BIOLOGYPSSA REVIEW

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONOF ORGANISMS

PSSA Eligible Content

S11.B.1.1 ( 1-3)

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Cells to Organism

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

ORGANIZATION - CELLS

Cells are the basic unit of life. All organisms (living things) are made of

cells. Unicellular

Made of one cell Ex: bacteria, protists, fungi (yeast)

Multicellular Made of many cells Ex: animals, plants, fungi

CELL TYPES AND ORGANELLES: ANIMAL CELL

CELL TYPES AND ORGANELLES:PLANT CELL

SUMMARY OF ORGANELLES

ORGANELLE FUNCTION

MITOCHONDRION Powerhouse of cell; makes ATP

RIBOSOME Proteins made here

NUCLEUS Houses DNA

NUCLEOLUS Makes ribosomes

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Transport/ 2 types (rough/smooth)

GOLGI BODY Packaging

CHLOROPLAST Glucose productionSite of photosynthesis

CILIA / FLAGELLA: responsible for cell movement

KEY CELL COMPOUNDS

TYPE DESCRIPTION/FUNCTION

PROTEIN Made of amino acidsMost abundantStructure, movement, chemical reactions

CARBOHYDRATE Includes sugars, starches, cellulose (plant support)Provides energy

LIPID Includes waxes and oilsDo not dissolve in waterEnergy storageCell membrane structure

NUCLEIC ACID Includes DNA, RNA & ATPStore hereditary informationDirect cell activities

TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE

Passive Transport Includes diffusion Does not require energy Substances move from high to low concentration With concentration gradient Osmosis is diffusion of WATER across membrane

TRANSPORT ACROSS THE CELL MEMBRANE

Active transport Requires energy (ATP) Substances move from LOW to high

concentration Against concentration gradient

HOMEOSTASIS

Maintenance of stable internal conditions required for cells to survive

CELL MEMBRANE plays key role Selective permeability

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS Taxonomy defined

Science of grouping organisms

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE: Genus/species Ex: Homo sapiens

DOMAIN

DOMAINS

EUBACTERIA ARCHAEA

Prokaryotic cells Do not contain membrane bound organelles NO NUCLEUS YES DNA

EUKARYA Includes Kingdoms Protista, Plantae, Animalia,

Fungi YES NUCLEUS YES membrane bound organelles

KINGDOMS

KINGDOM CELL NUMBER

DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

ARCHAEA Uni Live in harsh environments

BacteriaNo specifics needed

EUBACTERIA Uni Typical prokaryotes

BacteriaNo specifics needed

PROTISTA Uni or Multi May have chloroplasts and cell wall

AmebaAlgae

PLANTAE Multi AutotrophicCell wall

Moss, fern

ANIMALIA Multi HeterotrophicLack cell wall

Sponges, worms

FUNGI Uni or Multi Lack cell wall and chloroplastsheterotrophic

Yeast, mushrooms

PHYLOGENY: USED TO CLASSIFY

o Evolutionary history of organismo Used to classifyo Shows ancestral relationships

DNA SEQUENCING: USED TO CLASSIFY

ORGANISM AMINO ACID DIFFERENCES

ORGANISM AMINO ACID DIFFERENCES

Human 0 Mouse 27

Gorilla 1 Kangaroo 38

Rhesus monkey

8 Chicken 45

Dog 15 Frog 67

Cow 25 Sea slug 127

Horse 25 Soy bean 124

Which organisms are the most closely related?

The ones with the least amount of differences!

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

6CO2 + 6H2O +  6O2 + C6H12O6 Carbon dioxide + water = oxygen +

glucose Changes radiant energy from sun into

chemical energy in glucose Occurs in chloroplast & uses chlorophyll Occurs in 2 steps:

Light dependent reaction Energizes electrons in chlorophyll; makes ATP Splits water and releases oxygen

Light independent (dark) reaction Also called Calvin cycle ATP used to form glucose

ENERGY TRANSFERS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

CELLULAR RESPIRATION (AEROBIC)

6O2 + C6H12O6  6H2O + 6CO2 + energy (ATP)

Energy in glucose is changed to ATP Occurs in 3 steps when oxygen is

present: GLYCOLYSIS

Produces 2 ATP (makes 4 and uses 2) Splits glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate

KREBS CYCLE Also called citric acid cycle Transfers energy from pyruvate into energy holders

called FAD and NAD which become FADH2 & NADH

ELECTRON TRANSPORT Transfers energy from FADH2 and NADH into ATP

RESPIRATION

RESPIRATION (ANAEROBIC)

Oxygen is NOT present Glycolysis occurs (glucose is split) Following glycolysis- 2 choices

Alcoholic Fermentation yeast

Lactic Acid Fermentation Muscles in humans

CONTINUITY OF LIFES11.B.2. 1 (1-4) & 2 (1 -3 )

EVOLUTION

Who developed the theory? Charles Darwin during the 1800s

What is EVOLUTION? Organisms change over time

Why do organisms change? Natural selection:

All organisms have slightly different characteristics. If these characteristics/adaptations help them survive in a particular environment, they will pass the traits on to their offspring- thus changing the characteristics of the population over time

EVOLUTION

EVIDENCE? Fossils Similar body forms Similar embryos Similar DNA & amino acid sequences in proteins

GENETIC INFORMATION

DNA Nucleic acid made of phosphate, sugar

(deoxyribose), and nitrogen bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine)

Base pairing: A = T C = G Basic building block: nucleotide Stores the genetic code

GENE Section of DNA which has a code for one trait

CHROMOSOME One molecule of DNA Humans have 46

CAN YOU…..

Complete the other half of the DNA molecule below?

A - T - C - G - G - C - A - T

T - A - G - C - C - G - T - A

GENETIC INFORMATION

REPLICATION Occurs before a cell divides in 2 Process in which DNA makes a copy of itself

RNA AND DNA

DNA RNA

Stays in nucleus Throughout cell

Sugar = deoxyribose Sugar = ribose

Double stranded Single stranded or globular

Adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine

Adenine, guanine, cytosine, URACIL

3 TYPES OF RNAmessenger (mRNA) nucleus to cytoplasm (ribosome)transfer (tRNA) cytoplasm to ribosomeribosomal (rRNA) makes up ribosomes/in nucleolus

too

GENETIC INFORMATION

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Occurs in 2 steps TRANSCRIPTION & TRANSLATION

GENETIC INFORMATION

TRANSCRIPTION Copying of DNA’s code in nucleus of cell by

messenger RNA

GENETIC INFORMATION

TRANSLATION Reading of mRNA into a protein Every 3 bases on mRNA (CODON) – 1 amino acid tRNA (transfer RNA) retrieves amino acid from

cell Carries to ribosome to be put into protein

GENETIC CODE

What amino acid is represented by the codon: UUU? phenylalanine (Phe)

What amino acid is represented by the codon: AUG?methionine (Met)

CELL CYCLE

Or MEIOSIS

CHROMATIDS

Division of cytoplasm

MITOSIS

PHASE DESCRIPTION

PROPHASE Nuclear membrane dissolvesSpindle apparatus forms

METAPHASE Chromatids align mid cell

ANAPHASE Chromatids separateNow are individual chromosomes

TELOPHASE Nuclear membrane reforms

MEIOSISMeiosis I

Meiosis II

Stage Description

Prophase I Spindle fiber formsPairing of homologous sets

Metaphase I Align center of cell

Anaphase I Homologous pairs split

Telophase I 2 new cells= ½ # chromosomes with copies

Stage Description

Prophase II Spindle fiber forms

Metaphase II Aligns mid cell

Anaphase II Chromatids separate

Telophase II Total 4 new cells

GENETIC INFORMATION

MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Creates identical cells Creates sex cells (gametes)

Exact same # of chromosomes

½ number of chromosomes

Diploid to diploid or haploid to haploid

Diploid (2 sets of chromosomes) to haploid (1 set of chromosomes)

No genetic variety Creates genetic variety

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

DOMINANT & RECESSIVE GENES Genes occur in pairs The dominant gene is seen in the organism Recessive gene is masked

EXAMPLE: R = gene for right handedness r = gene for left handedness In general:

if you have a gene for both right handedness and left handedness, you will be RIGHT HANDED

GENETICS

Punnett Squares: Used to predict probability of offspring having

certain characteristics/traits

Rr X Rr

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

MULTIPLE DOMINANCE Certain traits have more than 2 different forms Blood types occur from 3 different gene forms

(alleles)

A B O

AB are dominant together = type AB bloodA and B are dominant over O

AA, AO = type A BB, BO = type B OO = type O

Type O blood is the UNIVERSAL DONOR

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE

SEX INFLUENCED TRAITS Trait expressed differently in males and females MALE PATTERN BALDNESS

SEX LINKED TRAITS Are carried on X chromosome Sex chromosomes = X or Y Females = XX Males = XY COLOR BLINDNESS, HEMOPHILIA (blood clotting)

ECOLOGICAL BEHAVIOR AND SYSTEMSPSSA Eligible Content

S11.B.3.1( 1 – 5), 2 (1-3), 3 (1-3)

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

Biotic factors: all the living things in an environment (i.e. bacteria, plants, insects, birds, and other animals).

Abiotic: all the non-living things in an environment (i.e. wind, precipitation, temperature, current in a stream, soil, caves).

ENERGY TRANSFERS IN ECOSYSTEM

o SUN is ultimate energy source on planet!

Food chains show the movement of energy through an ecosystem.

Sun grass grasshopper mouse snakehawk

Grass = producer (autotroph)Grasshopper = primary consumer (herbivore)Mouse = secondary consumer

(carnivore)Snake/hawk = tertiary consumers

FOOD WEB – SHOWS OVERLAPPING FOOD CHAINS

Organisms are INTERDEPENDENT

BIOMES

large, distinctive complexes of plant communities distinguished by climate.

There are 7 major land biomes, 1 major aquatic biome and numerous minor biomes Tundra Taiga Temperate Deciduous Forest Grasslands Desert Temperate Rainforest Tropical Rainforest Coral Reef

BIOMES

Extremely cold Covered by a

permanently frozen layer of ground called permafrost

Little vegetation (sphagnum moss, fast growing annuals)

Very few large predators (caribou, migrating birds, polar bears, arctic foxes)

Extremely hot Rainfall: <10”

annually, may be zero Little vegetation,

cacti, fast growing annuals

Very few large predators (snakes, lizards, birds, coyotes) Usually nocturnal

Tundra Desert

TUNDRA & DESERT

BIOMES

Large variety of tall, densely packed vegetation

Largest variety of biodiversity on land

Very few LARGE predators

Average temperature of 72-80o F

Two seasons: wet & dry (actually less wet)

Large variety of marine plants & sessile (stationary) animals (i.e. coral, sponges)

Largest variety of marine life

Very few LARGE predators (rarely higher than shark)

Average water temperature range of 68-82o F

Tropical Rainforest Coral Reef

BIOMES

Tropical Rain Forest Coral Reef

BIOMES

4 seasons: summer, fall, winter, & spring

Most trees are hardwood (beech, oak) which shed their leaves in the fall (deciduous). Large groves of 1 tree type are common

Location: Eastern ½ of US & most of Europe

Deer, raccoon, salamanders & bear are common predators

4 seasons: summer, fall, winter, & spring

Most trees are coniferous, but smaller, shade loving trees (dogwood, maples) grow as well.

Location: Western edge of North & South America where moist Pacific Waters give plenty of rain.

Birds, bear & small animals are common predators

Deciduous Forest Temperate Rainforest

BIOMES

Deciduous Forest Temperate Rainforest

BIOMES

Known as the Prairie or Plains in US, Steppe in Russia & Savannah in Africa.

Shallow rooted grasses are most common, but along rivers & lakes, trees may grow.

Dominant predators are ungulates (i.e.bison, deer, antelope), prairie dogs, wolves, coyotes, bear

Climate: long snowy winters, long warm summers

Shallow rooted coniferous (pine) trees circling the earth like a belt

Dominant predators are the mosquitoes, moose, & migratory birds. Most other mammals hibernate during the long winter months.

Climate: long snowy winters & short warm summers.

Grasslands Taiga

BIOMES

Grasslands Taiga

PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN SYSTEMS

POPULATION Group of organisms in same species @ same

location POPULATION DENSITY

How crowded area is: # individuals /unit area GROWTH RATE

Amount population # changes / unit time Death/birth rates immigration/emigration

DENSITY INDEPENDENT FACTORS Weather, flood, fire

DENSITY DEPENDENT FACTORS Resource limitations: food, space, shelter,

nesting

PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN SYSTEMS

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY Variety in number of different kinds of species in

area SPECIES RICHNESS

Contributes to overall well being of environment and enhances survival of organisms: BALANCE

PRODUCERS Plants / use sun’s energy

CONSUMERS Eat other organisms

DECOMPOSERS Return nutrients to environments

PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN SYSTEMS

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION Communities replaced by newer communities

due to a change in an area PRIMARY

Occurs in area where no community exists Can follow a disaster (volcanic eruption/earthquake)

SECONDARYSoil intactExisting community cleared by disturbance (ex: farming)

PIONEER SPECIES First organisms to inhabit ecosystem

RECYCLING OF NUTRIENTS

NITROGEN CYCLE

RECYCLING OF NUTRIENTS

CARBONCYCLE

RECYCLING OF CHEMICALS

PATTERNS OF CHANGE IN SYSTEMS

RENEWABLE RESOURCES Can be replaced or renewed through natural

processes Ex: air, soil, water, living things

NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES Cannot be replaced by natural processes as quickly

as they are used Ex: coal, oil, natural gas, minerals

GENETICALLY ENGINEERED PRODUCTS Altering of genetic makeup to produce desired traits

ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION Growing of crops or raising of livestock without use

of synthetic chemicals