groups

o mohers profiled here, i would be reasonable o expec ha hey would be

more likely o have young children. However, his is no he case. In ac, single

breadwinners are he leas likely o have children under age 6, and in only abouone-hird, or 37.9 percen, o hese amilies is he younges child below school age.

On is ace, his seems counerinuiive, bu wo acors may be driving his rend.

Firs, never-married mohers end o give birh a younger ages han married

women, and since mos single breadwinning moms are a leas 30 years old,

heir children may be older by he ime hey reach his age group.36Second, he

caegory o single breadwinning mohers only includes single moms who are

employed and bringing home earnings. Tere is evidence showing ha single

mohers, who we have previously shown o have lower wages, ace barriers o

enering he paid labor orce, including he high coss o child care and he lack oaccess o paid leave and workplace flexibiliy.37

While married breadwinners and co-breadwinners are equally likely o havechildren who have no ye reached school age42.2 percen and 42.7 percen,

respecivelymarried mohers wih zero earnings are he mos likely o have a

leas one child under age 6, a 51.1 percen. Tis reflecs oher daa sources ha

show ha mohers o young children are less likely o be employed han women

whose children have reached he age when hey begin o atend school.38

FIGURE 7

Mothers' breadwinning status by age of youngest child, 2012


Population Survey: Version 3. 0," available at https://cps.ipums.org/cps/index.shtml.





Child age 5 or younger Child age 6 to 17

51.1% 48.9%

42.7% 57.3%

42.2% 57.8%

37.9% 62.1%


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Conclusion

In 2012, he rend oward emale breadwinning coninued, in spie o changes o

our economic landscape. Womens earnings conribuions o heir amilies are

necessary in order o provide economic securiy. As our analysis shows, work-

ing mohers are no jus bringing home pocke money: Nearly wo-hirds o

mohers are primary or co-breadwinners or heir amilies, including more han

hal o married mohers52.9 percenwho bring home a leas 25 percen o

heir amilies incomes.

In spie o he imporance o mohers earnings o heir amilies economic well-

being, barriers persis or working women ha preven many o hem rom reach-

ing heir ull poenial.39Much o his is because our naions policies have no been

updaed o reflec how our amilies live and work oday. Our amilies no longer look

he way hey did in he 1960s and 1970s, bu our workplace policies sill do.

Even hough mos mohers work and heir earnings are imporan o heir ami-

lies economic well-being, here are ew ederal policies o help manage heir dual

responsibiliies o providing boh care and a paycheck. Mohers sill provide he

majoriy o child care, even when hey are employed ull ime, bu here are no

naional-level policies in place o ensure ha working caregivers have access o

paid amily and medical leave and paid sick days. Change is necessary o ensure

ha workplace policies mach he realiies o working amilies oday.

While a significan percenage o mohers are he primary breadwinners or heir

amilies, he gender wage gap sill coninues o drag down womens wages. Te

causes behind he wage gap are complex, bu mos o he difference beween he

overall wages o men and women can be raced back o a combinaion o dis-

criminaion and a lack o workplace policies o enable workers o manage he dualresponsibiliies o wage earning while providing amily care.40


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For example, he Unied Saes coninues o hold is place as an oulier among

he res o he world by being he only advanced economy, and one o only a ew

naions globally, ha does no guaranee women he righ o paid maerniy leave

afer he birh o a baby.41And he ac ha he Unied Saes does no have he

same kinds o amily-riendly policies seen in oher wealhy naions is a large par

o why mohers labor-orce paricipaion raes have allen in America relaive ooher counries.42Currenly, only 12 percen o privae-secor workers have access

o paid amily leave, and he raes are even lower among low-income workers.43

Fory million workers, including 80 percen o low-wage workers, lack access o

paid sick days ha can be aken o recover rom a shor-erm illness such as he flu

or o ake a sick child o a docors appoinmen.44Tis lack o paid leave is no jus

a mater o inconvenience; i can have devasaing effecs on amilies economic

well-being as well. Nearly one in our U.S. workers repor ha hey have eiher los

a job or have been hreaened wih losing a job or aking ime off when hey were

ill or when hey needed o care or a sick child or relaive.45

Bu soluions do exis. Te Family and Medical Insurance Leave Ac would creae

a ederal paid amily and medical leave insurance program ha would provide

parial wage replacemen when individuals need ime away rom work o care or

a new child, care or a seriously i ll amily member, or recover rom heir own seri-

ous illness or injury.46Tis would ollow in he successul ooseps o he saes

ha have implemened heir own programsCaliornia; New Jersey; and, mos

recenly, Rhode Island. Tese programs have been shown o increase labor-orce

paricipaion and reduce reliance on public assisance.47

In addiion, he Healhy Families Ac would enable workers o earn up o seven

paid sick days per year ha could be used due o illness, caring or a sick amily

member, or accessing medical care.48Seven ciiesSan Francisco, Caliornia;

Washingon, D.C.; Seatle, Washingon; Porland, Oregon; Jersey Ciy and

Newark, New Jersey; and New York Ciyand one saeConnecicuhave

already passed paid sick days. Leveling he playing field or workers regardless o

where hey reside would ensure ha no one has o choose beween caring or a

sick child and losing a job.

Women, and mohers in paricular, have enered he paid labor orce en masse,

and here are no signs o ha changing. A a ime when womens wages are so vial

o keeping heir amilies afloa, we canno afford no o do somehing. I is ime

or an updaing o our labor sandards o ensure ha all working amilies have he

suppors hey need.


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About the author

Sarah Jane Glynnis Associae Direcor or Womens Economic Policy a he Cener

or American Progress. Prior o coming o CAP, she worked as an adjunc aculy

member a Vanderbil Universiy and Belmon Universiy in Nashville, ennessee.

She also served on he ediorial saff or Work and Occupaions, an inerdisciplin-ary scholarly journal. Glynn will receive her Ph.D. in sociology in lae 2014 rom

Vanderbil Universiy, where she also earned her M.A. A naive o Caliornia, she

holds a B.A. in womens sudies rom he Universiy o Caliornia, Los Angeles.


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Endnotes

1 Heather Boushey, The New Breadwinners. In HeatherBoushey and Ann OLeary, eds., The Shriver Report:A Womans Nation Changes Everything (Washington:Maria Shriver and Center for American Progress, 2009),available at http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/10/pdf/awn/chapters/

economy.pdf.

2 The data in this report only include families witha mother who is between the ages of 18 and 60and who has children under age 18 living with her.Breadwinner mothers include single mothers whowork and bring home earnings and married motherswho earn as much as or more than their husbands. Co-breadwinners are married mothers who earn less thantheir husbands but still bring home at least 25 percentof the couples earnings.

3 Administration on Aging, Aging into the 21 st Century,available at http://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/Aging_Sta-tistics/future_growth/aging21/aging_21.aspx(lastaccessed June 2014).

4 Joyce A. Martin and others, Births: Final Data for2012, National Vital Statistics Reports 62 (9) (2013):

186, available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr62/nvsr62_09.pdf#table01; Rachel Shattuck andRose Kreider, Social and Economic Characteristics ofCurrently Unmarried Women with a Recent Birth: 2011(Washington: Bureau of the Census, 2013), available athttp://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acs-21.pdf.

5 Bureau of the Census, Table 7. Completed Fertility forWomen 40 to 44 Years Old by Single Race in Combinationwith Other Races and Selected Characteristics: June 2010(U.S. Department of Commerce, 2010), available athttps://www.census.gov/hhes/fertility/data/cps/2010.html.

6 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Births andNatality, available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htm (last accessed June 2014).

7 DVera Cohn and others, Barely Half of U.S. Adults Are

MarriedA Record Low (Washington: Pew Social &Demographic Trends, 2011), available athttp://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/14/barely-half-of-u-s-adults-are-married-a-record-low/.

8 Child Trends Databank, Births to UnmarriedWomen (2013), available athttp://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=births-to-unmarried-women.

9 Ibid.

10 John E. Silva and Sarah Watt House, Americas IncomeComposition: The Rise of Non-Labor Income (Charlotte,NC: Wells Fargo Securities, 2014), available at https://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncom-eComposition_06022014.pdf.

11 Data taken from Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current

Employment Statistics (CES) - National, available athttp://www.bls.gov/ces/ (last accessed June 2014).

12 Bureau of Labor Statistics, 24. Unemployed persons bymarital status, race, Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, age,and sex, available at http://www.bls.gov/cps/aa2012/cpsaat24.htm(last accessed June 2014).

13 Ibid.

14 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 4. Families with ownchildren: Employment status of parents by age ofyoungest child and family type, 2012 -2013 annual aver-ages, available at http://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t04.htm(last accessed June 2014).

15 Ibid.

16 Heather Boushey, Not Working: UnemploymentAmong Married Couples (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress, 2011), available athttp://cdn.ameri-canprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/05/pdf/maritalunemployment.pdf.

17 Bureau of Labor Statistics, A-10. Unemployment ratesby age, sex, and marital status, seasonally adjusted,available at http://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/cpseea10.htm (last accessed June 2014).

18 Sarah Jane Glynn, The New Breadwinners: 2010Update (Washington: Center for American Progress,2012), available athttp://americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2012/04/16/11377/the-new-breadwin-ners-2010-update/.

19 Single mothers include those who have never married,as well as those who are divorced, separated, widowed,or married with an absent spouse.

20 Boushey, The New Breadwinners.

21 Child Care Aware of America, Parents and the HighCost of Child Care 2013 Repor t (2013), available athttp://usa.childcareaware.org/sites/default/files/Cost%20of%20Care%202013%20110613.pdf.

22 Glynn, The New Breadwinners: 2010 Update.

23 Deborah Povich, Brandon Roberts, and Mark Mather,Low-Income Working Mothers and State Policy:Investing for a Better Economic Future (Washington:

The Working Poor Families Project, 2014), available athttp://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/wp-content/up-loads/2014/02/WPFP_Low-Income-Working-Mothers-

Report_021214.pdf.

24 In 2012, the income quintiles were as follows: bottomquintile (less than $27,795); second quintile ($27,795to $49,788); third quintile ($49,789 to $76,538); fourthquintile ($76,539 to $119,001); top quintile ($119002and over). See Bureau of the Census, Table F-1. IncomeLimits for Each Fifth and Top 5 Percent of All Families, AllRaces(U.S. Department of Commerce, 2013), availableathttp://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/.

25 Boushey, The New Breadwinners.

26 Christine R. Schwartz, Trends and Variation in Assorta-tive Mating: Causes and Consequences, Annual Reviewof Sociology39 (2013): 451470.

27 Lisa Belkin, The Opt-Out Revolution, The New York

Times, October 26, 2003, available athttp://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/26/magazine/26WOMEN.html.

28 Bureau of the Census, Table F1. Family Households, ByType, Age Of Own Children, Age Of Family Members, AndAge, Race And Hispanic Origin Of Householder: 2013(U.S.Department of Commerce, 2013), available at http://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2013F.html.
http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/10/pdf/awn/chapters/economy.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/10/pdf/awn/chapters/economy.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/10/pdf/awn/chapters/economy.pdfhttp://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/Aging_Statistics/future_growth/aging21/aging_21.aspxhttp://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/Aging_Statistics/future_growth/aging21/aging_21.aspxhttp://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htmhttp://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htmhttp://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/14/barely-half-of-u-s-adults-are-married-a-record-low/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/14/barely-half-of-u-s-adults-are-married-a-record-low/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/14/barely-half-of-u-s-adults-are-married-a-record-low/http://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=births-to-unmarried-womenhttp://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=births-to-unmarried-womenhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttp://www.bls.gov/cps/aa2012/cpsaat24.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/cps/aa2012/cpsaat24.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t04.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t04.htmhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/05/pdf/maritalunemployment.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/05/pdf/maritalunemployment.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/05/pdf/maritalunemployment.pdfhttp://americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2012/04/16/11377/the-new-breadwinners-2010-update/http://americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2012/04/16/11377/the-new-breadwinners-2010-update/http://americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2012/04/16/11377/the-new-breadwinners-2010-update/http://usa.childcareaware.org/sites/default/files/Cost%20of%20Care%202013%20110613.pdfhttp://usa.childcareaware.org/sites/default/files/Cost%20of%20Care%202013%20110613.pdfhttp://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WPFP_Low-Income-Working-Mothers-Report_021214.pdfhttp://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WPFP_Low-Income-Working-Mothers-Report_021214.pdfhttp://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WPFP_Low-Income-Working-Mothers-Report_021214.pdfhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/26/magazine/26WOMEN.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/26/magazine/26WOMEN.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2013F.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2013F.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2013F.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/families/data/cps2013F.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/26/magazine/26WOMEN.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2003/10/26/magazine/26WOMEN.htmlhttp://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/income/data/historical/families/http://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WPFP_Low-Income-Working-Mothers-Report_021214.pdfhttp://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WPFP_Low-Income-Working-Mothers-Report_021214.pdfhttp://www.workingpoorfamilies.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/WPFP_Low-Income-Working-Mothers-Report_021214.pdfhttp://usa.childcareaware.org/sites/default/files/Cost%20of%20Care%202013%20110613.pdfhttp://usa.childcareaware.org/sites/default/files/Cost%20of%20Care%202013%20110613.pdfhttp://americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2012/04/16/11377/the-new-breadwinners-2010-update/http://americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2012/04/16/11377/the-new-breadwinners-2010-update/http://americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2012/04/16/11377/the-new-breadwinners-2010-update/http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/05/pdf/maritalunemployment.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/05/pdf/maritalunemployment.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/05/pdf/maritalunemployment.pdfhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t04.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.t04.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/cps/aa2012/cpsaat24.htmhttp://www.bls.gov/cps/aa2012/cpsaat24.htmhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttps://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/special-reports/AmericasIncomeComposition_06022014.pdfhttp://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=births-to-unmarried-womenhttp://www.childtrends.org/?indicators=births-to-unmarried-womenhttp://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/14/barely-half-of-u-s-adults-are-married-a-record-low/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/14/barely-half-of-u-s-adults-are-married-a-record-low/http://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2011/12/14/barely-half-of-u-s-adults-are-married-a-record-low/http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htmhttp://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htmhttp://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/Aging_Statistics/future_growth/aging21/aging_21.aspxhttp://www.aoa.gov/AoARoot/Aging_Statistics/future_growth/aging21/aging_21.aspxhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/10/pdf/awn/chapters/economy.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/10/pdf/awn/chapters/economy.pdfhttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/10/pdf/awn/chapters/economy.pdf


21/21

29 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Highlights of Womens Earn-ings in 2012(U.S. Department of Labor, 2013), availableat http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2012.pdf.

30 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Civilian labor force participa-tion rates by age, sex, race, and ethnicity, availableat http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_table_303.htm(lastaccessed June 2014).

31 Bureau of the Census, Table A-2. Percent of People 25Years and Over Who Have Completed High School orCollege, by Race, Hispanic Origin and Sex: Selected Years

1940 to 2013(U.S. Department of Commerce, 2014),available at http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/education/data/cps/historical/tabA-2.xlsx.

32 Kevin Miller, Student Parents Face Significant Challeng-es to Postsecondary Success (Washington: Institute forWomens Policy Research, 2010).

33 ChildStats.gov, Births to Unmarried Women, availableat http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/fam-soc2.asp (last accessed June 2014).

34 Bureau of the Census, Table F1. Family Households, ByType, Age Of Own Children, Age Of Family Members, AndAge, Race And Hispanic Origin Of Householder: 2013.

35 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Highlights of Womens Earn-ings in 2012.

36 Gretchen Livingston and DVera Cohn, The NewDemography of American Motherhood (Washington:Pew Social & Demographic Trends, 2010), available athttp://pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/10/754-new-demography-of-motherhood.pdf.

37 Timothy Casey and Laurie Maldonado, Worst Off Single-Parent Families in the United States: A Cross-National Comparison of Single Parenthood in the U.S.and Sixteen Other High-Income Countries (New York:Legal Momentum, 2012).

38 Bureau of Labor Statistics, Table 4. Families with ownchildren: Employment status of parents by age ofyoungest child and family type, 20 12-2013 annual aver-ages.

39 Judith Warner, Womens Leadership (Washington:Center for American Progress, 2014), available athttp://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/up-loads/2014/03/WomensLeadership-report.pdf.

40 Sarah Jane Glynn, Explaining the Gender Wage Gap(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014),available at http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/WageGapBrief1.pdf.

41 Jody Heymann and Alison Earle, Raising the GlobalFloor: Dismantling the Myth That We Cant Afford Good

Working Conditions for Everyone(Stanford, CA: StanfordUniversity Press, 2010).

42 Francine D. Blau and Lawrence M. Kahn, Female LaborSupply: Why Is the US Falling Behind? Working Paper18702 (National Bureau for Economic Research, 2013),available at http://www.nber.org/papers/w18702.

43 U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, National CompensationSurvey: Employee Benefits in the United States, March2013(U.S. Department of Labor, 2013), Table 16,avail-able at http://www.bls.gov/ncs/ebs/benefits/2013/ebbl0052.pdf.

44 Ibid.

45 Tom Smith and Jibum Kim, Paid Sick Days: Attitudesand Experiences (Chicago, IL: Public Welfare Founda-tion, 2010), available at http://www.publicwelfare.org/

resources/DocFiles/psd2010final.pdf.

46 Family and Medical Insurance Leave Act, S. 1810, 113thCong., 1st sess. (2013).

47 Linda Houser and Thomas P. Vartanian, Pay Matters:The Positive Economic Impacts of Paid Family Leave forFamilies, Businesses and the Public (New Brunswick,NJ: Rutgers University Center for Women and Work,2012), available athttp://smlr.rutgers.edu/paymatters-cwwreport-january2012.

48 Healthy Families Act, S. 631, 113th Cong., 1st sess.(2013).
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