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An Early Arabic Mirror for Princes: Ṭāhir Dhū l-Yamīnain's Epistle to His Son ʿAbdallāh(206/821)Author(s): C. E. BosworthSource: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Jan., 1970), pp. 25-41Published by: The University of Chicago Press

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AN EARLY ARABIC MIRROR FOR PRINCES: TAHIR

DH-t L-YAMINAIN'S EPISTLE TO HIS SON

CABDALLAH(206/821)

C. E. BOSWORTH, Department of Near Eastern Studies,University of Manchester, England

THE Mirrors or Princes or Fiirstenspiegel genre in Islamic literature illuminates

several aspects of Islamic civilization. First and foremost, the works of this genre are a

guide to the ethical and moral considerationswhich were supposedto inspire a ruler in

hispolicies.

Thatthey

often reflect a theoretical rather than apractical

state of affairs

does not make their informationnecessarilyless valuable to us. In a culture where other

worlds-whether of an elemental creation, that of demons and jinn, or of a heavenly

one, the Gardenof Paradisewhose delights awaited the pious Muslim-impinged closelyon ordinary earthly life, the distinction between the ideal and the actual was likewise

often blurred. It is in any case important for us to uncover the moral and intellectual

mainsprings of human action, even if the execution of these actions is not always in

conformity with ideals or intentions. Secondly, the Mirrors for Princes' information

about the working of governmentalinstitutions is by no means always on a theoretical

level. Such a work as Nizim al-Mulk'sSiydsat-nrma offersextremely valuable material

on the organizationand

workingof the court and the administrative institutions under

the GreatSeljuqsand, to a lesserextent, under earlier eastern Islamic dynasties. Thirdly,the Mirrorsfor Princes provide information, sometimes petty and inconsequential but

nevertheless revealing, about the business of daily life below the level of kings and

magnates; this is seen in the Qdbis-nama where Kai Ki"fisgives his son Gildn-Shdhsageadvice on such topics as the buying of slaves or horses, and delineates for him the pro-fessions and skills (including medicine, astrology, music-making, the secretary's art,

farming, manual craftsmanship,etc.) which the young prince might find useful in the

future. Finally, the Mirrorsfor Princes offermany lines worthy of investigation by the

student of intercultural influences. That Persian traditions of kingship and government

gave an important stimulus to the growth of this literature, as they did to the whole Is-

lamic concept of adab, has long been recognized. The Persian cAbdalldhb. al-Muqaffac

(d. 140/757) may be regarded as the precursor of the Fiirstenspiegel genre in Islamic

literature, with his two principal adabworks, the Adabal-kabir and the Adabas-saghir,and several lesser ones; moreover, his r6le as a translator links his literary activity not

only with the Pahlavi and SgsAnidpast, but through Kalila wa-Dimna, with the Indian

one also. On the other side of the Islamic world, the Greco-Hellenisticcontribution tothe adab and Mirrorsfor Princes literature was also significant, although the minglingof ideas and the cultural cross-currents in the pre-Islamic Near East make the task of

assigning influences to their ultimate origins more difficult here; Ndldeke's classic re-searches on the Alexander romance indicated that the proximate origins of the Syriacand Arabic tales actually lay in a Pahlavi version.

25







26 JOURNALOFNEAR EASTERNSTUDIES

It is only in what may be called the "MiddleAges" of classical Islamic civilizationthat a full-blown,independentMirror or Princesgenre emerges:such outstandingworksas Kai Kd2is's Qdbis-nama,Niz.m al-Mulk's Siydsat-ndma,and al-Ghazili's Nasihatal-mulflkbelong to the eleventh and early twelfth centuries. It seems that at this time,when the unity of the Caliphatehad been shattered, and non-Arabic,barbariandynastieshad taken over much of the Islamic world, a need was felt for restating the old ideals of

government,the Persianconcept of a benevolent autocratrulingovera passivepopulationof subjects, and the purely Islamic one of political power held in trust from God andexercised in conformitywith the Qur'dnand Sunna. Hence we cannot speak of a separate

genrein the first centuries of Islam, but we can discerntendenciestowards its crystalliza-tion: in the works of Ibn al-Muqaffacmentioned above, and in the appearanceof typicalFilrstenspiegelmaterial in such authors as Ibn Qutaiba and Ibn CAbdRabbihi, even

though their primary concern was with recording the rich heritage of classical Arabicculture. It was information from all these writers which was gathered together and

skilfully analyzed by Gustav Richter in his monograph Studien zur Geschichteder

dlterenarabischenFilrstenspiegel "LeipzigersemitischeStudien," N.F., Bd. III [Leipzig,1932]).

On pp. 80-85 of the above work, Richter briefly examined a short work which un-

doubtedly qualifiesas a pioneerMirror or Princes. This is the epistle which the founderof the

T.hirid

line of governors in Khurdsdn and Baghdad,T.hir

b. al-Husain, called

Dhii 1-Yaminain "the Ambidexter" (d. 207/822), wrote for his son cAbdallah. Borninto an eastern Persian family with a long tradition of service to the cAbbdsids,

T.hirimself had risen in the service of the Caliphal-Ma'mflnand had taken a leading partin the warfare between al-Ma'miinand his brother al-Amin. Finally, he had been ap-

pointed governor of Khurdsdn, in effect, of all the Caliphal lands east of Iraq (Dhfi1-Qacda205/April-May 821). cAbdalldhb.

T.hirdistinguished himself equally in the

early years of al-Ma'mfln'sreign, especially in the operations conducted in Syria and

al-Jazira, where the legacy of bitterness from the civil wars, and Arab resentment atthe fresh wave of Persianpersonneland influencescomingfromKhurdsan n al-Mamiin's

wake, had led to various rebellionsby pro-Aminidelements. When

T.hir

was appointedto the governorshipof the east, CAbdalldhucceededhim in the west and becamegovernorof Diydr Rabica and the lands extending through Syria to the bordersof Egypt, with hiscenter at ar-Raqqaon the Euphrates. It was this appointment which occasionedTahir'sepistle, and since it was written six months after

T.hir's

own nomination to Khurdsan,

the epistle must accordinglydate from the autumn of 206/821.The text of the epistle is preserved for us in the Kitab Baghdadof the historian and

litterateur Abi 1-Fadl Ahmad b. AbiT.hir

Taiffir (204-80/819-93). Only the sixthsection of this, that dealing with the Caliphateof al-Ma'mfln,has come down to us; therest of the Kitab Baghd&d nd, indeed, all of Ibn Taiffir'snumerousworks with just one

exception, have been lost.' The text of the KitdbBaghdadwas publishedfrom the uniqueBritish Museum manuscript Add. 18,532, together with a Germantranslation, by H.Keller, SechsterBand desKitdbBaddid vonAhmadibn abifTdhirTaifiir, 2 vols. (Leipzig,1908). Since then there has appeareda further edition of the Arabictext by MuhammadZahid b. al-IjHusainl-Kauthari (Cairo, 1368/1949), made from a photographiccopy of

1 Cf. Encycl. of Islam2 art. 8.v. (F. Rosenthal).







AN EARLY ARABIC MIRROR FOR PRINCES 27

the British Museummanuscript.Materialfrom Ibn Taiffirwas widely used by at-Tabarifor his history, and also by such writers as al-Mascfidi,Abfi 1-Farajal-Isfahani, and

Ydqfit; hence the text of the epistle can also be read in at-Tabari, Annales, ed. de Goejeet alii, III, 1046-61, and in Ibn al-Athir, Chronicon,ed. Tornberg,VI, 258-67.

As Richter points out (op. cit., p. 80), there is no reason for doubting the authenticityof the epistle. Although Persian was

T.hir's

first language, he was, like so many of his

fellow-countrymen,dhfi1-lisanain,eloquent in the Arabiclanguage and fully conversantwith its nuances and technicalities, as certain anecdotes in the literary sources for the

period show. Ibn Taiffir himself devotes a section to the sayings and official writings(kaldmwa-tauqidct) of

T.hir,

and Ibn CAbdRabbihi quotes extracts from his khutabor orations.2That

T.hir

should have been capable of composingsuch an epistle, whose

eloquenceand incisiveness made such an impressionon contemporaries,from the Caliphdownwards (see below, p. 29), need therefore occasion no surprise. The epistle itselfcontains no reference to historical events but is rather a theoretical exposition of the

ethics of rulership and the qualities of a perfect ruler. Given the abstract nature of thematerial and its resultant terminology, the style is comparatively straightforward.Unlike most writers of adabworks, who favored a loose and often prolix style and wholoved to season their subject-matter with a peppering of anecdotes, bons mots, and

apothegms, T&hir'sepistle is concise and tightly-constructed and totally unadornedbyany anecdotes or historical examples.

The most striking feature of the epistle's contents is the dominating position accordedto the Islamic religion, as an influencewhich should wholly pervade the ruler's ways of

thought, governmental policies, and attitude towards his subjects. His responsibilities,as detailed in

T.hir's

tract, are largely coterminous with those which later writers on

constitutional theory, like al-Mdwardi,Abil Yacldand Ibn Khaldfinregardas necessaryattributes (farad'id) of the Caliphaloffice. The ruleris, of course, responsiblein the first

place to God for the legitimate exercise of his power. But he is in turn the shepherd(raci) of his people (raciyya, literally "flock"), with the traditional duty of al-amr bi-l-

macr~ifwa-n-nahy can al-munkar, "urging what is reputable and restraining from whatis disreputable."He must accordinglyprovidethe conditions in whichMuslimscanpursuetheir normal avocations and live the good life: he must defend them against external

aggressors,protect their property and families, keep the roads free from brigands, etc.The ideal ruler is also, like the Caliph,the Imam of his people; he must lead them in the

daily salats, ensuring that these are performedregularly and in canonical fashion. His

guide in all this must be the Qur"dn,he Sunna of the Prophet and the early Muslims,and the Sharica.Later in the epistle comes a general exhortation to follow the examplesof past generations or rulersand of formerpeoples. Richter, op. cit., p. 83, saw in this aclear Iranian influence, but the precept is surely as rooted in the Arabic past as in thePersian one. It was a dominant theme of Muhammad'searly preachingat Meccato warn

against a self-satisfied concern with the present life and its material attractions, and

Muiihammadrequently cited the examples of previous prophets who had been sent towarn, and of the refractory peoples of past ages who had been punished for rejectingprophetic messages.

2 Theposition of TAhir in the Arabic learning ofhis time is discussed at length in my article, "The TAhirids and Arabic Culture," Journal of Semitic

Studies, XIV/1 (1969), 45-79.







28 JOURNAL OF NEAR EASTERN STUDIES

The personal character and the outlook on life of the ruler is important, according

to

T.hir.

These should be molded in harmony with the old Arab virtues of hilm and

muruwwa, both of which terms are actually used byT.hir.

In the pursuit of hilm, which

the ancient Arabs had regarded as the highest attribute of the sayyid or tribal leader,3

the ruler must avoid the dangers arising from an arbitrary and arrogant exercise of his

power: "Take care that you do not say to yourself, 'I have been set in authority, I shall

do what I like,' because that will speedily destroy your judgment" (below, p. 34).

Equally to be shunned are a violent temper and frivolous, unbalanced outlook (safah,linked by Goldziher in a famous chapter of his Muhammedanische Studien with jahl, as

the antitheses of hilm). One gets the best out of people by expecting well of them rather

than by adopting an attitude of suspiciousness and perpetual fault-finding; the spreadingof an atmosphere of mistrust in the state is a common method by which Satan causes

trouble.

The virtue ofiqtis.id

orqa.d

in the conduct of affairs is also emphasized. Its meaning

here is clearly that of "moderation, prudence, circumspection," and conveys none ofthat sense of disapproval shown by

al-J.hiz

a generation later when he adverts to the

euphemistic usage of the word by the bourgeoisie of his native Basra.4T.hir's

moderation

is rather the golden mean of the Greeks, and he follows Aristotle in urging it as the

foundation of all right conduct. Far from implying closeness in money matters, it should

go with the traditional Arab quality of liberality (jiid), which is the necessary concomitant

of hilm.5 Wealth should not be left to pile up in the ruler's treasury, where it remains

sterile; instead, the ruler should lay up for himself an incorruptible heavenly treasure

of such things as piety, fear of God, and just behavior. The wealth derived from taxation

should be made to fructify by being expended on measures for the welfare of the subjects

and the general benefit of Islam-if only,

T.hir

adds, for the selfish reason that the

people will be better-disposed towards the ruler if they see the money from their taxes

returned for the good of the community as a whole. The ruler's employees, including his

officials and his soldiers, should likewise be paid adequate salaries, again for the practicalreason that their allegiance and obedience will be thereby facilitated.

Almost all the Islamic Mirrors for Princes devote much space to the ruler's relations

with his officials and tax-collectors. Since the 'cmil was, for the majority of the popula-tion in their small towns and villages, the embodiment of the ruler's authority, strict

control of these officials from the center was ideally sought, if more difficult to achieve

in practice; it is usually pointed out that, since such officials are the ruler's appointees,

it is he who will be responsible before God for their tyrannical behavior or financialexactions. The ruler should start, Tdhir says, by paying his officials good salaries, thus

lessening the temptation for them to recoup from the luckless taxpayers. But we also

find mention of an institution typical of cAbbdsid administration in its heyday, and one

regarded by Nilzm al-Mulk as the mainstay of the state's security, i.e. the

S.hib

al-baridor Sahib al-khabar. When distances within states were so great, and the central govern-

3-Cf. H. Lammens, l9tudes 8ur le rkgne du CalifeOmaiyade Mocdwia ler (Paris, 1908), pp. 79 ff., and

idem, Le berceau de 1'Islam, I'Arabie occidentale a laveille de l'higire. I. Le climat-les bgdouin8 (Rome,1914), pp. 216-21, citing such sayings as uhlum

ta8ud, "show hilm, and you will become a chief."4 Cf.

al-J.hiz'sopening words in his Kitdb al-

bukhald,,ed. TAhh al-H.jiri (Cairo, 1958), 1: "[I have

explained to you] why the misers call avarice 'care-fulness'

(i.ldh)

and stinginess 'circumspection'(iqtiad )."

6 It was very rare to find a sayyid who was also a

miser, as is pointed out by Lammens, Le berceau del'Islam, p. 241.







AN EARLYARABICMIRROR OR PRINCES 29

ment's influence so weak at the peripheries, an intelligence officer such as this was virtuallythe sole check on oppressive local officials or potentially rebellious provincial governors.Hence the institution of the postmaster or internal espionage agent had grown up in

the great empires of the pre-Islamic Near East, such as the Byzantine and SYsdnid ones.

T.hir

does not mention the barid system under that very name, simply referring to the

ruler's duty to appoint a trustworthy official (amin) who will observe and report on the

activities of local officials, but he is obviously referring to this institution, and here

certainly we can discern an influence from the non-Arabic side of the Caliphate.In the works on constitutional theory, the administration of justice and care for the

weaker members of society are listed amongst the duties of the Caliph or ruler. Hence,

T.hir

emphasizes, the duty of applying theQur',nic

penalties for offenses, hudjid,without fear or favor, and without recourse to legal innovations and doubtful precedents

(bidacwa-shubuhdt). The

q.di's

office is necessarily of prime importance for the mainten-

ance of peace and order within the lands of Islam; indeed, it is God's balance (mizdn),

by means of which the affairs of the whole world are controlled. As for the duty of charity,such classes as distressed gentlefolk, the destitute, the blind, and the sick, are commended

to the ruler's attention, while his obligation to seek out those who are the victims of

oppression and to redress their grievances is a reference to the investigation of com-

plaints, an-nazar fi 1-maxzalim,which is regarded by the theorists as a duty of the Caliphor ruler, although usually delegated to a special

S.

ib al-ma~zlim. Finally, the exhorta-

tion to the ruler that he should maintain free access to his person and not let his guardsharass and discourage petitioners, goes back to the old Arabic tradition of the tribal

sayyid as primus inter pares rather than autocrat and as being immediately accessible

to all his fellow-tribesmen; in practice, this ideal had become increasingly obscured since

the later Umayyad period by Persian monarchical traditions which favored the rise toprominence of the 4djib or court chamberlain and the increased withdrawal of the Caliphfrom public view. In this regard, Tdhir's instruction registers a protest against the new,

Persian, hierarchic practices and advocates a return to the simplicities of the Arab past.On balance, the concepts and expressions of

T.hir'sepistle are cast in the old Arabic

and early Islamic mold rather than in an explicitly Iranian one: the paramount impor-tance attached to the Qur'dn and Sunna as the referents for all actions assures this. Yet

in the early cAbbdsid period during which

T.hir

lived, these purely Arabic themes were

being synthesized with material and ideas from the Persian andarz-ndma and pand-ndma

literature, and its general picture of the monarch's conduct guided by ethical and moral

values, the epistle may be said to reflect in part the gradual pervasion of cAbbdsid societyby these influences.

That the epistle and its contents were undeniably attuned to the tastes of the times is

shown by Ibn Taiffir's words on the work's contemporary fame:

"When

T.hir

b. al-Husain gave this charge to his son cAbdallah, people struggled to geta copy of the text, wrote it out and taught it to each other. Its fame spread until it

reached the ears of al-Ma'mfin. He ordered a copy to be brought, and had it read out

to him. Afterwards, he exclaimed, 'Abfi t-Tayyib has spoken decisively, has conveyed

wise counsel and has .given good advice by expressing everything which can possiblybe said about the affairs of religion, and the present world, good planning and judgment,

statesmanship and measures for the improvement of the state and people, the mainten-ance of allegiance, fidelity to the Caliphs, and the furtherance of the interests of the








Caliphate.' He thereupon ordered that copies of the epistle should be sent to all hisofficialsin the various districts of the provinces."6

The translation of the epistle given here below is based on the texts of Keller and al-Kauthari. Both stem from the same

manuscript(see above,

pp.26-27), but the Cairo

text offersa few fresh interpretationsof the manuscript.Occasionally,words are insertedin one edition which do not appear in the other, but on the whole the differencesareminimal and arise mainly from varying interpretations of the placing of dots on words,omission of particles, ambiguity of the letters ghain and fF', differinginterpretation ofwords through the absence of hamza n the orthographyof the manuscript (e.g. Keller'swild'a [sic] versus Cairo'swuldt), etc. Most frequently the differences of meaning occa-sioned thereby are too slight to requirenotice, but wherethese differencesdo seem signi-ficant I have noted them. In the marginal page numbering, K stands for Keller's textand C for the Cairo one.

As well as the serviceable German translation of the epistle contained in Keller's

translation of the whole extant part of Ibn Taiffir'shistory, a Russian translation of the

epistle was made by A. E. Schmidt, "The ideal of a Muhammadangovernor in the 9th

century: Tahir ibn al-Husain's letter to his son," Bulletin of the State University ofCentralAsia, VIII (1925), 127-38. According to Brockelmann, GAL Suppl. I, 210, an

English translation of the Kitib Baghdadwas made (from Keller's Arabic text or fromhis Germantranslation?)by K. C. Seelye, "ColumbiaUniversity OrientalSeries," XVI

(New York, 1920). This book is however, strangely hardto find. It exists neither in theBritish Museum nor the library of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London,but, even more surprisingly, no copy is to be found in ColumbiaUniversity Library.7One wonders whether this alleged translation was ever in fact published for generalcirculation, especially as Seelye's English translation of Goldziher's Vorlesungen lberden Islam had to be withdrawn by the publisher because of the many mistakes oftranslation. The above considerations,together with the fact that the subsequent Cairoedition has given a few improved readings, have seemed adequate justification for the

English translation offeredhere.

II TRANSLATION F THEEPISTLE

The Ruler's Responsibility to Godfor His Rule8

[C26, K 36] Let there be in you the fear of God, He who is one and without associate.Hold Him in awe and reverence and avert His wrath. Look after the interests of yoursubjects. Hold fast to all the good fortune which God has bestowed on you, at the sametime rememberingthe ultimate destination towards which you are inevitably traveling,the duties to which you are obligated, and the responsibilities which you now have.Take care to labor at everything by means of which God will ensure your preservationand will keep you safe from His punishment and painful retribution on the day when

you will meet Him face to face.

6Kitdb Baghddd, ed. Keller, I, 53-54, tr. II, 25,

ed. al-Kauthari, p. 34.

7 Communication of 15.10.68 from Professor J.Schacht.

B The section headings have been supplied bymyself.








God has been gracious to you and has accordingly made it incumbent upon you toshow tenderness towards those of His creatures over whom He has appointed you

shepherd. He has enjoined you to behave justly with them, to maintain His divine truthand His legal prescriptions amongst them, to protect them, to defendtheirprivate posses-

sions and womenfolk,to preservethem from bloodshed,to keep the roads safe for them,and to create the peaceful conditions in which they can go about their daily work. Heholdsyou fully responsiblefor all the things enumerated above whose observancehas beenlaid upon you; He will requirefrom you a reckoningconcerningthem, will question youabout them and will recompense you for your good acts of commissionand your sins ofomission. So let your thoughts, your mind, your visual sense, and your judgmentbe entirely concentratedon these things, and let no one distract or divert you fromthem;for all this is the basic foundation of your authority and the fundamental support of

your ruling position, and is the first thing which God bestows on you [K 37] for guidingyou along the right path.

The RulerMust ObserveFaithfully the Daily Worship

Now the first thing which you must impose on yourself, and the goal towards which

your actions should dispose you, is assiduous observance of the ritual prescriptionslaid down by God as mandatory-the five daily acts of worship (saldts), and the assem-

bling beforeyou of the congregationof the people, at the appointed times and after due

performanceof the ritual ablutions required by the religious law. You must begin the

ceremony with the mention of God's name; you must enunciate correctly as you recitethe words of the saElt;you must performthe bowings and prostrations involved firmlyand decisively, and pronounce the profession of faith clearly. In this way you will

convince Godof the sincerity of your intentions. Furthermore,urge those in your retinueand under your command to be assiduous in attendance and always show keenness

yourself, for, as God says, the saElturges people to what is reputable and restrains fromwhat is disreputable.9

The RulerMust ObserveFaithfully theSunna

You must then follow this up by firm adherence to the practices laid down by the

Messengerof God, prayers and peace be upon him, and by perseverance in the legalprovisions stipulated by him, and you must imitate the examples left by the Prophet'ssuccessors,the virtuous early generation of Muslims.Wheneveryou are faced with some

problem, seek help by consulting God's will in prayer, by showing piety to Him, byadheringto what He has ordainedor prohibited, made lawful or forbidden,as revealedin His book, and by following the trail indicated by the traditions from the Prophet,prayersand peace be upon him; then observe in this matter all the duties which you oweto God.

The Ruler Must ObserveFaithfully the Religious Law

Do not incline away from justice, willingly or unwillingly, [C 27] in favor of someonenear to you or someone far away. But choose to be guided by the religious law (fiqh)and its practitioners, by religion and its exponents, and by the Book of God and thosewho are concerned with it; for the greatest adornments which a man can have are a

9 Cf. Qur'3n, xxix. 44/45, and xxxi. 16/17.








thoroughknowledgeof the religionof God, a searchingdesirefor it, a zeal for its acquisi-tion, and a knowledgeof that part of it which will bringa man closerto his God. Indeed,this thorough knowledge guides the way towards all that is good and is the leader

thither; it predisposes man towards the good [K 38] and restrains people from acts ofrebellion against God and from sins entailing perdition. By means of this, and withthe help of God's favor, His servants increase in knowledge of Him, His mention is

exalted, in glorifying Him, and in following the right path towards the highest stagesin man's journey back to God. All this is in addition to what becomes apparent of the

people's regardfor your rule, their respect for your authority, their close bond with you,and their trust in your justice.

The Virtuesof Moderation n PersonalConductand Public Policy

Be careful to observe moderation

(iqtis.d,

qatd) in all things, for there is nothing of

more obvious value, nothing more conducive to personal security, and nothing containingwithin itself so many merits, as moderation.Moderation s one of the forcespredisposingtowards right guidance and is one of the guides towards divine favor and success;and this last, in turn, leads the way to happiness.Moreover,moderation is a supportingprop for religionand for those legal usages by which men are guided. So choosemodera-tion as your watchwordin all affairs of your present life, without, however, falling shortin your pursuitof the next world,in seekinga heavenly reward, n performingmeritorious

works, in following the accepted ways of virtuous behavior, and in seeking out the sign-posts towards righteousness. For the endeavor to increase in piety and the pursuit of

good works can have no bounds when God'sgrace and approval,and the companionship

of His saints in the abode of divine felicity, are being sought through them.Know that moderation in the things of this world brings one increased power and

preserves one from sinfulness. There is nothing more excellent than moderation as a

protection for yourself and your intimates or as a force to improve and put right youraffairs.So adopt it as a rule of life, and let yourself be guided by it; if you do, your affairswill all reach satisfactory completion, your power will increase, and both your personalcircle of friends and the people in general will benefit from it.

Expect the Best ratherthan the Worst rom People, butNeverthelessKeep an Eye onthe

SubordinatesConductingYourAffairs

[K 39] Keep your mind fixed on God's favor, His mention is exalted; if you do,your subjects will behave towards you in an honest and upright fashion. In all youraffairs,seek to bring yourself closerto God; through this policy, His gracewill be vouch-safed to you perpetually. Do not take action against anyone for some offensecommittedin the officialposition to which you have appointed him, before you have investigatedthe matter under suspicion, since it is a crime to let suspicions and evil thoughts comedown upon innocent people. Adopt as a conscious policy a favorable attitude towards

your associates, and set aside and repudiate malevolent thoughts about them. Thiswill assist you in attaching them firmly to your own interest and in managing them.

Take care lest Satan, the enemy of God,be able to ferret out some defect in your conduct.He only needs to uncover a minor weakness, and he will be able to mingle an element of







AN EARLYARABICMIRROR FOR PRINCES 33

depression10with a gloomy outlook on life which will make the sweetness of life bitterfor you.

Know that, in holding a favorable attitude towards people, you will find a source of

strength and contentment of mind, and through it you will be able to bring to a satis-

factory conclusionany of your affairsyou wish; you may also use it to make people love

you and behave honestly in all their dealings with you. However, this benevolentattitude towards your associates and this tenderness towards your subjects should not

prevent you from setting on foot inquiries and investigations into the way your affairs

are being conducted, from supervising the actions of your agents, from protecting theinterests of your subjects, and from looking into whatever may be conducive to theirwelfare and happiness. Indeed, [C 28] supervision of your agents' activities, protectionof your subjects' interests, [K 40] investigation into their needs, and lightening their

burdens, should be the most important and pressing influenceson your policy, more sothan any others; for they will have more effect in strengtheningreligionand in breathinglife into the religiouslaw. Let your intentions in all this be pure; concentrateyour effortson self-reformation,in the same way as does a person who realizes that he will be held

responsible for everything which he does, will be recompensedfor his good deeds, andwill be punished for his bad ones. Godhas made His faith a sure refuge and a source of

strength; He exalts those who follow Him and raises them in dignity. Hence, in regardto those over whom you rule and act as shepherd,follow the path of true religion andthe way of divine guidance!

Punish Crime

Be swift toapply

theprescribed penalties (.udiid)

tocriminals, according to theirpositions in society, and according to their deserts. Do not neglect this duty, treat it

lightly, or be laggardly in punishing those deserving punishment, because if you fallshort in this duty, you will damage your good reputation. In this matter, always stick

determinedly to the well-establishedlegal precedents. If you avoid all innovations anddubious courses, your faith will be preserved unsullied, and your nobility of character

(muruwwa)will be kept intact.

Keep Promises,and AvoidSlanderersand Liars

When you make an agreement with someone, keep to it; and when you promise to

perform some good deed, make sure that you fulfil it. Be zealous in good works and bejoyful in them. Close your eyes to the minor shortcomings of petty offenders amongstyour subjects; guard your tongue against uttering falsehood and calumny, [K 41] andshow your detestation of those who practice this vice. Banish from your presence allslanderers,because the prime factor which will vitiate your present life and your futureone is the cultivation of falsehood and a shamelessdisposition towards lying. Mendacity,indeed, is the beginning of all sins, and calumny and slander set the seal on them;

consequently, let no one be put into the power of a slanderer, and let no affair be entrustedto anyone obeying him!

10 Following the al-ghamm of C; K has al-cafr andtranslates "unpleasantness, hatefulness."








Avoid theArroganceof Power

Make friends of the people of righteousness and sincerity. Give succor to the descen-

dants of the Prophet (ashrdf)by allotting them their just due; bring consolationto the

weak;strengthen

the bonds ofkinship.

In all thesethings

desire the face of God and

the glory of His power; through them seek from Him a heavenly rewardand the abodeof eternal life. Shun evil thoughts and oppressive behavior, deflecting your mind com-

pletely from them, and demonstrate openly to your subjects your freedom from these

defects. Let your rule over them be gracedwith the exerciseof justice; governthem with

due equity and with the knowledgewhich will lead you on the way of divine guidance.

Keep a grip on your temper when you are angry, and adopt rather the attitudes of

forbearance and magnanimity. Take care not to succumb to hasty temper, frivolous

behavior and deception, in anything you undertake.Also, take care that you do not sayto yourself, "I have been set in authority, I shall do what I like," because that will

speedily destroy your judgment, and it further shows lack of firm belief in God, He

who is one and without associate. May God make pure my intentions and my faith in

Him, and yours likewise!

Know that power belongsto Godalone; He bestows it upon whom He wills, and takes

it away from whom He wills. You will not find His favors towards anyone change more

completely, nor His vengeance descend more swiftly, than [K 42] in regard to those

holders of power and those set in authority who have been the recipients of His favor,

[C29] but have shown ingratitude towardsGod'sbounty and benevolence,andwhohave

used oppressively that which He of His goodness has bestowed on them.11

Do not Let WealthAccumulate n Your Treasury,butExpendit on thePeople's Welfare

Lay aside any avariciousness which may be in your heart. Let the treasuries andstorehouses which you pile up and accumulate be composed of piety, fear of God,

justice, measures for your subjects' welfare and the prosperity of their land, continual

oversight of their affairs, protection for those burdened by misfortune, and assistancefor those who sorrow. Know that wealth which is accumulated and then stored away in

treasuries bears no fruit; but when it is expended on the welfare of subjects, on the pro-vision of their just dues, and on removing burdensfrom them, it thrives and multiplies.As a result, the wholepopulationderives benefit fromit, the governors12baskin reflected

glory from it, the whole age is made bright by it, and increasedstrength and defensive

power follow from it. Consequently, let the greater part of the wealth which you treasure

up be expended on making the world of Islam and its populace more prosperous. Further,allot part of it for what is due to those of the Commander of the Faithful's entouragewho are in your sphere of authority; and utilize another part of it to fulfil the just claims

of your subjects,paying closeheed to what will improvetheir generalstate and conditionsof life. If you do all this, God'sfavor will be vouchsafed to you 13andyou will have meritedan increasedrewardfromHim. Moreover,you will findthat all these things will facilitate

11 Wa-statdla bi-m ditdhumAUdhminfadlihi. Kellertranslates "... and who consider that which He ofHis goodness has bestowed on them as their perpetualright." The lexica support both of these meanings for

istatala, and also a further one, "act proudly, haught-

ily," which would yield the meaning ". . . and thosewho act haughtily with that which He of His goodness

has bestowed on them." See Lisdn al-carabl, XIII,438, and Tdj al-car?is, VII, 422-23.

12Following the al-wuldt of C; K has al-wildta,"the government."

13Following C's qarrat an-nicma calaika; K has

tharat an-nicma calaika.







AN EARLYARABICMIRROR OR PRINCES 35

your levying the land tax(k•haraj)

and your collecting [K 43] the taxes in kind from your

subjects 14 and from the regions under your control. Because of your all-encompassing

justice and benevolent rule, the whole of these will be more obedient to your authority,and will be more complaisant towards whatever your desire of them. So strive to the

best of your ability to achieve what I have delineated for you in this section, and let

your respect for it be great; for the only wealth which endures for ever is that which is

expended in the way of God.

The Virtuesof Gratitude,aboveAll, Gratitude owardsGod

Acknowledgethe gratitude of those who show thanks and recompensethem appropri-

ately for it. Beware lest this present world and its deceptions make you forget due

fear for the next world, so that you treat lightly your obligations in this connection;because this insouciance will breed neglectfulness, and neglectfulness will lead to ruin.

Let all your work be undertaken for God and have its being in Him, His sovereign

power is exalted, and hope only for reward. Indeed, it is He who has lavishedon you His beneficence and shown His grace to you. Accordingly, make yourselfsecure by showing proper gratitude; trust in Him, and He will increase your share of

His goodness and benevolence. God rewards people according to the measure of their

gratitude [to Him] and according to the conduct of those who act righteously; so fulfil 14a

your obligations to Him in return for the good things which He has brought and the

good fortune and exalted status which He has conferred.

Prohibitionof VariousTypes of UnseemlyConduct

On the otherhand, do not treat any offenselightly; do not incline towards the envious

person;do not show mercy towards the malefactor;do not give presents to an ungratefulperson;15do not seek to blandish an enemy;16do not give credenceto a slanderer;donot trust [K 44] a treacherous person; do not make friends with an evil-liver; do notfollow after someone who will lead you into error; do not give praise to a hypocrite;do not treat any man harshly; do not send away empty-handed a destitute beggar;do not deign to bandy words with a foolish person; do not pay attention to a buf-

foon; do not go backon your promises;do not showrespectforoverweeningpride;do notundertakeanything while in a state of anger;do not [C 30] go forth exhibiting haughti-ness; do not walk along showing an unseemly hilarity; do not ride out displaying levity;do not fall short in your pursuit of the next life; do not repel, with a grim scowl on your

face, widows;17 do not avert your eyes from someone who is behaving tyrannically,either from fear of him or out of partiality; and do not seek the rewards of the nextworld in this present life.

The Valueof WiseCounsel,and the Viceof Miserliness

Make a habit of consulting the religious scholars as much as possible, and when

exercising your will, show forbearance (hilm). Learn from people with experience of

14Following C's wa-jamc amwdl raciyyatika; K has

wa-jamic umair aciyyatika.14aFollowing C's wa-qtdi; K has wa-qahid.

15 Wa-lata.ilanna

kafi~ran; Keller translates, "donot make a compact with an unbeliever."

"1 Wa-la tuddhinanna caduwwanf;Keller translates,"do not hold culpable relations with an enemy."

17Following C's la tadfac al-aydma cabbdsan; K

has la tadfac al-ayydm cabdman and translates, "donot pass the days in an unthankful manner."








the world, and from people with intelligence, judgment, and wisdom. Do not allow into

your counsels mean and stingy people, and never pay heed to their words, for they willdo you moreharm than good. Thereis nothing morelikely to bringto disasterany courseof action regardingyour subjects which you may embarkupon, than avarice. For knowthat if you are avaricious, you will want to grab everything and give nothing. If youbehave thus, none of your projects will go right for very long. Your subjects will onlyhave confidence in your benevolence in as much as you refrain from arbitraryexactionson their wealth [K 45] and avoid tyrannizing over them, and your subordinates will onlyremainsincerely devoted to your interests as long as you give them adequateallowancesand good pay. Therefore shun avarice, and know that avariciousnesswas the first act ofrebellionraised by man against his Lord, and that the abode of the rebel against Godisthat of abasement and disgrace, according to what God, He is exalted and magnified,says in His book: "Those who are protected from niggardliness of soul, they are theones who prosper."18So make easy the path of liberality by conformingwith His truth.

Ensure that all the Muslims get a share and allotment of your good intentions here,and be sure that liberality is one of the most meritoriousacts of which God'screaturesare capable.Account it as one of your own virtues, and regardit favorably in your workand in your beliefs.

The Necessity of Seeing that the Army is Contented

Maintain close supervision of the affairs of your army, the soldier's pay registers,and the government departments concernedwith military matters. See that they have

adequate salaries and be generous in their living allowances; by this means, God willtake away their neediness, He will make their happy condition a source of

strengthfor

you, and He will increase their hearts with sincerity and contentedness19 n obedienceto you and attachment to your cause. It is sufficientfelicitousness for a ruler20 that, in

regard to his army and his subjects, he should act compassionately in his equitableconduct, his circumspectness,his exerciseof justice, his concern forpeople,his solicitude,his benevolent works, and his open-handedness.Avoid what is disadvantageousin onecourse of action by espousing the advantageousness of another course and making itthe mainspring of your actions. If you do this, you will, God willing, achieve worldlysuccess, spiritual merit and personal happiness.

TheSupremeImportanceof theQ&4i'sOffice

[K 46] Know that the

q.di's

office enjoys in God's sight an importance exceedingall others. This is because it is God'sbalance, by means of which the affairs of everythingin the whole world are regulated. When justice prevails in the

q.di's

office and in theexecution of his decrees,21 he subjects' welfare is assured, the highways are kept safe,those who have been wronged are given just recompense, people receive their due

rights, life becomespleasant, rightful obedience is freely vouchsafed, God gives provisionfor happiness and preservation of life, religion is firmly maintained, the Sunna [C 31]

1S Qur &n, lix. 9, and lxiv. 16.

19 Following C's ikhlipan wa-nshird2han; K has

takhalduan wa-stirdhan, with virtually the same mean-

ing.2o Following C's wa-hasbu dhi s8-ul.tdn min as-

eacdda; K has... min al-baqd2 and translates, "It issufficient for the perpetuation of a ruler's power ..."

21 Following C's bi-iqdmatal-.adl

fi

l-qadd. wa-l-Camal; K has bi-iqdmat al-fadl wa-l-hilm and trans-lates, "When benevolence and forbearance prevail."








and the religious law are put into practice, and, on the basis of their effectiveness, truth

and justice are successfully achieved in the

q.di's

office.

Various Lines of LaudableConductRecommended

Be zealous in carrying on God's work and refrain from all evil; be assiduous in applyingthe requisite penalties for offences; never be over-hasty in doing things; avoid becomingvexed and disturbed in mind; and be content with a moderate competence. In this

fashion, your successfulness will be made permanent and your good fortune firmlyestablished. Profit by your past experience; concentrate your thoughts while you are

silent, and then when you speak be cogent and to the point. Be fair to your enemy;

pause when you are in doubt, but bring forward trenchant arguments when you are

involved in a disputation. Do not let partiality, claims to protection, or fear of anyone's

blame, sway you in any dealings with one of your subjects. Instead, act with patienceand deliberation; keep your eyes open and watch carefully; consider, reflect, and ponder

over things; adopt an attitude of humility towards your Lord and of clemency towardsall your subjects. Make the pursuit of righteousness the dominating principle of yourconduct, and do not hasten to spill blood, for God regards bloodshed [K 47] all the more

seriously when it is spilt with violence and injustice.

The Needfor Supervisionof Financial Mattersand Tax Collecting

Look carefully into this matter of the land tax, which the subjects have the obligationto pay.22 God has made this a source of strength and might for Islam, and a means of

support and protection for His people; but He has made it a source of chagrin and vexa-

tion for His enemies and the Muslims' enemies, and for the unbelievers in treaty relation-

ship with the Muslims (sc. the Dhimmis) a source of abasement and humiliation.23

Apportion it amongst the taxpayers with justice and fairness, and with equal treatment

and universal applicability for all. Do not remove any part of the obligation to pay land

tax from any noble person just because of his nobility; nor from any rich person on

account of his richness; nor from any of your secretaries or personal retainers. Do

not require from anyone more than he can bear, and do not exact an amount which isin excess of the normal rate.24 Impose taxation on all the people in an equitable manner,for that is more likely to attach them to your interests and more certain to make themasses contented,

The Ruler as theGoodShepherd;

heImportanceof Honestand Adequately-paidOfficials

Know that you have been placed in your governorship as a custodian of valuables, a

watchman, and a shepherd; the people in your realm are only called "your flock"

22 Or alternatively, "by means of which the wel-fare of the subjects is assured" (alladhi qad istaqdmatcalaihi ar-raciyya). Keller interprets khardj here asthe equivalent of jizya = the poll tax paid by the

Dhimmis, and translates it as "the capitation tax onthe free non-Muslims." While this interpretationfinds support in the reference just below to the tax's

being "a source of abasement and humiliation" forthe Dhimmis, the same term is used further on inthis paragraph for the tax on such groups as the

ruler's own secretaries and courtiers. Islamic rulerscertainly employed Dhimmi secretaries and tax-

collectors, but this practice was anathema to the

pious, and one would not expect it to be countenancedin a work concerned with political ethics such as the

present epistle. One can only take this ambivalent

usage of khardj as one more illustration of the vague-ness of early Islamic financial terminology.

23 Dhullan wa-saghdran, echoing Qurodn, ix. 29/30,on the interpretation of which see the divergentviews of Cahen, Bravmann, and Kister in Arabica,IX (1962), 76-79, X (1963), 94-95, XI (1964), 272-

78.24 Amran fihi sha.tat, echoing Qur An, lxxii. 4.








(raciyyatuka) because you are their shepherd (racihim) and their overseer; you take from

them that which they hand over to you from their surplus income and subsistence

means,25 and you expend it on things which will ensure their continued material well-

being and spiritual welfare and which will alleviate their burdens. Within the provinces

under your control appoint over the people officials of clear foresight and judgment,men who are well-tested and experienced26 in provincial government and who know

when to show severity and when to show restraint.27 Pay them [K 48] adequate salaries,

for this is one of the inescapable obligations laid upon you when you took up your gover-

norship and when it was entrusted to your charge. Let no one distract or deflect youfrom this, for if you choose consciously to follow this path, and fulfil faithfully the

attendant obligations, you will gain for yourself additional grace and favor from your

Lord, and a favorable reputation within your own realm; you will preserve for yourselfthe people's love and you will be helped in following a policy of amelioration. As a con-

sequence, charitable works will abound in your land and prosperity will be general in

your territories. The land under your rule will burgeon with fertility, the yield from theland tax will increase, and your income in kind 28 will be proportionately expanded.

By this means you will be able to strengthen the bonds linking [C 32] your army to you,and you will bring contentment to your people through the personal largesse which

you will be able to lavish upon them. In following these courses your statesmanship will

be acclaimed and your justice praised, even by your enemies. In all your affairs youwill be characterized by justice and might, and you will have the equipment and arma-

ments of war. Strive zealously in this, and let nothing come before it; if you do this,

you will find your affairs coming to a successful conclusion, if God wills.

TheNecessity of Having

SecretAgents

in theProvinces of

theRealm,

and the ValueofPrudence and Foresight

In every district of your governorship, you should appoint a trusted observer (amin)who will keep you informed of the activities of your local officials and will write to you

regularly about their policies and doings, in such a way that you will be, as it were, an

eyewitness of every official's activities within his sphere of responsibility. If you wish

to instruct an official to adopt a certain course of action, have due regard for all the

consequences you expect to follow [K 49] from that. If you consider it to be a safe and

wholesome course, and hope to find in it a useful defensive measure, wise counsel, or

favorable action, then put it into practice. But if you find the contrary, renounce it,

and refer the matter to far-sighted and prudent experts in the question; then makeproper provision for putting it into effect. For it often happens that a man examines

one aspect only of some proposed course of action and concentrates on it, because it

conforms to his personal desires, and this accordingly strengthens his resolve and gratifieshim; but, if he neglects to examine the consequences, it leads to his destruction or ruins

his whole policy.

25 Following Keller's translation; a possible alter-native one might be "that which they hand over to

you out of their grace and position of strength."26 Following C's al-khibra; K has al-khaira,

"benevolent conduct."

27 Following the al-cafdf of C, the MS, at-Tabariand Ibn al-Athir; Keller corrects (unnecessarily?) to

al-h.iqdq

and translates, "and when to defend people'srights."

2a Following C's amwdluka; K has ahldbuka and

translates, "taxes taken in the form of herds yieldingmilk" (for al-halab as a financial technical term of the

diwdna.-.adaqdt,

see Li8dn al-carab', I, 321).








The Valueof Resolutenessand Application to AdministrativeRoutine

Employ resolution in all that you purpose to do and, after obtaining God's help, set

about it with vigor. Seek to discover by prayer your Lord's will in everything youundertake. See that

youfinish the

day'sstint of work and never leave it to finish the

next day. Instead, give it your undivided attention, because the morrowalways has its

own problemsand crises, which will divert you fromthe work left over from the previous

day. You must realize that once a day is over, it carriesaway with it everything which

was done duringthat day; so, when you put off the work belongingto it, you find your-self burdened with two days' work, and this will keep you occupied29 until you are

heartily fed up with it.30 When you get through each day's work on the same day, you

keep your mind and body fresh and at the same time you strengthen the fabric of yourrule.31

The Necessity of Caring or Thoseof Noble Birth

Look to those of noble lineage and gentle birth, of whom you are certain32 of the

sincerity of their intentions, of the genuineness of their love for you, of their openmanifestation of good counsel, and their warm devotion [K 50] to your rule.33[When

you are sure of this,] seek to promote their welfare and act kindly towards them. Take

care of the interests of those members of good families (ahlal-buyiitdt)who have fallen

on hard times; shouldertheir burdens and improve their condition, so that they do not

in their distressed state feel the touch of misfortune so keenly.

The Necessityof Caringfor the Poor and Disabled

Devote yourself to looking after the affairs of the poor and destitute, those who areunable to bringtheir complaintsof ill-treatment to you personally,and those of wretched

estate who do not know how to set about claiming their rights. Ask them about their

hidden needs; appoint as agents, in this work of seeking out the oppressed, reliable

people from amongst your subjects, and give them orders to report to you their needs

and conditions, in order that you may examine them and bring such relief as God may

provide for their predicaments. Turn your attention to war veterans and their orphansand widows, and provide them with allowances from the state treasury, following the

example of the Commanderof the Faithful, may Godexalt him, in showing compassionfor them and in giving them financialsubventions, so that God may thereby bring some

alleviation into their daily lives and may by means of it bring you the spiritual food ofHis blessing and an increasein His favor. [C 33] Give pensions from the state treasuryto the blind, and amongst these disabled personsgive prior claim in allowances to thosewho know the Qurdn text by heart or the greater part of it. Set up hospices wheresick Muslimscan find shelter, and appoint custodians for these places who will treat the

patients with kindness, and doctors who will cure their illnesses. Pamper them in their

desires, provided that the state treasury is not thereby squandered.

29 Following C's fa-yashghaluka; K has fa-yuthaq-qiluka and translates, "this will weigh you down."

30 Following K's hattd yaghradu canhfi; C has...

yucrindu .., "until you turn aside from it."31 Wa-a kamta umsArsuldtnika; Keller translates,

"and you perform the tasks of government well."32 Following K's bi-man tastaiqinu; C has thumma

staiqin, "then make certain."

33 Following C's al-mukhdlaka; K has al-mukhdla.ta,"participation."








The Necessity of Keeping Attunedto the People's Needs

Know that people, even if they are given their due rights and their desiresare fulfilled,will not be satisfied with these [K 51] and their minds not at peace unless they are ableto present their needs to their rulers, in the hope of getting more attention and bettertreatment from them. The man who investigates closely the people's affairs often becomes

wearied by all the things which are referred to him,34and the trouble and hardshipwhich he undergoesin chasingthem up often completely occupy his mind and thoughts.The person who seeks after justice, and who recognizeshis material advantages in this

present life and the superiority of the reward which he will enjoy in the next one, isnot like the person who sets his face towards that which will bring him closer to God,He is magnifiedand exalted, and through it

seeks.His mercy.

The Ruler ShouldMaintain Easy Access to his Presence

Allow people access to your person as much as possible, and show your face to them

as often as you can. Orderyour guardsto treat them peaceably; spread your protectivewing over them, and show your face of approval to them. When questioning them or

speakingwith them, be gentle, and grant them a shareof your goodnessand beneficence.

Moreover, when you give, give in a generous and open-hearted manner, hoping for

people's favor and a future reward,and not so as to embarrassthe recipient or reproachhim; for a gift bestowed according to the first fashion will be regardedas a profitabletransaction, if God wills.

The Ruler Should Note the Examples of Former Generations, nd Should LearnfromExperienceandfrom SincereAdvisers

Take carefulnote of everything which you observe in this present world, and consider

the examplesof your predecessors,the rulersand leadersof past centuries, and of nationsnow disappearedfrom the earth. Then in all your affairs hold fast to God's will; keepyourself in the orbit of His love; [K 52] let your actions be guided by His religious lawand the examples laid down by His prophet and the successors, and maintain the

supremacyof His faith and His book. Avoid anything which departs from that or whichcontradicts it, or which will arouse God's ire. Be cognisant of the amount of taxationwhich your officialscollect, and expend a part of it; do not, on the one hand, hoard it

up to a prohibited level, but do not, on the other hand, spend it prodigally.Spenda lot of your time with the ulema;seek theiradvice, and frequenttheir company.

The noblest person amongst all those who join your circle and act as your confidants

should be the person who, when he discerns a fault in you, is not held back by awe ofyou from privately pointing out to you the defect and from telling you about itsdeleterious effects. Such persons as these are the sincerest of your intimates and

supporters in giving disinterested advice.

The Needfor Attention to AdministrativeDetail

Keep an eye on the officials at your court and on your secretaries. Allot to each of

them a fixed time each day when they can bring you their official correspondenceandany documents requiringthe affixingof the ruler'smark,35and can acquaint you of the

4 Vocalizing the text as md yuraddu calaihi; K has... yaridu ..., "which come to him."

3 Kutubihi wa-mutdmaratihi; for the latter term,

a technical one of the diwdns, see my article, "AbficAbdalldh al-Khwdrazmi on the Technical Terms of

the Secretary's Art: a Contribution to the Adminis-trative History of Mediaeval Islam," Journal of theEconomic and Social

History ofthe

Orient, XII/2(1969), 126.







AN EARLYARABICMIRROR ORPRINCES 41

officials'various requirementsand of all the affairs of your provincesand your subjects.Then devote all your faculties-ears, eyes, understanding,and ratiocinative power-tothe information which they set before you; reflect and pour over it repeatedly. Finally,

putinto effect those courses which seem to you to be in accordance with

good judgmentand justice, and seek to know God's will [C 34] in them; but where they seem to be

opposed to these criteria, put them off for further considerationand more enquiries.Do not bestow on your subjects, or on anyone else, any charitableact which you have

undertaken,and do not accept suchan act fromany one of them, unless[K 53] it involves

fulfilment of a duty, or honest dealing, or assistance to the Commander of the Faithful's

interests; do not put into effect any charitable act except on this basis.

ConcludingExhortations

Strive to understand this epistle of mine to you; study it at length, and always use

it as a guide for your actions. In all your undertakings, ask God for help and seek to

know His will, for God, He is magnifiedand exalted, loves righteousnessand those whofollow after it. Let as much as possible of your conduct and intentions be pleasing in the

sight of God,He is magnifiedand exalted; likewise, let their tendency be to bringsupportfor God's religion, to be a source of strength and power for the Muslims, and to be a

fountainhead of justice and righteousness both for the Islamic community and the

protected peoples (al-millawa dh-dhimma).I myself will ask God to bestow on you His aid, His help towards success, His right

guidance, and His safe keeping. Also, I will ask Him to grant you His favor and mercy,through a bestowal of all His grace and generosity, so that He will make you the mostfortunate of all your peers and contemporaries,the richest in possessions,and the most

elevated in reputationand power. Finally, I will ask Him to destroy your enemies, thosewho riseup against you and those who act wrongfully against you; to bringyou prosperityin your dealings with your subjects; and to keep Satan and his evil promptings awayfrom you. As a result of this, your position will be exalted in power and might and

successfulness;indeed, He is always near, always ready to answer.36

36 QurD~n,xi. 64/61.

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