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Contents

Acknowledgements ................................................................................... xi

Foreword ................................................................................................ xxvii

Events that led to the writing of this book ..................................... xxxi

Author’s Preface .................................................................................. xlvii

Introduction .......................................................................................... xlixBrief presentation on Bön ................................................................. xlixScope of this book .................................................................................... lA word on terminology ......................................................................... liiDubious legacy of the term ‘Shamanism’ .......................................... livBuryatian Bө Murgel as a key to understanding the secrets

of Prehistoric Bön of Eurasia ...................................................... lviDifficulties facing the researcher of Bө and shamans ...................... lviiDrawing a line between shamanistic traditions

and Yungdrung Bön ....................................................................... lx

CHAPTER IHistorical Backdrop to Bön and Bө ........................................................ 1Part I: The Lands of Bön ................................................................................ 1

1. Lands of Prehistoric Bön of Eurasia .................................................. 12. Lands of Yungdrung Bön .................................................................... 3

Tagzig ................................................................................................. 3The Zhang Zhung Confederation .................................................... 7India ................................................................................................. 22China ............................................................................................... 23Sumpa ............................................................................................ 25Tibet – Country of Bön ................................................................... 26Yungdrung Bön in the West ............................................................ 58

Part II: The Lands of Bө Murgel ................................................................ 59Pre-history .............................................................................................. 59

Bronze and Iron Age cultures ........................................................ 60Hunnu period ......................................................................................... 62Syanbi period ......................................................................................... 67

Sumbe .............................................................................................. 68Post-Sumbe Syanbi states ............................................................... 69

Tyurkic period ....................................................................................... 70Tureg ........................................................................................... 71

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Hor ................................................................................................... 73Kyrgyz Khaganate ........................................................................... 74

Mongolian period .................................................................................. 76Liao ................................................................................................. 76Altan Tzin (Jin) ............................................................................... 78Mongols ........................................................................................... 79Ih Mongol Uls – The Great Mongol Empire .................................. 93Mongols and Bө Murgel after Chingis Khaan ............................ 105

The peoples and history of Buryatia and the development of Buryatian Bө Murgel .............................................................. 105Main Buryatian tribes and clans ................................................. 107The conquest of Buryatia .............................................................. 108The arrival of Buddhism in Buryatia ............................................ 112The modern era .............................................................................. 115

Conclusion ............................................................................................. 118

CHAPTER IISacred Geography of Lake Baikal ....................................................... 119

Baikal as a geographical and geological feature ................................ 119Baikal as a spiritual feature ................................................................ 120Conclusion ............................................................................................ 125

CHAPTER IIIDifferent Types of Bön ........................................................................... 129

Clarifying the term ‘bön’ ................................................................... 129Three types of Bön in Zhang Zhung and Tibet ................................ 130

1. Prehistoric Bön of Tibet and the coming of Tonpa Shenrab .......................................................................... 1302. Yungdrung Bön ........................................................................ 1333. New Bön .................................................................................... 144

Bön Sarma, Tibetan Buddhism and Yungdrung Bön .................... 149Mixed Bön traditions of the Himalayas and

Tibetan borderlands .................................................................... 152Tamu Priests .................................................................................. 153Dhami priests of Humla ................................................................ 155

Erroneous classifications of Bön ........................................................ 158Bө Murgel as a Mixed Bön tradition ................................................. 159End of baseless rumour ....................................................................... 161Setting aside sectarian tensions .......................................................... 162

CHAPTER IVCosmology .................................................................................................. 163Part I: Cosmological Model of Buryatian Bө Murgel ............................. 163

General structure of the universe ...................................................... 163Bө Murgel creation myth ................................................................... 164The Three Worlds and their inhabitants .......................................... 172

The Upper World ........................................................................... 173The Middle World ......................................................................... 177Totems and protective deities of the four major

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Buryatian tribes ..................................................................... 179Notes to the Table: ......................................................................... 181The Underworld ............................................................................ 181

Conclusion ............................................................................................ 182Part II: Bönpo Cosmological Model .......................................................... 183

Creation of the universe from primeval eggs .................................... 183Dualism of Light and Darkness: the polar forces of Ye

and Ngam ...................................................................................... 186The structure of our universe ............................................................. 188

The triple world system ................................................................. 188Beings of the Six Realms of Rebirth according to

Yungdrung Bön ..................................................................... 190The Multiverse .............................................................................. 200Bönpo cosmology and the cosmology of the Abhidharma of Vasubandhu ................................................................................... 205

Part III: Common Aspects of the Cosmologies of ................................... 209Bө Murgel and Bön ............................................................................ 209The beginnings of the universe ........................................................... 209The structure of the universe ............................................................... 211Primordial Males and Primordial Females ....................................... 213The sacredness of number nine in cosmological models .................. 215

CHAPTER VClasses of Gods and Spirits .................................................................. 217

Thirty-Three Races of Gods and Spirits ......................................... 217Eight Classes of Gods and Spirits ...................................................... 220Protectors of Yungdrung Bön ............................................................. 220

Sidpai Gyalmo ............................................................................... 221Midüd Jampa Trakgo .................................................................... 223Apse ............................................................................................... 223Gyalpo Sheltrab ............................................................................. 224Nyipangse and Menmo ................................................................. 225Dzamgon ........................................................................................ 226Dragpa Senge ................................................................................ 226

Gods and spirits in Bө Murgel ........................................................... 228Sky-dwelling gods in Bön and Bө Murgel ......................................... 228

Eternal conflict: Lha versus Düd and White Tengeri versus Black Tengeri ......................................................................... 229

Drala and Tengeri ......................................................................... 231Black Tengeri and Düd ................................................................ 234Mystical eagles in Bön and Bө Murgel ....................................... 235

The concept of Owners in Bön .......................................................... 239Owners in the Kabtse diagram ..................................................... 240Owners of the Four Directions and the Centre ........................... 242Owners of the Elements ................................................................ 243Yullha/Yulsa and Zhidag ............................................................... 244

The concept of Owners in Buryatian Bө Murgel .............................. 245

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CHAPTER VIGods of the Prehistoric Bön of Eurasia in the Religions of Ancient Central Asia .......................................................................... 249

Hormusta and Nyipangse ................................................................... 249Hormusta ....................................................................................... 249Nyipangse ...................................................................................... 250Parallels between Nyipangse and Hormusta .............................. 253Parallels with Indra ...................................................................... 253

Nyipangse and Pehar ........................................................................... 254Common characteristics ............................................................... 254Differences .................................................................................... 255Reconstruction of the history and origins of Pehar .................... 255Origins of the word ‘pehar’ .......................................................... 260Integration into the Buddhist pantheon ....................................... 264

Location of the country of Phrom/Throm ......................................... 265Note on the origin of the Gesar epic and the name ‘gesar’ .............. 272

Gesar as Keresaspa ....................................................................... 276Xwrmzt (Hurmazta) and Hormusta Tengeri .................................... 277

Proto-Indo-Iranian Pantheon ...................................................... 279Yazatas and Tengeri ...................................................................... 284Proto-Indo-Iranian gods, Vedic gods and the Tengeri ................ 289An Ancient Greek connection ................................................... 291Hormusta Tengeri and the proto-Indo-Iranian gods ................... 292Agni and the role of fire ................................................................ 297Zurvanism ..................................................................................... 299

Cosmology and pantheon of the Prehistoric Bön of Eurasia ........... 302Yungdrung Bön and Zoroastrianism ............................................... 303

Erroneous equation of Zoroastrianism and Mithraism with Yungdrung Bön ............................................................................. 304Deities of Yungdrung Bön and Zoroastrianism ........................... 306Chronology of Shenrab Miwo and Zarathushtra ........................ 309

CHAPTER VIITransmission and Initiation in Buryatian Bө Murgel ................... 311

Utkha: the spiritual lineages of the Bө and Utgan ............................ 311Different types of utkha ................................................................ 312

The holy families of Yungdrung Bön and Tibetan Buddhism ......... 315Common features of family lineages .................................................. 318Ongon Daralga – the ‘pressure of the Ongon-spirits’

or ‘shamanic disease’ .................................................................. 319Who can become a Bө or Utgan? ....................................................... 321

New Age shamans ......................................................................... 323First initiation ............................................................................... 326Nine initiations .............................................................................. 328Initiation among Utgan ................................................................ 334Significance of the number nine .................................................. 335

Summary .............................................................................................. 335

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CHAPTER VIIIDifferent Types of Bө, their Functions and Ritual Gear .............. 337

Different ways of classifying White and Black Bө ............................ 337White Bө ........................................................................................ 338Black Bө ........................................................................................ 339Universal Bө .................................................................................. 340Bө-smiths ....................................................................................... 341Ooselshеn-clairvoyants and Uligershеn-bards ........................... 342

Costume .............................................................................................. 3431. Maihabshi ............................................................................... 3442. Malgai ........................................................................................ 3453. Orgoi .......................................................................................... 345Hooyag ........................................................................................... 345Head band ..................................................................................... 346Mask .............................................................................................. 346

Ritual Objects ...................................................................................... 3461. Toli-mirror ................................................................................ 3472. Hese-drum and toibor, dohyuur drumsticks. .......................... 3483. Hor’bo-canes ............................................................................ 3494. Sword ........................................................................................ 3495. Ho’orto-dagger ......................................................................... 3506. Hootaga-knife .......................................................................... 3507. Whip ........................................................................................... 3508. Bow and arrow ......................................................................... 3509. Zhada-spear .............................................................................. 35010. Zhodo’o .................................................................................. 35011. Huur-mouth harp .................................................................... 35012. Zeli-rope ................................................................................. 35113. Shere’e-altar ........................................................................... 35114. Ongon images ......................................................................... 35115. Hahyuusan amulets ............................................................... 35116. Bө-hete flint stone ................................................................... 35117. Shanginuur-bell ...................................................................... 35118. San hengereg-cymbals ............................................................ 35219. Prayer beads ............................................................................ 35220. Tobacco pouch and pipe ......................................................... 352

CHAPTER IXCult of the Sky ......................................................................................... 353

Spiritual essence of the Sky ............................................................... 353Mu-cord, Mu-ladder and the rainbow-bridge .................................. 353

Sacred bodies of water as the mirrors of the Sky ......................... 355The cult of the Drala sky-gods before and in the time

of Shenrab Miwo .......................................................................... 357Nine Weapons and Armour of the Drala and

the Bө’s ritual apparel ................................................................ 361Conclusion ............................................................................................ 366

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CHAPTER XHeavenly Deer ........................................................................................... 367

Tracing the ancient Deer Cult in the Prehistoric Bön of Eurasia ...................................................................................... 367White Deer ..................................................................................... 370Deer Cult in Russia ....................................................................... 373Deer Goddess in Tungus and Nganasan cosmology ................... 375Heavenly origins ........................................................................... 376

Deer Cult in Bө Murgel and Prehistoric Bön of Tibet ..................... 377Galloping on the Deer ................................................................... 378Transformation into the sacred Deer in Russian folktales and shamanic lore .............................................................................. 380Deer drums and magical flight ..................................................... 381The Heavenly Deer as a living deity ............................................. 383

The Bön of the Deer from the system of the Twelve Lores .............. 383Conclusion ............................................................................................ 388

CHAPTER XIPurification Rituals ................................................................................ 389

Concepts of purity and pollution and the need for purification rites .......................................................................... 389

Lustral sprinkling rituals .................................................................... 394White Tsen ..................................................................................... 394Red Tsen ........................................................................................ 397‘Body-washing’ rites in Bo Murgel .............................................. 399

Fumigation rituals ............................................................................... 400Sang ............................................................................................... 400Aryuud haha .................................................................................. 403

Comparative study of purification rituals ......................................... 405Sang and Aryuud haha ................................................................. 406Tsentrü and Uhan Tarim .............................................................. 407Intermediate link: purification technique from

the Lurol festival of Rebkong ................................................ 410Conclusion ............................................................................................ 412

CHAPTER XIIOffering Rituals ........................................................................................ 415Part I: Ritual Offerings in Buryatian Bө Murgel .................................... 415

The nine main cults of Bө Murgel ...................................................... 415Offering rituals in Buryatian Bө Murgel ......................................... 418

Individual and family rituals ........................................................ 418Collective and public offering rituals ........................................... 419Animal sacrifices ........................................................................... 420

Tailgan .................................................................................................. 421General structure and stages of tailgan ....................................... 421Eye-witness accounts .................................................................... 422Mixed Bө Murgel-Buddhist tailgans ............................................ 428

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Part II: Lurol Festival in Rebkong ............................................................ 433Introduction to Rebkong public offering rituals of the lhapa .... 433Meaning and purpose of Lurol .................................................... 433The Myth of Origin and historical background

of Lurol of Sogri .................................................................... 434The Lurol festival and Buryatian tailgans ........................................ 435

Preliminary stage .......................................................................... 435The shrine and the gods ............................................................... 435Lhachukha rite .............................................................................. 437Conclusion of the festival ............................................................. 438Offerings ....................................................................................... 439

Conclusion ............................................................................................ 441Part III: Comparative Study of the Offering Techniques in Yungdrung Bön and Buryatian Bө Murgel .............................................. 442

Ideological base for the Four Offering Rituals in Yungdrung Bön ............................................................................ 442Four Guests and offering substances suitable for them ............. 442Time and support substance for the offerings ............................ 445Sur and its parallel in Buryatian Bө Murgel ............................... 448Offerings to water-spirits ............................................................. 449Sangchö ......................................................................................... 460Method of Chöd ............................................................................. 475

Tsokchö and Tailgan ............................................................................ 489General principles and structure of Tsokchö ............................... 489

Differences in the view and approach to ritual offerings in Bө Murgel and Yungdrung Bön ................................................. 493Offering rituals as an integral part of the Nine Ways ................. 493Pacts with the local gods and guardians ..................................... 494Differences in the content of offerings ........................................ 498Views on the practice of blood sacrifice ...................................... 501Bloodless rituals of animal dedication ....................................... 515

CHAPTER XIIIThe Soul ...................................................................................................... 519Part I: Soul and Related Concepts ............................................................ 519

The concepts of la, yi and sem, tse and sog in Yungdrung Bön ............................................................................ 519

The understanding of soul in Prehistoric Bön .................................. 523La, wug and sog ............................................................................ 524

Multiple souls in Bө Murgel ............................................................... 525i. Hain hunehen or zayaashi ....................................................... 525ii. Dunda Hunehen ...................................................................... 526iii. Mu Hunehen ............................................................................ 531iv. Amin ......................................................................................... 531v. Hulde .......................................................................................... 532

Comparative concepts relating to the soul in Bө Murgel and Bön ........................................................................................ 534Cha and hulde ............................................................................... 534Wind Horse ................................................................................... 537

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Zalaa .............................................................................................. 544Hesheg and Yang aspects of Hulde and Cha ............................... 547Hurylha, Dalalga and Tsokchö .................................................... 550External receptacles of la/dunda hunehen ................................. 553Bear transformation techniques in Bө Murgel and

the pre-Taoist religion of China ............................................ 555Summary .............................................................................................. 557

PART II: Post-Mortem Fate of the Soul ................................................... 558Post-mortem destiny in Bө Murgel .................................................... 558

‘Newly’ dead ................................................................................ 560Gooideg and other dangerous spirits .......................................... 560Twilight World .............................................................................. 561World of the Ancestors .................................................................. 562World of Erlig Khaan .................................................................... 562Factors determining the post-mortem destiny of

the hunehen ........................................................................... 563The post-mortem fate as understood in Yungdrung Bön ............. 574Conclusion ............................................................................................ 581

CHAPTER XIVHealing and Magic .................................................................................. 583Part I: Theoretical Base .............................................................................. 583

Understanding of the causes for illness and death in Bө Murgel ................................................................................ 583Damage and loss of the soul ......................................................... 583

Understanding of the causes for illness and death in Yungdrung Bön: the concept of karma ..................................... 587Understanding of the causes of illness and death in

the Bön of Cause ................................................................... 587Causes of disease according to Bum Zhi ..................................... 588Understanding of the causes of illness and death in

the Bön of Fruit .................................................................. 590Healing and magic in the context of the gradual path

of Yungdrung Bön ........................................................................ 594Part II: Divination, Diagnostics and Healing Techniques ....................... 601

Divination ............................................................................................ 601Divination methods in Buryatian Bө Murgel .............................. 601Divination methods in Yungdrung Bön ....................................... 605

Diagnosis .............................................................................................. 613Diagnosis in Bө Murgel ................................................................ 613Medical diagnosis in Yungdrung Bön .......................................... 614

Healing ................................................................................................. 615Healing methods used by the Bө and Utgan ................................ 615Healing techniques in Yungdrung Bön ........................................ 620

Part III: Buryatian Bө and Tibetan Medium-Healers and Oracles ....... 622Buryatian mediums ............................................................................. 622Tibetan lhapa/pawo mediums and Buryatian Bө ............................ 628Tibetan State Oracle and Buryatian Bө ............................................ 631

Tibetan Buddhist Oracles ............................................................. 631

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Stages of the ritual trance of Tibetan Buddhist medium-priests and Buryatian Bө ........................................ 632

Ritual apparel of Tibetan State Oracles and Buryatian Bө ........ 634Conclusion ..................................................................................... 636

Part IV: Retrieving and Ransoming the Soul .......................................... 637Rites for retrieving the soul ................................................................ 638

Hunehen Hurylha ......................................................................... 638Lalu and Lagug ............................................................................. 640Comparison of Bө Murgel and Bönpo soul

retrieving rituals .................................................................... 642Buryatian and Tibetan ransom rituals Dolё and Lüd ...................... 645

Introduction ................................................................................... 645Buryatian Dolё rites ...................................................................... 646Tibetan ransom rituals ................................................................. 651Tibetan rituals of human ransom and Hun Dolё ........................ 653

Part V: Exorcism of Negativities connected with Death ......................... 660The rite of exorcising Gooideg ............................................................ 660The rite of vanquishing the Shed ....................................................... 662Conclusion ............................................................................................ 665

Part VI: Destructive Magic ........................................................................ 666Magic powers of the Bө and Bönpo ................................................... 666Magic combat: black magic assault and countermeasures .............. 669

Magical action targeting soul-receptacles ................................... 669Offensive and counter magic in Buryatia .................................... 672Destructive magic of Bө-smiths .................................................... 675Magical combat in the form of animals ....................................... 676Bө – Buddhist rivalry .................................................................... 677Buryatian Zya, Magar Zyā and Bönpo

Ted destructive magic ............................................................ 680Offering rituals and magic related to the gods of the

Underworld in the Prehistoric Bön of Eurasia ................... 683Conclusion ........................................................................................... 687

CHAPTER XVSpread of Bön in Eurasia ....................................................................... 689

The ancient beginnings ....................................................................... 689B.G. Tilak’s Arctic Home Theory and the

Prehistoric Bön of Eurasia .......................................................... 689The Arctic as the cradle of humanity ................................................. 692Symbology of the swastika .................................................................. 695Evidence of proto-Mongol north-south migration ......................... 699Tonpa Shenrab Miwo and Yungdrung Bön in

the context of prehistory .............................................................. 702The spread of Prehistoric Bönpo culture in Eurasia ........................ 706The spread of Prehistoric Bön in Siberia, Central and

East Asia ........................................................................................ 712Zhuns and Zhang Zhung .................................................................... 715Initial spread of the various types of Bön to, from and

around Zhang Zhung .................................................................. 720

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Languages and multinational culture of Zhang Zhung ............. 720Eastern and Western vectors along which Bönpo

culture was distributed in Zhang Zhung .............................. 724Southward spread of Prehistoric Bön along the borders

of Zhang Zhung ................................................................... 727Spread of Yungdrung Bön within Zhang Zhung

and beyond ............................................................................. 727Spread of Bön from the Tibetan Plateau into the

Great Steppe, Europe, Mongolia and Siberia .......................... 729Hunnu ........................................................................................... 729Sumpa and Syanbi, Azha and Tuyuhun ....................................... 731Could the ancient lineage of Bönpo Dzogchen have

survived in Buryatia? ........................................................... 736Spread of Tibetan Bön in the Great Steppe and

Southern Siberia in the Tyurkic period ............................... 738Spread of Yungdrung Bön into the Great Steppe and

Siberia from Tibet due to persecutions ................................. 740Conclusion ........................................................................................... 746

Appendix .................................................................................................... 749

Glossary of Buryatian, Tibetan and Sanskrit Terms and Concepts ............................................................................................. 753

Bibliography .............................................................................................. 775

Index ............................................................................................................ 795

List of Illustrations and Maps .............................................................. 819