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The Concept of Black Power: Its Continued RelevanceAuthor(s): Winston A. Van HorneSource: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 37, No. 3, Sustaining Black Studies (Jan., 2007), pp. 365-389Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40034781 .

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THE CONCEPT OF BLACK POWERIts ContinuedRelevance

WINSTONA. VAN HORNEUniversityfWisconsin-Milwaukee

Black studies s an institutionalisciplinemergedutof themany ac-rifices fpassionate, outhfuldvocates f Blackpower n themid- olate1960s.Today, he erm lackpower eems lmost uaint, lthoughsuchwasassuredlyot he asein the1960s.Blackpower everberatedna context f ocietal remorss Blackpeople ssaulted he ampartsfde

jureJim row. e jureJim rowdidcrumble,ndover henext wogen-erations, lacksmade considerable ocietalgains.Still,thescope ofBlackpeople'sempowermenthat lackpower nvisaged emains nre-alized. t sthuswellto ook gain tthe rinciples,bjectives,esources,

andstrategiesf Blackpower o call out tscontinuedermaneness,ndbyextensionlackstudies,o the ivesof Blackpeopleandothers,s a

disproportionatelyargeBlack underclass lurs smallbutcontinuallyexpandinglack middle lass.

Keywords:Black ower; lack tudies;ransenerationalism;fricology

The social awofunintendedonsequencess as invariants thenaturalaw oftheconservationf matter.n unintendedonse-

quence fthe ivil ights ovementf themid-1950shroughhe

early1960swas theemergencefyouthfuldvocates f Blackpower. ighlyvocative asthe ermlack ower,nd ntense erethepassions hat tengendered.outhful,assionatedvocatesfBlackpower trivedo translatets dea,whichwaspolymorphic,

AUTHOR'S NOTE: The authorwould ike to thank iswife,MaryAnn,for

readingndcommentingnthis rticle writtenn2004) as she has donewithall ofhis written ork ver he30-oddyears hat e has been n theprofesso-rate.He also would iketo thank is colleagueformore han generation,

Professorsei-Mensah borampah,hohas read nd commentedna numberofhismanuscriptsver heyears.He trulyppreciates ensah'swork.

JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES, Vol. 37No. 3,January007 365-389DOI: 10.1177/0021934706290079© 2007SagePublications

365



366 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /JANUARY 007

into ts mpiricalubstance,nd from hat trivingmerged lackstudies n argelyll-White ampusesn theAmericancademy.na historicalontext,hen, lack tudies s an nstitutionalisciplinewas a derivativefpolymorphiclackpower, hichn turn as anoffshootfthe ivil ights ovement.

Empirically,lack studiesnstantiatedlackpower s an dea

oncollege nduniversityampuses. onceptually,hroughlackstudies,ollege nduniversityampusescademized lackpower.However fter wogenerations,lack studiesn theAmericanacademy tillhas not chieved he tanding,tature,ndpromi-nenceforwhich tsyouthfuldvocates,whoselflesslyacrificedever o much f hemselves,adhoped,ndBlackpower,he ffi-cient ause of Black studies, as largely isappeared rom heordinaryanguage feverydayiscourse.fonebelieves,s I do,thatBlack studiesnowmore ppropriatelyamedAfricology)

continuesobe indispensableothe ntegrityf the urricula nthecampuses f thecollegesand universitiesn theAmericanacademy,nd ncreasinglyo given he xponentialemographicdiversificationftheAmericanopulace,t swell,from hevan-tagepoint fAfricology,or ne to reflect n thematter f thecontinuedelevance fBlackpower.

Today,t eems lmostuaintohear he erm lack ower. hesymbolnd ubstancef he lack-glovednd ightlylenched istsofTommymithnd John arlos, woBlackathletes,hatwereheld loft n the

victorytand

uringheplayingf theNationalAnthemf theUnited tates t the ward eremonyor he200-meterace tthe1968OlympicsnMexicoCity o ongernimatethe ntense assions hat hey nce did. The demand orBlackpower,argely yBlackyouths,nthemid- o ate1960sexacer-bateddeepfissuresn thepolitical ociety f theUnited tates.Many f hose issuresersisttthe utset f he 1st entury.till,by varietyfnormativerinciplesnd mpirical easures,lackshavemadenoteworthydvancesnsocietyver hepast wogen-erations. utover hose

very enerations,any f thevexationsthat mpelledyoungBlack menandwomen o demandBlackpower ave ndured,ven s newoneshavebeen dded.



VanHome /THE CONCEPT OF BLACK POWER 367

It is thuswell to revisit he oncept f Blackpower t a timewhen Blackman, ormerecretaryf StateColinPowell, ndaBlackwoman, urrentecretaryf StateCondoleezzaRice,areconsideredwoof themost owerful eople nthenational ov-ernment,nd three lackmen, tanley 'Neal ofMerrill ynch,Richard arsons fAOL TimeWarner,nd Kenneth henault f

American xpress,re the hief xecutive fficersfmajor or-porations,tthevery ime hat here re moreBlack men nthe

jails andprisonsftheUnited tates hannthenation's ollegesanduniversities.1

In 1855,Frederickouglass 1855/1966) ublishedn articleentitled,The Doom of BlackPower."He beganthe article yobserving,

Thedays fBlackPower re numbered.tscourse,ndeed,sonward,utwithhe wiftnessf narrow,trushesothe omb.

Whilerushingtsmillions,t s alsocrushingtself. The wordofRetribution,uspendedya single air, angs ver t. Thatswordmustall. iberty ustriumph,p.244)

ByBlackpower, ouglass 1855/1966) id notmean hepowerof thenearly millionlaves,nor he oughlyalf million reeBlacks,all of whomhe knewwere argely owerless, ut the

powerof slavocratswhathe termed Slave Power" p. 244).Douglasswas convincedhat lavePower ould notandwould

not ndure,nd he believed irmlyhat lackpeoplewould yetwitnesshe ndoftheBlackPower nAmerica"p. 244).In 1967, 112 years ater, tokelyCarmichaellaterKwame

Toure)and CharlesHamilton ublished book entitled lackPower:ThePolitics fLiberationnAmerica, hich roffered

a politicalrameworknd deology hich epresented]he ast ea-sonable pportunityor his ocietyo work ut tsracialproblemsshort fprolongedestructiveuerrilla arfare.hat uchviolentwarfare ay eunavoidablesnothereinenied. ut f heresthe

slightesthance oavoid t, he oliticsfBlackPower s describedin this ook s seen s the nly iablehope,back over)



368 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /JANUARY007

Violentwarfarendedchattellavery. o Douglass, t was onlythroughhe destructionf Black powerthatAmerican ocietycouldbecomewhat tcouldbeandoughtobe with egardotruthandhuman ecency. iolentwarfaretheCivilWar)didnot ndracial ppression.ndso,CarmichaelndHamilton erceiveheconstructionfBlackpower s a means or voidingnotherat-

aclysm f nherentlyisastrousroportionsn Americanociety.Blackpowerhad to be destroyedhatBlackpowermight ecreated. he destructionf Blackpower nd the onstructionfBlackpowernboth ymbolnd substance avebeen persistentundertown Americanocietyver ince hedaysof chattellav-

ery.n this ssay, shallfocus n the onstructionfBlackpower.And because there s no soundconstructionithoutrior on-

ceptual larification,t s well forme to concentraten the on-

cept of Black power.Accordingly,heprinciples,bjectives,

resources,ndstrategiesf Blackpowerwillbepresented.

PRINCIPLES OF BLACK POWER

InBlackPower, armichaelnd Hamilton1967)write,

The racial ndculturalersonalityftheblack ommunityust epreservednd hatommunityustwin ts reedom hile reservingits ulturalntegrity.ntegrityncludes pride in the ense f elf-

acceptance,ot hauvinisminbeing lack,nhistoricalttainmentsandcontributionsfblack eople? p.56)

No profoundnsights articulatedere. ndeed,CarmichaelndHamilton1967) note that the dea of culturalntegritys soobvious hat t seems lmost imple-minded"p. 56),so that heyonlyhad to make s expansive presentationn it as they ounditnecessaryo do.Yet, he mpirical ealityfpervasivettitudes,beliefs,mores, nd normsn society ertainingo race made t

imperativeorthem o do muchmorethan

merely ignalthe

importancef culturalntegrity.nd what oes culturalntegrityentailnrelationoBlackpeople ntheUnited tates?

First ndforemosts theprimacyfthe utonomous ill.Overnearly12 generationsf chattel lavery, ollowedby almost



Van Home /THE CONCEPT OF BLACK POWER 369

5 generationsf de jureJimCrow,Blackpeoplewere,for hemostpart, reated s objectsrather han s subjectsn society.Frameworksf tate ction state-sanctionedppressionfosteredinthem eteronomousills, hats,wills nimatedy he ppetites,passions, esires, references,ispositions,eliefs,nd attitudesofothers,Whitesnparticular.eteronomous ills thusfacili-

tated he ransgenerationalonsignmentfBlackpeople o a per-sistenttate f ess-than-nessnsociety. lackpowers designedto sunder nd erase transgenerationaless-than-nessy trans-

formingeteronomouslack wills nto utonomous lack wills.

Only utonomousills ones hat re elf-directing,ell-balanced,well-grounded,inely ttuned,ndependent,elf-sufficient,ndsoundn udgment openpaths o,as well as preserve,he ortsofempiricalonditionshat urturereedomndequalityn bothindividualndcollectiveontexts.

Autonomous ills fitBlackpeoplewith he normativeenswherebyhey erceivehe nherentalueand worth fthe elvesthat re clothednBlackskins,which ecome, s itwere, oter-minouswith lack selves.Putdifferently,utonomous illsdrawoutof Blacksthe elf-respect,elf-esteem,nddignityhat rans-formheir ntrinsicalueand worth ntoextrinsicr empiricalvalueand worth. utonomous ills thusfoster recognitionfworthnd worthinessn Blackpeople s Blackpeople.

In hisvery ympatheticiscussion fBlackswith egardo the

savageryfchattellavery,ennethtampp,nthePreface o his

ThePeculiarnstitutionublishedn1954at theheightfde ureJimCrow n the20th entury,rites,I have assumed hat heslavesweremerelyrdinaryuman eings, hatnnately egroesare, after ll, onlywhitemenwithblackskins,nothingmore,nothingess" pp.vii-viii). utBlackmen renotWhitemenwithBlack skins,norare Black womenWhitewomenwithBlackskins.Black men and womenhave grown nd developed n

clearlydentifiednd dentifiableocioculturalontextsncolo-

nialAmerica/thenited

States,and

regardlessf how het-

eronomousheirwillsmight avebeen,bothgenerationallynd

transgenerationally,heynevercould have been White menandWhitewomenwithBlackskins.Andso,thenormativeenswithwhichutonomous ills quipBlackpeople nables hem o




perceive hemselvess they ctually re n anygiven mpiricalrealitynd o also discern hemperativef ontinuoustruggleohave others o likewise.Blackpower s thusgroundedn the

integrityfBlack ife, et n the ontext fthevalue ndworth fall human ife. Itis indeed arcical o hear r to readthat lackpowers separatist,solationist,ndracist,ndthatt values nly

the ivesofBlacks.)Theimperativef continuoustrugglemergesn a historicalcontext fWhite ower ndBlackpowerlessness,ndthe mpir-ical necessityfrecalibratingheequation fpower n society.Blackpower osits hat lackpeoplehave human ighto frameboth ntermediatendultimatendswith egardo theirives ndto constructaths wherebyhoseendsmaybest be realized.Accordingly,lackpower ejects ategoricallyll formsnd ub-stances hat ccasion thesubjugation,ubordination,ervitude,

andsubserviencefBlackpeople oWhite eople,Blackpeople,or any otherpeople for thatmatter. xiomatically,he sub-servience f Blacks is theantithesisf Blackpower.And so,Blackpowers ina perennialtate fwar this oes notmean hatthere s alwaysphysical ightingndphysical eath)withwhat-soever hat osters,reserves,xpands, eproduces,ndperpetu-ates a state of less-than-nessmongBlack people, therebylimitingndulyhe ull rowthnddevelopmentftheirnherentcapacities,apabilities,ndpotentialities.

Blackpowers thus pentowhatevertimulates,ncourages,nurtures,ndundergirdshe ull rowthnddevelopmentfBlacks

as individualsua individuals,nd as individualsua collectiveswith obustutonomous ills.Opennesss thus neof he ssentialdefiningttributesf Blackpower. pennesso new nd differentideasandconcepts;pennessonewand differentaysofdoingthings; pennessonew nddifferentorms f social nteractions;opennessonew nddifferentormsfreciprocalelationships;ndespeciallymportant,pennesso criticismnd self-criticism.he

opennessfBlack

powergivest a

trulyemarkable

onceptualelasticity.ut conceptuallasticitys notconceptual laccidity,andthe wo hould eithere confused or onflated.onceptualelasticitys groundednpermanentarkersywhichtmaybe



VanHome/THE CONCEPT OF BLACK POWER 371

measured; onceptual laccidityas no markershat llow forsoundudgmentso be made.A permanentarkerfBlackpoweris therobustutonomous ill of Blackpeople, gainstwhich llthathas structuredhe ifehistories,nd will structurehe ife

prospects,fBlackpeople s set.Theopenness fBlackpower llowsfor range ffriendships

tobe formed.ongago,Aristotleot texactly ight hen e saidthat nequals annot e friends. ll sorts frelationships ayobtain mong nequals, utfriendships notone of them.Overhistoricalime, ll sorts f drivel avepersistedoncerninguta-tivefriendshipsetweenmasters nd their laves. But drivel sdrivel: slaveand his master ever anbe friends.lackpoweris very ognizantf this mpiricalact, nd so inallowing or

rangeof friendshipso be formed,t presumes n equalitybetweenhosewho eitherre,orbecome, riends. his does not

mean hat state farithmeticqualitybtains etween he neswhoarefriends.t doesmean hat riteriaelevanto the ogicofthe ituationthand reusedwhen aluables re obeproduced,rburdensndbenefitsre o be allottedmong riends.ccordingly,vituperationo thecontraryotwithstanding,lackpowerneverhas beenopposed o bonafidefriendshipsetween lacks andWhites.talwayshasbeenhostile oputative riendshipshough,whichmerelymaskrelationshipsf White uperordinationndBlacksubordination.

Theprincipleshat avebeen rticulatedie at the

veryoreof

the oncept f Blackpower.Howdo these rinciples layout n

objectiveeality?t s to the bjectivesfBlackpower hat nowturnmy ttention.

OBJECTIVES OF BLACK POWER

The fundamentalbjectivefBlackpowers to consolidatehe

dissipatedtrengthfBlack

peopleo the ndoftheir urvivals a

people,whose apacities,apabilities,ndpotentialitiesredevel-opedto theirullest.n 1971, amuelF.Yette,nTheChoice:TheIssueofBlackSurvivalnAmerica,aised henightmarishpecterthat,s a people,Blacksmaynot urvive. e calledattentiono




what hen-SecretaryfLaborW.WillardWirtz ermedthe umanscrap eap," ndwrote,

A peoplewhomthesocietyhad alwaysdenied social valuepersonalityhad also lost economic alue.Theirswas theprob-lem ofall blackAmerica: urvival.

Examination f theproblemmustbeginwith single, ver-

poweringocioeconomiconditionnthe ociety: lackAmericansare obsolete eople.While his s certainlyot ccuraten a moral ense,nor, tthe

moment,iologically,t s true .. intheminds nd schemes fthosewho,withnordinateower nd uthority,ontrolhenation.While tmaynotbe so true mong hegeneral opulation, asssentimentsgainst ppressionndpossible enocide renot uffi-cientlytrongo cause these chemes o fail. BlackAmericanshave outlivedheir sefulness. heir aisond'etre o this ocietyhas ceasedtobea compellingssue.Oncean economicsset, heyarenowconsideredn economic rag. . .

Thanks o old blackbacks ndnewfangled achines,he weatchores f thenation re done.Now . . Blacksface societyhatisbrutallyragmatic,echnologicallyccomplished,eeply acist,increasinglyvercrowded,nd urly.nsuch society,he bsenceofsocial andeconomic alue s a crucial actornanyone's ightfor future,pp. 14-15)

By consolidatinghestrengthf Blackpeople,Blackpowerstriveso falsifyette'sobservationhat blackAmericans reobsolete eople."There s considerabletrengthn the ommuni-

tiesthatmakeupBlackAmerica,nd nthat trengthies enor-mouspotentialower. egrettably,odate, distressingmbalancebetween hepotential owerof Black communitiesnd theiractualpower nthepolitical conomy f Americanociety er-sists.Blackpower imsat a substantialnd continuousransfor-mation fthepotentialower f Blackpeople nto ctualpower.Blackpeoplewillthen e positionedo wardoff, tymie,imit,andconfoundehaviorsnd actions hatwouldoccasion he ortofoutcome,hat o alarms ette. lackpeoplealso will be posi-tioned oconceive,nitiate,onstruct,nd mplementlans, ro-jects,programs,ndpolicies nboth hepublic ndtheprivatesphereshat xpand xponentiallyhedomain fBlackparticipa-tion nthe ociety. his s the urestmeansnotonly fassuring



Van Home /THE CONCEPT OF BLACK POWER 373

the urvivalf Blackpeoplebut lso ofensuringhat hey everbecomeobsolete eople, nsofar s their resences essential othevery urvival f societytself.Black powerthus seeks toestablishn empiricallyeciprocalelationshipetween he ur-vivalofBlacksand the urvivalfsocietytself.

If Black peopleare to transformheir otential ower nto

actualpowerwith nymeasure feffectiveness,heymust irst"consolidateehind heir wn, o that hey anbargain rom

position fstrengthfor] . . group olidaritys necessaryeforea group an operate ffectivelyrom bargaining osition f

strengthna pluralisticociety"pp.44,47), sayCarmichaelndHamilton1967). Groupsolidarityould well be the efficientcause of whatCarmichaelnd Hamilton all thegoal of Black

power,namely,fullparticipationbyBlacks]in the decision-

making rocesses ffectinghe ivesof blackpeople, ndrecog-

nition byBlacks] of virtuesn themselves s blackpeople"(p.47).Throughroup olidarity,lacksbecome onscious fthe

imperativef transformingheirpotential owerinto actual

power, ven as theybecomemore attuned o their wn self-

respect,elf-esteem,nddignitysBlackpeople. nfosteringnd

enhancing roup olidaritymongBlack people,Blackpowertaps ntoboth he conscious ndunconsciousminds f Blacks

concerninghedangershat onfronthem,heweaknesses hatbesetthem s atomizedndividuals,s well as thepossibilities

that reopentothem nsofars their ehaviors reenlivened

yshared ollective urposes.Andhere, he matterf leadershipbecomes riticallymportant.

CarmichaelndHamilton1967) notecorrectlyhat Black

visibilitys notBlackpower. . .Merely uttinglackfaces ntooffice"p. 46) is not sufficientonditiononcerninghe mpir-icalrealityfBlackpower. orBlackpower omaterialize,rec-

iprocal elationshipust btain etween lack eadershipnd he

solidarityf Blackcommunities.reciprocalelationshipntails

mutualrust,espect,xpectations,ccountability,egardor ne

another'sensibilities,nd a shared enseofhonor nd thehon-orable. oundBlack eadershipecognizeshevalues hatnhereinreciprocalelationshipsnd makeuse of themnreinforcingandenhancinghe olidarityfBlackcommunities.lackpower,




then,ims teliminatinghefault ines hat fteneparate lackleadershiprom lack communities.t drawsBlack leadershipandBlackcommunitiesogethern a trulyymbioticelationship,the ffectfwhich s toexpand hedomain fBlackparticipationin the ctivitiesfthewider ocietyndtherebypenupto Blackpeoplea broader rray fprospectsoncerningheir reedom,

good, ndwell-being.Abroaderrrayfprospectsor lackpeople nhanceshe os-sibility f theirparticipationn roles fromwhichtheywereexcluded eretoforer nwhich hey articipatednlynominally.Ifsuchparticipations to be realized,hough,heymust e pre-pared oparticipate.ndso,Blackpower eekstoexpand ub-stantiallyoolsof Black ndividuals hobyaptitude,ducation,andtrainingrepreparedo takefull dvantagefopportunitiesthat t opens up. Black power s especially oncernedwith

domains uch as representation,ducation,inance, ealth are,housing,ransportation,ecurity,nforcementf dueprocess ndthe qualprotectionfthe aws, s well s ustice ndfairness ritlarge.What hese omainsignal learlynddistinctlys the on-flationyBlackpower fpolitical ower, conomic ower,ndculturaldentitynd ntegritynto motive orcehatmpels lackpeopletoward ff bsolescence, evelop heir otentialities,at-isfyheir ighestspirations,nd ndoing o,assure heirurvival.

As Blackpeople trive osatisfyheir ighestspirations,hey

positionhemselveso stand oe-to-toe ith heirWhite ounter-parts, ndothers,n themany ompetitivepheres f life thatmark ociety. lackpowers thus most eautifuloncept.t isnot zerosum. t neither ntailsnor mplies hat achgainthatBlacksmake s accompanied ya correspondingoss forWhitesorothers.t is neitherxpansivet thecost ofWhites orcon-tractive t theexpenseof Whites.Rather,t frames ontextswherein lacksmayrealize he ncientmaxim f a strivingur-pose ntheir aily ives, ven s Whites ndothers o likewise.

CarmichaelndHamilton1967) are thus n themarkwhenthey bservehat the ltimatealues ndgoals ofBlackpower]

arenotdominationrexploitationf other roups, utratherneffectiveharenthe otal ower f he ocietysince] . . there anbe no social orderwithoutocial ustice" pp. 47, 53). Black




power trivesor ocial ustice ntheways hat lacks reat thersandrightfullyxpectsWhites nd others o actsimilarlyntheirtreatmentfBlacks.There s no zero-sumamehere,ust ommonhuman ecency. ndsocial usticewith egardo human ecencyrequireshat tparticularimes, hosewho have benefited ostfrom societygenerationallynd transgenerationallyeceive

smaller hares fgiven aluableshan hey therwise ight ave,in order hat he neswhohavebenefitedeastmighteceiveargershares hanheymightave therwise.his ort f llotments notzero um, or ll sorts f relevantriteriaome nto laybeforetis made.The critical oint hat s being alled out s thatBlack

power s notdestructivef social order.nstead,t is both on-structivendpreservativef social orderby undergirdinghatorderwith ocial ustice.

In strivingor ocial ustice nd theconcomitantocialorder

that ttendst,Blackpower s highlyobust.t makesuse ofallmeans hat refitting,roper, ecessary,fficient,nd ufficiento

give mpiricalubstanceo ts bjectives,speciallyhe reationf

strong,ibrant,esourceful,orward-lookingommunitiesfBlack

peoplewho can truly ace Whitepeopleas freewo men3 nd

equals. Blackpowerdissolves raditionalensions etween he

conceptsffreedomnd quality ymaking qualitynempiricalextensionffreedom.urrentpscale, ll-Black eighborhoodsnAtlanta, eorgia,nstantiatehispoint xquisitely.rom cross

neighborhoodines, ree lackdoctors,awyers,orporatexecu-tives, ccountants,rofessors,ngineers,nd so on face theirWhiteounterpartsnadjoining eighborhoodss equals nwealth,income,tatus,ndprestigenvirtuefthe oles hathey ccupy.This sBlackpowermademanifestnobjectiveeality.

Blackpower,hough,s very ognizantfneighborhoodshatarestarklyifferentrom he ortustmentioned.n 1962,ScottGreernoted, n The Emerging ity: Myth nd Reality, hat

"people were] egregatednneighborhoodsmong thers f the

samedesignatedocial rank nd ethnic

dentity"p. 126).Today,this bservationtill esonatesoudly, espite hedismantlingfde jure segregationnd a substantialreachingf racial-ethnicbarriershroughntermarriagend other ormsfsocialandcul-turalnteraction.




Indeed,persistent atternsf neighborhoodnd residentialcommunityegregationre definingttributefthe ife hancesoftheunderclassn thecontemporarynited tates. orspatialisolation,ccompanied ythe oss of whatWilliam uliusWilson(1987)calls the 'social buffer'.. ofmiddle- ndworking-classfamilies"p. 56), a concentrationf thosewho aremostdisad-

vantaged aveconjoined o foster the creation f patternsfbehaviorhat,n Kenneth.] Clark'swords,frequentlymountedto a] "self-perpetuatingathology"(pp.56,149).With egardowhat e terms he concentrationffects"f he ocial solationftheunderclass, ilson1987)writes,

Thecommunitiesf theunderclassreplaguedbymassiveob-lessness, lagrantndopen awlessness,nd ow-achievingchools,andthereforeend o be avoidedbyoutsiders.onsequently,heresidentsf these reas,whether omen nd children f welfare

families raggressivetreetriminals,avebecome ncreasinglysociallysolated rommainstreamatternsfbehavior,p. 58)

These are neighborhoods hat wall in those whose behaviorsconcentratewhatEl-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (Malcolm X) called

"sociological dynamite" n the city. n passages mostprescientconcerninganxieties, nsecurities,uncertainties,nd fears thatcontinue o pervadeAmericancities,El-Shabazz (cited in Haley,1965) made thefollowing bservation:

Because hadbeen a hustler,knew etter han ll whites new,andbetterhan earlyll of he lack leaders" new,hatctuallythemost angerouslackman nAmericawas theghetto ustler.

Whydo I saythis? hehustler,ut herentheghettoungles,has essrespector hewhite ower tructurehanny ther egroinNorthAmerica. he ghetto ustlers internallyestrainedynothing. e has no religion, o concept f morality,o civicresponsibility,o fear nothing.o survive, e is out there on-stantlyreying pon thers,robingor nyhumanweaknessikea ferret.heghetto ustlers foreverrustrated,estless,nd anx-

ious for ome action." . .Whatmakestheghettohustler etmoredangerouss his"glamor"mage othe chool-dropoutouthntheghetto. heseghettoeenagersee thehellcaught ytheir arents trugglingogetsomewhere,r see that hey avegivenup strugglingn the




prejudiced,ntoleranthiteman'sworld. heghettoeenagersmake ptheir wnmindshey ould athere like hehustlerswhomheyee dressedsharp"ndflashing oneynddisplay-ingno respector nybodyr anything.o theghetto outhbecomettractedo he ustler orldsfdope, hievery,rostitu-tion,ndgeneralrimendmmorality.

It scaredme thefirstime reallyaw thedangerf these

ghettoeenagersf

heyre ver

parkedoviolence,

pp. 10-311)Theyouths f whomEl-Shabazzspokeweresparkedo vio-

lence nthe1980sand1990s,butnot he ort f violence hat e

envisaged. e saw nthem he age frevolutionary,olitical io-lence;from hem as ssued, ather,he ormentfcommon rim-inal violence.He would have been most distressed y this

development,erhaps aying hat heneighborhoodmplosionsthat avebesetmany city rebut he usingf "the ociological

dynamitehat tems rom he

unemployment,adhousing,nd

inferiorducationlreadyntheghettos"pp.310-311).To shut hemselvesff romnarrayf socialpathologieshat

they iscernll aroundhem,more ndmoreneighborhoodsavestrivedo erect ll sorts f walls around hem. ut themodernwall,whethers materialbject ras socialmetaphor,annotndwill not save a neighborhood,ity, r society, orthatmatter.There re usttoomanymeans ywhich tmaybepierced,o thetormentf those ehindt. Blackpowerknows his ll toowell.And so itstrivesoameliorate,fnotwholly liminate,hemate-rial onditionsndpsychologicaltateshat ccasion hekinds fbehaviorshat o troubledl-Shabazz.

Whateversmademanifestnobjectiveealityan be transientorenduring.lackpower ims tmakingoth angiblend ntan-

giblegains yBlacks nduring.o this nd, t seeks o nstitution-alize gainsthathavebeenmade.Beingmindful f thefact hatover istoricalime, ainsmadebyBlackshave mergedargelynthe context f individualswho lack institutionalrameworks

wherebyhose ainsmaypersistong fterheparticularndivid-uals who madethemhavedisappearedrom hescene,Blackpowerplaces considerablemphasis f institutionuildingnBlackcommunities,s well as substantialarticipationyBlack

people n a range f nstitutionshroughoutociety.nstitutional




concerns fBlackpower regroundedntheknowledgehatnsti-tutionsreframeworksf rules hat tructureatternsfbehaviorthat rereplicated,swellas adjustedo fit he ogics fnew itu-ations,crossmany ross-sectionsfhistoricalime. lackpoweris wellattunedothe ole hat varietyf nstitutionsaveplayedinthepersistencefracism nAmericanociety.

Institutionalacismhas been a bane ofsociety. o erodethepresentnd futureffects f institutionalacism, lackpowerstrives othto reconstructrameworksf rules thathave hadsevere ndadverse onsequences oncerninghefreedom,ood,andwell-beingfBlacks,and to construct ew frameworksfruleswherenonecurrentlyxists hat oster ehaviors hat reconsistent ith hegreatest ossibledevelopmentf the nnatecapacities,apabilities,ndpotentialitiesf Blackpeople.Blackpower s intractablyostile o institutionalacism nd all those

attendantenefitsndadvantageshattaccrues o tsbeneficia-ries.And o, nescapablendenduringtrains,ensions,onflicts,and strugglesmark he nteractionf Blackpower nd institu-tionalracism,forBlack powerseeks to destroynstitutionalracism,nd nstitutionalacism trivesopersist.4

Having alled attentionocritical bjectives f Blackpower,I shouldnow ike to turnmy ttentiono theresourcesfBlackpower.

THE RESOURCES OF BLACK POWER

Thefundamentalesource fBlackpowers thehumanapitalofBlackpeopleandboth he dea-powerndlabor-powerhatattendhat apital.Fornearly 2 generationsf chattel lavery,the dea-powerndthe abor-powerf Blackpeoplewereput owork nthe reation f ncome ndwealth or laveowners.udgeThomasRuffinf North arolinacited nPatterson,982)said

itwell, oncerninghe nterestfslavocrats,henhepositedhatwithlavery.. the nds the rofitf hemaster,is ecurityndthe ublicafety;he ubject,nedoomednhis wn erson,ndhisposterity,o ivewithoutnowledge,ndwithouthe apacity




to make nythingisown, nd o toil hat nother ay eaphisfruits,pp.3-4)

Blackpeonage, harecropping,heconvict ease system,ndJim row hat evelopedfterheegal nd f hattellaveryervedto occasion narrayfbenefitsoWhite eople t the xpense fBlackpeople.Blackpower eeks toundo ong-establishedat-terns f Whites enefitingnordinatelyrom he dea-powerndlabor-powerf Blacks. From gricultureo industryo technol-

ogy, rommedicineo aw toeducation,rom iteratureo art omusic, rommathematicso science oreligion,rom ntertain-ment o sports o business,Blacks have evincedconsiderable

idea-powerndgeneratednormousabor-powerithoutavinggained ommensurateenefits.

Blackpower eeks o alter his tate f affairsy encouragingand mpellinglackpeopleto create etworksfmutuallyein-

forcingelationshipshat osterheir utonomous ills,withinhecontextfthe ulturaldentitynd ntegrityf their ommunities.Blackprofessorsndteachers,octors nddentists,urses ndmidwives,awyers nd judges,businesswo'mennd corporateexecutives,oldiers,ailors,nd irwo'men,olice fficersnd or-rectionalfficers,allplayersndreferees,oliticiansnddiplo-mats,bureaucratsnd technocrats,n and on, all provide heresource ase thatBlackpower trives otapand consolidatenorder oposition lackpeople, oth s individualsnd as collec-

tives, o maximize heir pportunitytructuren thepluralisticsociety f the United tates. n a very ealsense,Blackpoweraffordsconceptualrameworkor potlightingndharnessinghe

veryonsiderabledea-powernd abor-powerfBlackpeople hatfor ll too onghaveremainedragmented,issipated,ndividual-ized,undervalued,ndmisdirectedith egardo advancinghefreedom,ood, ndwell-beingfBlackpeople uaBlackpeople.

A corollaryesourcehat lackpower trivesotap s the ensof thousandsfBlack wo'menwhose ives recircumscribedythe riminalustice ystem, ost f whom re n theprime earsoftheirives.Blackpower akes eriouslyhe dmonitionhat amind s a terriblehingo waste."5 ccordingly,t seeks o occa-sion profoundhanges n the criminalustice system o that




youngBlack wo men do notbecome part fthehuman crapheapmentionedyWillardWritz ut nstead rebroughtnto heproductiverocesses f Black communities,n particular,ndsociety,ngeneral. lackpower bservesheuse that tate ctionhas made of thisresource o produce variety f goods andservices goodsand services hat, orthe mostpart,have not

empoweredlackcommunitiesor osteredheirulturalntegrity.And so it arouses heconsciousnessf thosewho areunder,rjust eft,heurisdictionfthe riminalustice ystemo anarrayofavailableresourceshat,when apped, nhance ubstantiallytheirrospectsor roducing oods nd services hat nhancehestandingfthemselves,s well as theirommunities,nsociety.

Anotheresource hat s critical oBlackpower s the mma-nence f Blacks n society. mericanociety annot e disjoinedfrom lackpeople.Blacks re primendnecessary,lthoughot

sufficient,efiningttributefAmericanociety.hereust s noAmericanociety uaAmericanocietybsent lackpeople.Themany eportationchemes ertainingo freeBlacks n the19thcenturyhat ametonaughtrevividhistoricalestimonyo theimmanencefBlacksnAmericanociety.t he utsetf heCivilWar, herewereroughlyalf million ree lacks andalmostmillionlaves) ntheUnited tates; s ofJuly , 2002,theBlackpopulation asestimatedo be 38.3 million. here implyretoomany lackpeople or hemitherobecome bsoletenmasse rto be

liquidatedhroughenocide,fsocietys topersist. lackpower s cognizantf this mpiricalact nd makesuse of theobjectiveealityfsheer umbersopresshard or hebettermentofBlackpeople. hisdoesnotmean hat ortionsf heBlackpop-ulation ouldnot still ufferhe sort f obsolescence hat ettefears.What tdoes mean s that large-scalebsolescence f theBlackpopulationsnot viable ption pen o the neswithnor-dinate ower nd uthority,heirwnpredilectionsndracial ref-erences otwithstanding,slong sthey alue heir wnwell-beingandsurvival.ndbecauseBlack

poweroes not

enounceheuseofviolence ut etainstas anessential efensivenstrument,eregenocidaliolence obeunleashedgainst lacks, hey ould ightback Carmichael Hamilton,967, .53),whichwould e ust nanAugustinianonstructionfthe se ofviolence.




Butcataclysmiciolencewoulddestroyhe conomic ounda-tions fAmericanociety,nd t s nthe pherefeconomics hatan enormousesources opento be tapped yBlackpower. he

grossdomestic roductGDP) of theUnited tates s roughly12 trillionollars,nd thasbeen stimatedhat lacks ontributeinexcess f hreeuartersf trillionollars otheGDP.That s an

enormousum, epresentingonsiderableotentialower,which,were t translatednto ctualpower, ouldadvance ignificantlythe tandingf Blacks nsociety. lackpower ims ateffectingsuch translationyarousinghe onsciousnessf Blackpeopleto the elation etweenhe ndividualndthe ommunal alueoftheirncome nd wealth.

A persistentroblemn BlackAmerica ertainso the ircula-tion ndreproductionf theBlackdollar. or themostpart, heBlack dollar irculateswayfrom lack communitiesndrepro-

duces tselfnways hat roducewealth or thers,otBlackfolk.Blackpower triveso alter his tate f ffairsyencouraginghecreationf a varietyf structuresnBlack communitiesherebytheBlackdollarmaycirculateepeatedlynthose ommunitiesandtherebyroduce otust ncome ut,moremportant,ealthforBlackpeople.Blackpowers not utarchicconomically,utit doescall out a relationetween substantial easure f eco-nomic ndependencend the exercise f autonomous illsbyBlackpeople.

Inthe xerciseftheirutonomous ills,Blackpeopleopen oBlackpower criticalesource, amely,he xercise f thefran-chise, iven he ize of heBlackelectorate. oreover,xercise fthe ranchises a crucialmeans fbuildingoalitions thebuild-

ingof coalitionss foundationalo Blackpower.But coalitions

onlyworkwellwhen achpartyo them assomethingf a com-

pellingnterestoputonthetable.Blackpower schews oali-tions hat re enteredntofrom ositions f weakness. hus, tstrivesodevelop he trengthf theBlackfranchisendpushes

hard o maketheBlack vote a

compellingnterest,oth o the

oneswhoexercisetandto those n whosebehalf t s exercised.Black powerrecognizes hat his s a resource hathas beenunderusedn Blackcommunitiesnd works o structureontextsthat ptimizetsuse.Electoral olitics re thus f mportanceo




Blackpower, ut nlynsofars theyerve o wo'man nstitutionswithndividuals ho use thepower, uthority,ndresources ftheir espectiveoles to advance hefreedom,ood,and well-being f Blacks ndividuallyndcommunally.

Thesecuringfthe ranchiseyBlackpeople ameas a resultof longand difficulttruggles. truggle as been thetwinof

Blacks ncolonialAmerica/thenited tates.Wherever here s struggle,here s privation,nd so Blackpeople re wellacquainted ith urvivalnthefaceofprivation.Blackpeoplearenot oft. heyhave earned enerationallyndtransgenerationallyowto endure ardshipsndto ncrease heirstock nspite f severe rivations.his s a resource f ncalcula-blevalueforBlackpower.

It enablesBlack eadershipoask much f Blackpeoplewithregardosacrifices,nsofars thateadershipsperceivedobein

tunewith he nterestndgoodof Black communities.t enablescommunitieso mobilize even wherematerial esources rescarce, or he piritfdoingmuchwith ittle till nimates lackcommunitiescross he and.Given hat lackpower bhorself-aggrandizement,eadershiphat hares n thesacrificeshat remadebythe nes whoare ed finds repositoryfgoodwillandtolerance, hich nables t to makebold moveson behalf f tsconstituents'nterests,fitbut wills to do so. This resource fBlackpower,hen,tiffenshe pine fBlack eadershipndposi-tions tto

engagenfightshattmighttherwiseschew.Of themany esourcesvailable o Blackpower, ne of the

most criticalbut underused s the individual nd collectivememoryndwisdom fBlack elders. ntraditionalfrican oci-eties, woforms frespectwerecommonplace:arned espectand ascribed espect.As thetermmplies, arned espectwasacquired n thecontext fone's work nd behaviors. scribedrespectccruedwith ging. he most espectedndividuals,hen,were hosewhohadagedsubstantiallyndhaddone uperbworkandevinced

xemplaryehaviors verthecourseof a lifetime.Thesewere he lderswhosememoryndwisdomwere apped ytheirommunitieso fosterhegoodandwell-beingf each ndi-viduallynd ofall collectively.lackpowerdraws n this le-mentof the transgenerationalemories f Black people to




structurerameworksnBlack communitieshereby oung,mid-dle-aged,nd lderlylackpeople rebroughtogetheror he ur-poseofusing hememorynd wisdom f elders o constructndeffectolutionso a varietyfcommunity-basedroblems.his sindeed ne ofthe eminal,ut ftennderappreciated,ttributesfBlackpowernregardo the osteringfcohesion nd olidarityf

Black ommunities.Theresources,bjectives,ndprinciplesf Blackpower hathavebeen called outall pointn one critical irection,amely,appropriatetrategies herebyhey ecomeempiricallyeal ntheeverydayives ofBlackpeople.Thus, t is to strategiesfBlackpower hatmy ttentions nowturned.

STRATEGIES OF BLACK POWER

Blackpowersnotgroundedndogma.t does not igidlyndinflexiblyrescribehat heres one,andonly ne,set offittingand propermeansby which ts principlesnd objectives an

acquirempiricalorm nd ubstancenthe ives fBlackpeople.There s aninherentive-and-let-liveubstratumn Blackpower,whichmplies hat lacksseekto ive and ivewellandare will-

ingto haveothers o likewise,s longas theothers o not on-found heirBlacks)prospectsordoing o. Blackpowers thus

highly ther-regardingnsofar s others vincebehaviors hat

conformonorms fhuman ecency.Where hebehaviorf oth-ersdonot onformo suchnorms, lackpower akes he orts factionsnecessaryither o induceor to compel uch behavior.

Accordingly,lackpower ses nonviolent eanswhereverossi-ble,as a firstnd second hoice, nd violentmeansonlywhen

absolutely ecessary,oprocurendsecure hatwhich levatesthe utonomous illsof Blackpeopleand enhances he ultural

integrityftheir ommunities.

Recognizinghevalueof coalitions ut ognizantf the orts

ofcosts hatheweaker artyn a coalitions oftenorced obear,Black powerstrives o strengthenlack communitiesefore

enteringnto coalitionswithgroupingsn the widersociety.Institutionuildingndnurturingrethus rucial o Blackpower.




Schools, hurches,lubs,banks, tores,ndso on and the ndi-vidualswhowo manthem re seen s targetsfopportunityon-cerninghemessages hat lackpower onveys.

Blackpowers notdesignedofrightennyone.t is empow-ering, hough. y making lackpeople,both s individualsndas collectives,onscious f their otential ower nd the mpiri-

cal imperativeftransformingotential owernto ctual ower,Blackpower throughectures nd seminarsnclassrooms,er-mons romulpits, peechesnpublic ndprivate laces, rticlesand ettersnnewspapersndmagazines,ooks nlibraries,is-cussions ntelevision,xchangesn the nternet,atternsfcon-sumptionn themarketplace,nd so on adds weight o theagency fBlackpeople nsociety.here s no doubt hat here rethosewho find he value-addedweight f Black agency n thesociety hat ccompaniesBlack powerto be unsettling,ven

frightening,nd nvitingesistance. here esistanceoesoccur,thegreaterheweight f Blackagency,hemoreBlackpowerspositionedoofferounterresistancend, hroughtrength,btainoutcomeshat erve he ndividualnd communalnterest,ood,andwell-beingf Blackpeople.

Blackpower mploys well-knownutoftenmisunderstoodandderidedmetaphorf NiccoloMachiavelli, amely, princeacting s a lionand a fox.A princemusthavethe trength,ar-ing, ndurance,race, ower, earlessness,ndforcefulnessf alionto

destroyith

single low fneedbe,but lso the tealth,cunning,exterity,ngenuity,esourcefulness,nd wit f a fox osurvive he ssaults f a strongeroeand at the ametime btaina desiredutcome. ikea prince, lackpower mployshe ttrib-utesof a lionand a fox ofosterhefreedom,nterest,ood, ndwell-beingfBlackpeople.Accordingly,trelies rimarilyn thestrengthndresources fBlackpeoplebut,whereverecessary,taps nto orrespondingr evengreatertrengthsfWhites ndothersnways hat dvancetsparticulargenda.Blackpowersthus

highlydaptive,nd ts

adaptationsreframedythegivenlogicsofthe ituationshattconfronts.The logicofa particularituationmaynecessitateheuse of

violence yBlackpower. uchviolence s never athartic.t ishighly urposive.ts aim s to alter ndtransformhe ogicof a




given ituationothe dvantagendgoodofBlackpeople.And tisfor his eason hat lackpower ever ondones mindless ndindiscriminatese of violenceagainst ndividuals,roups, r

property.ions do not kill ndiscriminately,etkilltheymust.Foxesalso do notkill ndiscriminately,lthoughhey oo mustkill.The crucial ointhere s that ctsof violence hat manate

from lackpowerhave as theirntendedonsequence utcomesthatwill be beneficial oBlackpeople qua Blackpeople.Theynever eek to advance he nterestf thisor that ndividual r

group. he term lackpowerhas all too often eenappropriatedby ndividualistso conceal heirndividualgenda, s wellas bycommoncriminals o mask the criminalityf their onductbehind omeputativereateroodforBlackpeople.

Blackpowers collective ower. here s no one-to-oneorre-

spondence etween hiscollective ower nd acts of violence.

Still, ctsof violencemayat times e necessaryor hepersis-tence fthispower.Ananalogymaybe wellhere.Conceive fBlackpower s a large eservoirilled o thebrimwithwater. hereservoirprings leak.A sealant s necessaryopreservehe

integrityf thereservoir.ctsof violence re that ealant hat sat timesnecessaryopreservehe ntegrityf Blackpower.Asealant s notapplied o a reservoirnlesstheres a clear and

compellingeed.Likewise,ctsofviolence renot mployed yBlackpower nless heres a clear ndcompellingeed oncern-

ingthe dvancementndpreservationf the

freedom,ood,nd

well-beingfBlackpeople n the ontextf the xercise f theirautonomous illsas individualsndthemaintenancefthe ul-turalntegrityf theirommunities.

Blackpowers not ne-dimensionalutmultidimensionalon-

cerningheways n whicht exerts ressuren the ocialorder.Attimes,heuseof violences fittingndproper;t otherimes,it snot, ndnonviolent eans refittingndproper.uchmeans

maybeusedtofosterntenseocialdisorder,hortfthedestruc-

tion fivesor

property,o create

compellingenseof

urgencythatmpels societyoformulate,mplement,ndenforceublicpoliciesthatmaximize he life chancesof Black people andenhancehedecency f theirives.Violence nd nonviolencerethus omplementaryrrowsn thequiver f Blackpower. heir




use is guided yone ultimatendoverridingurpose,owit, hegood,wholesome, roductive,atisfying,nd decent ives ofBlackpeople.

In sum, he trategiesf Blackpowerdo not merge priori.Theydevelop ontingentlyndaregroundednanenduringom-mitmento theunderlyingrinciplesnd objectives f Black

power, deep suspicionnd wariness fdogma, lexibility,on-sciousness fpurpose, arefullyalibrated ut obustctions,ndthe ealizationf mpiricalutcomes hat nableBlackpeoplenotjustto secure he most olerable ivesthey an but to actuallyenjoyhappy ndsatisfyingives.

CONCLUSION

Blackpower

s aconcept

or ll seasons nthe ivesof Blackpeople. tpermeateseographicoundaries,ranscendsross ec-tions of historicalime,unitesthe livingwithancestorsndunborn rogeny,ndspreads uttransgenerationallyo animatethe utonomous illsof Blackpeople s individualsnd enliventheculturalntegrityf their ommunitiess collectives. lackpowermakesBlack ndividuals hole whole ntheirndividu-ality nd their ommunality.s such, talwayswill be of com-pelling elevance o the ives ofBlacks,althoughtsperennialvalue s not

lways ecognized,s itwaxes ndwanes nthe on-

sciousness f Blackpeople.Blackpowers lifenurturing,ife ustaining,nd ife nhanc-

ing.Byitsprinciples,t nurtureshe ivesofBlacks;by tsobjec-tives,t ustainshe ives fBlackpeople; ndby tsresourcesndstrategies,tenhances he ives fBlacks. nnurturing,ustaining,andenhancinghe ivesofBlackpeople,Blackpower annot utin somemeasure lso nurture,ustain,nd enhance he ives ofWhites ndotherswho nteract ithBlacks,for hey ll partici-pate n,and share, hehuman ondition. ut

differently,ll of

humanitys interlacedna commonweb, nd whatsoeverffectsonepart f hewebramifieshroughoutheweb as a whole.Blackpower annot,nddoesnot, dvance he reedom,ood, ndwell-being fBlacksbybeing nmindfulf, ndifferento, rwantonly




andmindlessly itiatinghefreedom,ood,andwell-beingfothers.What t does do, andrightfullyo, is to frame ontextswherebythers annot dvance heir reedom,ood,and well-beingat theexpenseof Blackpeoplewithoutufferingevereshort-termnd nordinateong-termosts.

Blackpower s thus nnoblingf thespiritsfBlackpeople

throughacrificend nitiative.t makes hemcutelyonscious ftheneedto make acrificesnd take nitiativeindividuallynd

collectively,enerationallyndtransgenerationallynotonly oward ff ndundo utcomeshat re njurious,armful,nddam-

aging othe utonomyftheir ills nd he ntegrityftheir om-munitiesut lso toengage n behaviors hat enew nd refreshtheirives. n therenewal nd refreshmentf theirives,Black

peoplebuild, ort s throughuildinghat he reativityf enno-bledspiritssmademanifest.lackpower husmpelsBlacksto

build heir ommunitieseaselessly ndeschewwhatever ouldfracture,aint,nervate,nddestroyhose ommunities.

Bydrawingut fBlackpeople he ery est hatnheresnthem,Blackpower ositionslacks ohold heirwn na highlyompet-itiveworld.tspurnsssifiedwe/they"nd us/them"onstructionsof the mpirical orld. ather,t striveso create nvironmentsnwhichwetogether"nd "uswritarge"mayparticipaten shared

purposeshat ivesubstanceo the common oodof all. Black

power,nstantiatedn Black tudiesAfricology),ramesuniverse

thatffordslacks hewherewithalo ucceed, ot ydevouringth-

ers n zero-sumamesbutby puttingnplay oncepts,onstructs,hypotheses,heories,mpirical eneralizations,aws,goods,andserviceshat osterndencourageeciprocity.hrougheciprocity,Blackpowertriveso shield lacks ndothers romhe ocial ar-

nage f ero-sumames.However,fforwhatevereasonseciproc-ity annotbtainnthe elationsetween lacks ndothers,lack

powerworks ard o assure hat lackpeoplenot nly urvive utalsoarenot akendvantagef.Normatively,mpirically,ndhis-

torically,lackpower,ndbyextensionlack

studies,lwaysas

had nd ontinuesohave nefundamentalndoverridingurpose:the dvancementfhumanecencyo he nd hat o one hould,yempiricalircumstances,e condemnedo iveshabbily,nd each

objectivelyhould ave fair ndhonorablehance o ivewell.




NOTES

1.Concerninghe ftenontentiousatterf henumberfBlackmalesn ailsandpris-ons incomparison ith hose ncolleges nduniversities,should ike to note hat heBureau fJusticetatisticshttp://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/p01.pdf)bserveshat sofmidyear001, here ere 03,400Blackmales nd69,500Blackfemalesnfederalndstate risonss well s local ails,whereashe tatisticalbstractf heUnitedtatesU.S.CensusBureau, 003) shows hat herewere781,000Black malesand 1,449,000 lack

femalesncolleges nd universitiestmidyear001.Bureau fJustice tatisticsiguresshow hat tmidyear002, here ere 18,900 lackmales nd65,600Blackfemalesnthe

prisonsnd ailsofthe ountry;heU.S. CensusBureau2002) ndicateshat s ofOctober

2002, here ere 02,000Blackmales nd1,476,000 lackfemalesncolleges nduniver-sities. hesefiguresredistressing.heymake lain hathere ere 2 times smany lackmales n ails andprisonss Black femalesa 12:1ratio),nd almostwice smany lackfemales s Blackmales ncolleges nduniversitiesa 2:1ratio).Given he ociallydditivevalue ofcolleges nduniversities,nd the ocially ubtractivealue of ails andprisons,should he atiosustpresentedersistor,ay, notherenerationrtwo, lackmaleswillstand t nalarmingisadvantageociallynrelationoBlackfemales. necanreadilynvi-sionuniversity-educatedlack females n very ubstantialumbersooking wayfrom

prison-trainedlackmales s mates nd sources fsupportor heir uturehildren,spe-cially s race ndthe olor ine ontinueo declinensignificanceseeWilson, 978)andBlackmaleshave ittle ocial ttractivenessor emales rom ther acial-ethnicroupings.Such a developmentouldbe most ortentousor he ocialpeaceandgoodorder f the

society.lackpowermbraces coequalityetween lackmales ndBlackfemales nd sthus riticalo the utureftheBlackmale, s well s societys a whole.

2. All culturesre ompositesf even efiningttributes:pecies eing, peciesife,an-

guage, eligion,ood-literature-music-art-science-technology,nstitutions,nd ransgenerationalmemory.ulturalntegrityertainso he oundnessf he nteractionsf hese ttributesn he

creation,lteration,ndpreservationfmilieux, arkedydistinctiveatternsfbehavior,hatfosterhe urvival,rowth,nddevelopmentfparticularroupingsfHomo apiensapiens.

3.The termwo'men sused here o meanbothmen nd women.

4. One ofthe eally erversessaults hat asbeenmadeon Blackpower ver ime sthat tframesllWhite eople s enemies,eeks heir estruction,nd s implacablyacistat ts ore.Blackpower triveso alter ehaviors;t does not im atdestroyingersons.tseeks o occasion trulyumane,pen, ndpluralisticociety;tdoes not ttemptobringinto eing closed, nhumane,aciallyutarkicociety.

5. Formanyyears, heUnitedNegroCollegeFundused this hrasenits televisioncommercials.

REFERENCES

Carmichael, ., & Hamilton, . V. (1967). Blackpower:Thepoliticsof liberationnAmerica. ewYork:Vintage ooks.

Douglass, . (1966).The doom f Blackpower.n H. Brotz Ed.),Negro ocial andpolit-ical thought.ewYork:Basic Books. Originalwork ublished 855)




Greer,. (1962).Theemergingity:Mythndreality. ewYork: he FreePress.

Haley,A. (1965).The utobiographyfMalcolmX. NewYork:Grove ress.Patterson,. (1982). Slavery nd social death:A comparativetudy. ambridge, A:

Harvard niversityress.

Stampp, . (1954).Thepeculiar nstitution.ewYork:Vintage ooks.U.S. Census Bureau. 2002). Currentopulation urvey.Retrieved romhttp://www

.census.gov/population/socdemo/school/cps2002/tab01-4.pdfU.S. CensusBureau.2003).StatisticalbstractftheUnited tatesNo. 280).Retrieved

fromttp://www.census.gov/prod/www/statistical-abstract-03.htmlWilson,W.J. 1978). Thedecliningignificancefrace: Blacks ndchanging merican

institutions.hicago:TheUniversityfChicagoPress.Wilson,W. J. 1987). Thetruly isadvantaged:he nner ity,heunderclass,ndpublic

policy.Chicago:TheUniversityfChicagoPress.Yette, . F. 1971).The hoice:The ssueofBlack urvivalnAmerica. ewYork: erkley

Medallion ooks.

Winston . VanHome is a professorn theDepartmentf Africologyt the

UniversityfWisconsin-Milwaukee.e served wotenures s thedepartment's

chair, overing 2 years.For 8 years,he was the chairof theUniversityfWisconsinystems American thnic tudiesCoordinatingommittee,ndfor7years, hefirst)irectorf heUniversityfWisconsinystem'snstituten RaceandEthnicity.e was the ditor feight olumesn the nstitutes EthnicityndPublicPolicy eries.He also is the ditor fGlobal Convulsions: ace,EthnicityandNationalismt the ndof theTwentiethenturySUNY Press).He is creditedwith onceptualizinghe termAfricologyo name thedisciplinen whichheteaches nd doesresearch.

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