Biology and SPED

8/12/2019 Biology and SPED

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LET Reviewer Biology Majorship

Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 1Systematics

classification of organisms and the evolutionary relationships among them

Taxonomy study of grouping and classification

Taxon any named group of organisms that is sufficiently distinct to be assigned to a certain

category

Levels of ClassificationKingdom

Phylum

Class Order Family

GenusSpecies

inomial system of classification by Carolus Linnaeus use of Genus and Species

o ma!e up the scientific nameo first letter of the genus is al"ays capitali#ed$ "hile the species name starts

"ith a small letter% &t should be in italics 'underlining the genus and speciesmeans it is in italics(

)xample* Homo sapiens Mus musculus

Common name less precise could refer to more than one organism

Six !ingdom scheme +chaebacteria

pro!aryotic '"ithout true nucleus( extremophiles no peptidoglycan in the cell "all classification

Group Characteristic ,epresentative speciesThermophile -eat loving Thermus aquaticus.ethanogen ,elease methane as by product Methanobacterium-alophile Salt loving Halobacterium

+cidophiles +cid loving Ferroplasma acidarmanus

)ubacteria true bacteria


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pro!aryotic '"ithout true nucleus( "ith peptidoglycan in the cell "all classification 'based on shape(

Group Shape ,epresentative speciesCoccus ,ound Staphylococcusacillus ,od Streptobacilli Spiral T"isted Spirillum

Classification Characteristic/s0iplococci T"o cocciStreptococci Chain of cocciTetrad Four '1( cocci2 division in t"o '3( planesSarcinae )ight '4( cocci$ Cube li!e arrangement2 division in three '5( planesStaphylococci Clusters of cocci

Protista eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus( "ith plant$ animal and fungus li!e characteristics unicellular eu!aryotes

Fungus li!e ProtistsPhylum Characteristics ,epresentative species )conomic importance

6ater .olds Found in damp environments Phytophthora infestans Causes potato blightSlime .olds lac! chitin in their cell "alls Physarum polycephalum 0ecomposition

+nimal li!e ProtistsPhylum .ode of locomotion ,epresentative species )conomic importance

Sarcodina Pseudopodia Amoeba Causes amoebiasisCiliata Cilia Paramecium Plays a !ey role in the food

chain of ponds.astigophora Flagella Trypanosoma Causes +frican sleeping

sic!nessSporo#oa 7one Plasmodium Causes malaria

Plant li!e ProtistsPhylum 0escription ,epresentative species )conomic importance

,hodophyta ,ed algae Porphyra Source of nori$ an ediblesea"eed

Chlorophyta Green algae Caulerpa Source of foodPhaeophyta ro"n algae Sargassum -abitat for marine animalsChrysophyta yello"8green algae 0iatoms Produces the diatomaceous

earth used for abrasives andfiltering aids

0inoflagellates Some arebioluminescent

Gonyaulax Causes red tides

Fungi eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus( heterotroph 'consumer( some are saprophytes 'consume decaying plants( and some are parasitic classification

o #ygomycetes 'common molds( resistant spherical spores
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.htmlhttp://seaweed.ucg.ie/cultivation/NoriCultivation.htmlhttp://seaweed.ucg.ie/cultivation/NoriCultivation.htmlhttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.htmlhttp://www.botany.hawaii.edu/BOT201/Algae/Sargassum%20echinocarpum%20web%20image.jpghttp://seaweed.ucg.ie/cultivation/NoriCultivation.htmlhttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/greenalgae/greenalgae.htmlhttp://www.botany.hawaii.edu/BOT201/Algae/Sargassum%20echinocarpum%20web%20image.jpghttp://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html


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living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material example8blac! bread mold ' hi!opus stolonifer (

o basidiomycetes 'club fungi( fungi "ith gills or pores examples are mushrooms and brac!et fungi%

o ascomycetes 'sac fungi( examples of sac fungi include morels$ truffles$ yeast

o deuteromycetes 'imperfect fungi( have no sexual reproduction examples Penicillum

Plantae eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus( autotroph 'producer( photosynthetic

Plants7on vascular

' ryophytes(

9ascular .oss

' ryophyta(

Liver"ort '-epatophyta(-orn"ort

'+nthocerophytaSeedlessSeeded

Fern alliesFern

7on Flo"eringFlo"ering

Gymnosperm +ngiosperm

.onocot0icot


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Type of flo"eringplant

Type offlo"er

7umber ofcotyledon

+rrangementof vascular

bundles

Type of leafvenation

Type of rootsystem

.onocot Floral parts inmultiples of5:s

one seedleaf

Scatteredvascularbundles

Parallelleaf veins

0iffused orfibrous

0icot Floral parts in

multiples of1:s or ;:s

T"o seed

leaf

9ascular

bundles inrings orcirculararrangement

7etted leaf

veins

Taproot

system

+nimalia eu!aryotic '"ith true nucleus( heterotroph 'consumer(

0ichotomous !ey determines the classification of an organism

asic needs of plants solid 'although soil less farming called hydroponics can be done( minerals

.anganese$ #inc$ iron$ boron$ copper$ nic!el$ molybdenum and chlorineSulfur$ phosphorus$ carbon$ hydrogen$ oxygen$ nitrogen$ potassium$ calcium and

.agnesium air 'CO 3( "ater light

Some benefits of plants Food Shelter Source of oxygen for other organisms Phytoremediation8help in the brea!do"n or reduce the concentration of

pollutants in the environment

asic needs of animals food "ater air 'O 3(


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CO 3 = - 3O 88888888888888> C?- @3O ? = O 3 Chlorophyll

may be supplemented by carnivory 'usually consumption of insects( li!e in the9enus fly trap and Pitcher plant

,eproduction pollination 'transfer of pollen to the stigma( follo"ed by fertili#ation 'union of

sperm and egg( has double fertili#ation may be sexual 'using seeds( or asexual reproduction life span can be annual$ biennial or perennial

+nimals7utrition

can holotrophic 'feeding on solid organic material($ saprotrophic 'feeding onsoluble organic compounds obtained from dead animals and plants( or parasitic'feeding on the organic substances present in the body of another livingorganism(

some structures for obtaining food are tentacles$ cla"s$ teeth$ and pinchers food is ta!en into the gut or alimentary canal Food is subAected to chemical and physical digestion then absorbed

Transport can be "ater8filled canals 'li!e in Aellyfishes( or in circulatory system 'li!e in

vertebrates and certain invertebrates( circulation can be open or closed 'blood stays in the vessels(

Gas exchange can diffuse in the tracheal tubes 'li!e in insects($ s!in 'li!e coelenterates$

flat"orms and many annelids($ gills 'li!e in fishes($ and lungs 'li!e in mostvertebrates(

)xcretion and Osmoregulation !idney 'li!e in vertebrates($ malphigian tubules 'li!e in insects(

Locomotion "ings 'in birds($ tails and fins 'in fishes and aBuatic mammals li!e dolphin and

"hales(

,eproduction may be asexual 'no gametes needed(

Fission8 divides into t"o or more eBual8si#ed partsudding8 outgro"th develops on the parent animal that becomes a ne"

individual may be sexual 'gametes needed(

ehavioral +daptations ,eflex actions8 can happen unconsciously Learning8 adaptive change in behavior due to past experiences habituation8 subAected to repeated stimulation


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Principle of nity in 0iversity +ll organisms are made up of cells The continuity of life from generation to generation is explained by the presence

of the genetic material% The complimentarity bet"een structure and function is true to all living forms )volutionary change is the !ey to the diversity of life% &nteraction "ith the environment Stability and homeostasis ,eproduction

Complimentarity bet"een Structure and Function

a relationship bet"een the structure and function exampleo cell provided "ith great number of mitochondria must be a very active cell in

terms of energy consumption

"norganic and #rganic $hemistry.atter

anything that has mass and occupies space.atter Pure

.ixture)lement

Compound-omogenous

-eterogeneous


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+tom tiniest particles of an element have subatomic particles

o proton8positiveo neutron8 neutralo electron8negative

has atomic number 'number of protons( has atomic mass 'number of protons and neutrons(

&sotopes same atomic number but of different mass number )xample

o -ydrogen8@$ -ydrogen83 and -ydrogen85o Carbon 8@3$ Carbon8@1

&on charged particles can be cations 'positively charged( or anions' negatively charged(

)lement composed of one type of atom that cannot be separated into simpler substances by

chemical means%

.olecules aggregate of at least t"o atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical

bonds

Compound composed of atoms of t"o or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances

.ixture

consist of t"o or more substances "herein their composition varies .ay be homogenous 'one phase( or heterogenous 'multiple phase( )xamples of homogenous mixture

o vinegar )xamples of heterogenous mixture

o Soil

Periodic Table hori#ontal ro"s called period 'indicates the number of energy levels(


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vertical column called group or family 'indicates the number of valence electrons( element in the periodic table can be metals$ metalloids or non metals

Covalent bond sharing of valence electron

&onic bond formed by oppositely charged ions there is complete transfer of electron from one atom to another

-ydrogen bond 'in "ater( bond that exist bet"een an atom of a hydrogen in one "ater molecule and an atom of

oxygen in another "ater molecule

States of matter Solid

o molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular forceso holds its shape

o volume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the solid% LiBuid

o molecular forces are "ea!er than solido ta!es the shape of its container o can flo"

Gaso molecular forces are very "ea!%o ta!e both the shape and the volume of the container o can flo"

Carbon forms the bac!bone of biology for all life on )arth% Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded "ith other elements$ especially

oxygen$ hydrogen and nitrogen 'carbon is able to bond "ith all of these because of itsfour valence electrons(

6ater contracts until it reaches 1 D C then it expands until it is solid% Solid "ater is less dense that liBuid "ater 'thus$ ice floats( Can be attracted to other "ater 'cohesion(% can be attracted to other materials 'adhesion(% -igh surface tension -igh boiling point 6ater has a high specific heat 'amount of heat per unit mass reBuired to raise the

temperature by one degree Celsius

Chemical reactions Synthesis

o + = + 0ecomposition

o C0 C = 0 Single displacement

o )F = G )G = F 0ouble displacement
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/volume.htmlhttp://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/volume.htmlhttp://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/volume.html


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o &E =Kl &L =KE

Biochemistry and $ell Biologyiomolecules

Carbohydrateso &mmediate source of energyo made of carbon$ hydrogen$ and oxygen atomso simplest carbohydrate formula of C- 3Oo Can be classified as monosaccharide$ disaccharide and polysaccharideo )xamples of monosaccharide

Fructose8fruit sugar Glucose Galactose

o )xamples of disaccharide .altose 'glucose = glucose(8for ma!ing beer Sucrose 'glucose = fructose(8table sugar Lactose 'glucose = galactose(8mil! sugar

o )xamples of polysaccharide Glycogen8storage carbohydrate of animals Starch8storage carbohydrate of plants Cellulose8for protection Chitin8 polysaccharide found in the outer s!eleton of insects$ crabs$

shrimps$ lobsters and cell "all of fungi

Proteinso uilding bloc!s are amino acids

+mino acids may be essential 'can not be synthesi#ed by the body(

phenylalanine$ valine$ threonine$ tryptophan$ isoleucine$methionine$ leucine$ and lysine

'+ny -elp( "n Learning These Little Molecules P rovesTruly %aluable

+mino acids may be non essential 'can be synthesi#ed by the body( +lanine$ +sparagine$ +spartate$ Cysteine$ Glutamate$ Glutamine$

Glycine$ Proline$ Serine$ Tyrosine$ +rginine$ -istidine &ndividuals living "ith phenyl!etonuria 'PK ( must !eep their inta!e of

phenylalanine extremely lo" to prevent mental retardation and othermetabolic complications% -o"ever$ phenylalanine is the precursor fortyrosine synthesis% 6ithout phenylalanine$ tyrosine cannot be made andso tyrosine becomes essential in the diet of PK patients%

o Special proteins that hastens chemical reaction is called en#ymeso Protein deficiency leads to a disease called !"ashior!or 'characteri#ed by

edema$ irritability$ anorexia$ ulcerating dermatoses$ and an enlarged liver(

Lipidso -uge storage of energyo Can be phospholipid$ fats$ "axes$ oils$ steroids


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Fats8glycerol = 5 fatty acids unsaturated fats are liBuid at room temperature unsaturated fats can be made saturated by adding hydrogen

atoms 'hydrogenation( saturated fats are solid at room temperature Consumption of large amount of saturated fats has been

associated "ith atherosclerosis% 'plaBues are deposited on the"alls of blood vessel reducing blood flo"(

6axes fatty acid lin!ed to alcohol more hydrophobic and serve as natural coats covers of fruits and leaves of plants that appear shiny Some insects have "axy coats that prevent then from drying out%

Phospholipid important in cellular membranes T"o fatty acids are lin!ed to glycerol% + phosphate group is

attached to the glycerol Steroid

example is cholesterol The bac!bone is not an alcohol but a four8ring hydrocarbon

7ucleic acidso Storage of informationo Transmit parental traits to offspringo uilding bloc!s are called nucleotide 'sugar = nitrogenous base =phosphate

group(o Can be 07+ or ,7+

Criteria 07+ ,7+Pyrimidine base Cytosine 'C( and thymine 'T( Cytosine 'C( and racil ' (Purine base +denine '+( and guanine 'G( +denine '+( and guanine 'G(Sugar 0eoxyribose ,ibosePhosphate group Present Present7umber of strands 3 @Location 7ucleus$ mitochondrion$ chloroplast 7ucleus$ cytoplasm$ ribosomes

,obert -oo!e discovered the cell

Theodor Sch"ann '#oologist( and .atthias Ea!ob Schleiden 'botanist( stated that cells "ere the basic unit of life%

,udolf 9ircho"


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stated tat cells come from pre8existing cells

Cell theory Cells are the basic unit of life +ll organisms are composed of cells% )very living thing is either single8celled or multi8

celled% all cells arise from pre8existing cells ')xcept for the origin of life itself(%

Pro!aryote 7o true nucleus 6ith nucleoid region

)u!aryote 6ith true nucleus

Structures Pro!aryotic cell )u!aryotic CellCell "all Peptidoglycan "ith uniBue amino

disaccharidecellulose

Plasma membrane present presentorganelles 7ot membrane8bound .embrane8boundSub8cellular Structure incytoplasm

,ibosomes ' DS(Thyla!oid

,ibosomes '4DS()ndoplasmic reticulumGolgi apparatus9acuole and vesicleLysosomePeroxisomes.itochondrionChloroplastcytos!eleton

Cilia and flagella 0oes not have a = 3 pattern ofmicrotubule

6ith = 3 pattern ofmicrotubules

Centriole absent = D pattern of microtubule7ucleus 7ucleoid 'not enclosed by a

membrane(&nnumerable en#ymesChromosome 'loop of 07+(

7uclear envelope surroundingnucleoplasm$ chromatin andnucleolus

nucleolus absent Concentrated area of chromatin$,7+ and proteins

Cellular structures Cell membrane

o For protectiono )xplained by the fluid mosaic model

Phospholipid is bilayer interspersed "ith proteins Fluid because component move throughout the membrane mosaic because of integral proteins$ peripheral proteins$ glycoproteins$

phospholipids$ glycolipids$ and in some cases cholesterol$ lipoproteins%

.itochondrion


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o Production of +TPo )nclosed by the inner membrane is a Aelly8li!e matrix%o folds are called cristaeo has its o"n 07+

Chloroplasto pigment8containingo has of small flattened sacs called thyla!oids

thyla!oids are arranged in stac!s called granumo has its o"n 07+

,ibosomeo .a!e proteinso .ay be attached 'in rough endoplasmic reticulum( or free

)ndoplasmic ,eticulumo .ay be ,ough )ndoplasmic ,eticulum ',),(

Contain ribosomes For protein synthesis Flattened

o .ay be Smooth )ndoplasmic ,eticulum 'S),( 7o ribosomes For lipid synthesis and detoxification Tubular

Golgi +pparatuso modifies and pac!ages materials

9acuoleo Surrounded by tonoplasto For storage and osmotic regulation

Lysosomeo For intracellular digestiono Contain digestive en#ymeso Suicide bag of the cello .ay destroy cellular debris$ pathogenic bacteria and fungi%

.icrotubuleso provides structural support and allo"s motiono has protein subunits called tubulin%

7ucleuso Control center of the cell because of the presence of genetic materialo Surrounded by the nuclear membrane

Flagellum/Ciliao -as =3 microtubular arrangemento For movement

Centrioleso -as =D microtubular arrangement


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o For cellular division

7ucleoluso +ssembles r,7+

Plant and animal cell

+nimal Cell Plant Cell

.itochondria present presentCell "all 7one HesPlastids 7o Hes

9acuoleOne or more small vacuoles'much smaller than plantcells(%

One$ large central vacuoleta!ing up DI of cell volume%

,ibosomes Present Present

Centrioles +l"ayspresent

Only present

in lo"er plantforms%

Lysosomes Lysosomes occur incytoplasm%Lysosomes usually notevident%

Plasma .embrane Present PresentCell "all +bsent Present

Chloroplast +bsent Present

7ucleus Present Present

Transport Passive

o 0oes not use +TP 'the energy currency of the cell(o .ovement is through the concentration gradient 'from high concentration to lo"

concentration(o )xamples

0iffusion movement of particles 'atoms$ ions or molecules( from a region

in "hich they are in higher concentration to regions of lo"erconcentration% &t continues until the concentration of substancesis uniform

+pplications

v Gas exchange for respirationv Gas exchange for photosynthesis

Facilitated diffusion movement of specific molecules do"n a concentration gradient$

using a carrier protein Osmosis

0iffusion of "ater through a partially permeable membrane 6ater movement in

v -ypotonic environment8net "ater movement is going


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plate$ eBuatorial plane$ metaphase plane( +naphase Separation of sister chromatids

.ovement of separated sister chromatids to opposite polesTelophase ,eformation of the nuclear envelope

Cleavage furro" is prominent in animal cellCell plate is prominent in plant cell

Through .eiosis -appens in sex cells 0aughter cells have half of the genetic materials 'haploid cell( of the parent cells Some importance of meiosis

o ,estore diploid state of parent cello Production of sperm and egg cells

-as t"o divisions 'First division is called reductional phase2 Second division is calledeBuational phase(

)ventsProphase & Synapsis or pairing of the homologous

Crossing8over 'recombination or physical exchange of eBual pieces ofadAacent non8sister chromatids ( follo"s

.etaphase & -omologous chromosomes align at the eBuatorial plate +naphase & -omologous chromosomes separate "ith sister chromatids remaining

together%Telophase & T"o daughter cells are formed "ith each daughter cell containing only

one chromosome of the homologous pair Prophase && 07+ does not replicate.etaphase && Chromosomes align at the eBuatorial plate

+naphase && Sister chromatids migrate separately to each pole%Telophase && Cell division is complete%

Four haploid daughter cells are produced%

Cyto!inesis cytoplasm divides to form t"o daughter cells happens after telophase

Cancer cells have uncontrolled mitosis resulting to uncontrolled gro"th division beyond the normal limits may spread to other parts of the body 'metastasis(

&enetics and Evol'tionGenetics

study of heredityo -eredity is the transmission of genes from one generation to the next generation

Gregor .endel Father of Genetics


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used the garden pea ' Pisum sati"um ( ,esults of )xperiment

o First generation8 purebred tall plants "ere crossed "ith purebred short plants allthe offspring "ere tall plants%

o Second generation8 tall plants$ "hich "ere the progeny of the first generation$"ere crossed "ith themselves ;I or of the resulting progeny "ere tall plants

and 3;I or M of the plants "ere short .endelian La"s of Genetics

o .endel La" of 0ominance 6hen recessive genes are "ith the dominant genes $ the dominant

genes are the ones expressedo La" of Segregation

states that all the genes for all the traits of an organism are eBuallydivided and are eBually distributed in all the resulting gametes aftermeiosis

o La" of &ndependent +ssortment states that alleles of different genes are distributed randomly to the

gametes and fertili#ation occurs at random

7on .endelian Patterns of inheritance &ncomplete 0ominance

o states that a cross bet"een homo#ygous dominant and recessive genes "illresult to a progeny of hetero#ygous genes determining an intermediate traitbet"een the dominant trait and recessive trait

o )xample8,ed and "hite flo"ers produce pin! flo"ers Co8dominance

o 0etectable genetic expression of t"o alleleso )xample8 lood group

.ultiple +llelismo + given gene can have more than t"o '3( alleleso Can only be studied in populationso )xample8+ O blood group2 ombay phenotype 'a person "ith antigens for

blood type +$ or + has lood type O( Sex Lin!

o gene responsible for a specific trait is located on a sex chromosomeo )xample8 Color blindness and hemophilia in humans

Sex limitedo The phenotype is the same in a specific gender regardless of the genotypeo )xample

Genotype Phenotypeemale .ale-- )en*+eathered -en8feathered

-h )en*+eathered -en8featheredhh )en*+eathered Coc!8feathered

Sex influencedo -etero#ygous genotype may exhibit one phenotype one sex and the contrasting

one on the other o )xample

Genotype PhenotypeFemale .ale


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ald aldB, -ot Bald Baldbb 7ot ald 7ot ald

Chromosome Theory of &nheritance .endelian factors or genes are located on chromosomes &t is the chromosome that segregates and independently assort .endelian inheritance has its physical basis on the behavior of chromosomes during

sexual life cycles% '&n the early @ DDs$ geneticists sho"ed that chromosomal movementsin meiosis account for .endel:s la"s%(

.organ traced a gene to a specific chromosome "hich led to the discovery that the 0> @3DD(o Sumerian Civili#ation 8Sumer$ is the cradle of the "orld:s earliest !no"n

civili#ation Standardi#ed .easurement follo"ing the sexagesimal system 'using

number ?D as base(% They divided the circle into 5?D degrees$ an hourinto ?D minutes and a minute into ?D seconds(

Canals$ di!es$ "ires and reservoirs Potter:s 6heel 6heeled 9ehicle


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Sailboat Systemati#ed Farming &rrigation system constructed canals for irrigation leaching$ dyeing$ preparing paints$ cosmetics and perfumes .ateria .edica8 Compilation of prescriptions for different diseases made

from assorted botanical$ #oological$ and mineralogical ingredients% First "riting system called cuneiform "hich is a set of "ord pictures

depicted in symbols pressed into "et clay tablets and then sun driedo abylonian Civili#ation

-anging Gardens of abylon Sun 0ial Calendar 0eveloped an elaborate irrigation system of canals

o )gyptian Civili#ation -ieroglyphics Papyrus8 first paper )arly "eather forecasting +stronomy

Production of read and eer -enna )mbalming .etallurgy

o .inoan/ Cretan Civili#ation 0rainage System

o Gree! Civili#ation Logical Thin!ing +stronomy +tomic Theory First Classification of Living things First accurate measurement of the earth:s diameter +rchimedes Scre" 0issection of +nimal corpses Geometry

o Persian Civili#ation Common Calendar Postal service niform system of gold and silver coinage

o ,oman Civili#ation &nstallation of public toilets +dapted Gree! teachings

o +rabic/ &slamic Civili#ation +lchemy 7umerical System

Glass lens for magnification Produced the first gun

o Chinese Civili#ation LacBuer Sil! Production ,ecords on eclipses +pothecaries and acupuncture Paper .a!ing Gun Po"der


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Printingo &ndus8-indu Civili#ation

0eveloped metallurgy +ccuracy in measurement Prevention and treatment of ailments

o The .iddle +ges +lgebra "as organi#ed and expanded Comprehensive medical encyclopedia8Canon of .edicine &ntroduction of the -indu +rabic system

o The ,enaissance &mproved process of paper ma!ing and printing Scientific method .icroscope +ge of exploration

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St/ Lo'is Review $enter0 "nc/ 5 rd Floor C+P ldg% Corner Tiano8Gaerlan St%

'D44( 4;@8@1@5/ 5D 85?1@

-and Outs for Special )ducation L)T ,)9&)6

6hat &s Special +bout Special )ducationQSpecial education is governed by federal la" in most educational Aurisdictions% nder &ndviduals"ith 0isabilities )ducation +ct '&0)+($ Special )ducation is defined as*RSpecially designed instruction$ at no cost to parents$ to meet the uniBue needs of a child "ith adisability%RSpecial education is in place to provide additional services$ support$ programs$ speciali#edplacements or environments to ensure that all students educational needs are provided for%Special education is provided to Bualifying students at no cost to the parents% There are manystudents "ho have special learning needs and these needs are addressed through specialeducation% The range of special education support "ill vary based on need and educational

Aurisdictions% )ach country$ state or educational Aurisdiction "ill have different policies$ rules$regulations and legislation that governs "hat special education is% &n the S$ the governing la" is*"ndivid'als with isa,ilities Ed'cation Act (" EATypically$ the types of exceptionalities/disabilities "ill be clearly identified in the Aurisdiction s la"

surrounding special education% Students Bualifying for special education support have needs that"ill often reBuire support that goes beyond "hat is normally offered or received in the regularschool/classroom setting%

The @5 categories under &0)+ include* +utism 0eaf or lindness 0evelopmental 0elays )motional 0isturbance
http://specialed.about.com/od/idea/a/IdeaDefined.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/idea/a/IdeaDefined.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/disabilities/Disabilities_in_Special_Education.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/idea/a/IdeaDefined.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/autismandaspergers/Autism_and_Aspergers.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/disabilities/a/deaf.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/devdelay/Mentally_Disabled.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/behavioremotiona1/Behavior_and_Emotional_Disabilities.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/idea/a/IdeaDefined.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/idea/a/IdeaDefined.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/disabilities/Disabilities_in_Special_Education.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/idea/a/IdeaDefined.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/autismandaspergers/Autism_and_Aspergers.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/disabilities/a/deaf.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/devdelay/Mentally_Disabled.htmhttp://specialed.about.com/od/behavioremotiona1/Behavior_and_Emotional_Disabilities.htm


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-earing &mpairments .ental ,etardation .ultiple 0isabilities Orthapedic &mpairments Other -ealth &mpairments Specific Learning 0isabilities Speech and Language &mpairments Traumatic rain &nAury 9isual &mpairments%Gifted and talented are vie"ed as exceptional under &0)+$ ho"ever$ other Aurisdictions may alsoincluded Gifted in part of their legislation% Some of the needs in the above categories cannotal"ays be met through regular instructional and assessment practices% The goal of specialeducation is to ensure that these students can ta!e part in education and access the curriculum"henever possible% &deally$ all students need to have eBuitable access to education in order toreach their potential%

+ child suspected of needing special education support "ill usually be referred to the specialeducation committee at the school% Parents$ teachers or both can ma!e referrals for specialeducation% Parents should have any necessary information/documentation from communityprofessionals$ doctors$ external agencies etc% and inform the school of the child s disabilities ifthey are !no"n prior to attending school% Other"ise$ typically the teacher "ill being to noticeanomalies and "ill relay any concerns to the parent "hich can lead to a special needs committeemeeting at the school level% The child "ho is being considered for special education services "illoften receive assessment's($ evaluations or psycho testing 'again this depends on theeducational Aurisdiction( to determine if they Bualify to receive special educationprogramming/supports% -o"ever$ prior to conducting any type of assessment/testing$ the parent"ill need to sign consent forms%Once the child Bualifies for additional support$ an &ndividual )ducation Plan/Program '&)P(is thendeveloped for the child% &)Ps "ill include goals$ obAectives$ activities and any additional supportsneeded to ensure the child reaches his/her maximum educational potential% .ore on &)PS% The&)P is then revie"ed and revised regularly "ith input from the sta!eholders%

BE)A%"#R M# " "$AT"#-

0)F&7&T&O7 OF T),.S@% aseline* Process by "hich information is collected regarding the occurrence of the behaviorprior to any intervention%3% ehavior* +ny overt or covert activity of a person% also*response5% Chaining* .ethod of teaching a complex behavior involving the systematic teaching ofcomponent s!ills of the behavior andseBuencing the s!ills together%1% ConseBuences* The non ambiguous reaction to "hatever behavior is exhibited by the learner%also* Positive reinforcement$punishment;% 0,&* 0ifferential reinforcement of incompatible behavior% ,einforcement contingent onemission of behavior incompatible"ith the target behavior%

?% 0,L* 0ifferential reinforcement of lo"er rates of behavior% ,einforcement contingent upon lo"8rate responses%% 0,O* 0ifferential reinforcement of other behavior% Procedure in "hich reinforcement follo"sany behavior emitted except target behavior%4% )xtinction* ,emoval of all reinforcement contingent on target behavior%% Generali#ation* Phenomenon by "hich behavior taught in onestimulus situation tends to beemitted in other stimulus situations%@D% 7egative ,einforcement* 'S, ( ,emoval of stimulus "hich$"hen removed contingent onresponse increases the li!elihood of future occurrence of the response% +lsoconseBuence$contingency
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'g( often blurts out ans"ers before Buestions have been completed'h( often has difficulty a"aiting turn'i( often interrupts or intrudes on others 'e%g% butts into conversations or games(

% Some hyperactive8impulsive or inattentive symptoms that caused impairment "ere presentbefore age years%

C% Some impairment from the symptoms is present in t"o or more settings 'e%g% at school Vor"or!W and at home(%0% There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social$ academic$ oroccupational functioning%)% The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a Pervasive 0evelopmental0isorder$ Schi#ophrenia$ or other Psychotic 0isorder and are not better accounted for by anothermental disorder 'e%g% .ood 0isorder$ +nxiety 0isorder$ 0issociative 0isorder$ or a Personality0isorder(

3hat "s %is'al "mpairment

The term "isual impairments describes a "ide variety of conditions that affect vision abilities% 6e

use the term to denote mild to most severe vision loss$ rather than to defects in the eye itself% +ccording to the &ndividuals "ith 0isabilities )ducation +ct '&0)+( of @ $ a visual impairmentrefers to Xan impairment in vision that$ even "ith correction$ adversely affects a child:seducational performance% The term includes both partial sight and blindness%YSight impairment terminology can sometimes be confusing% .ost people classified as XblindY havea visual sense of lightness or dar!ness$ as "ell as an ability to see some shapes and images% Toavoid confusion$ you should !no" the follo"ing terms commonly used to designate degrees ofvisual impairment*

Totally blind% This term usually implies little or no visual sensitivity to light at any level%This condition is rare$ and people "ho are totally blind typically have severe physicaldamage to the eyes themselves or to the visual nerves%

Legally blind% + legally blind person has a visual acuity of 3D/3DD or less in the better eye$

after correction% This means that "hat an individual "ith normal '3D/3D( vision sees at t"ohundred feet$ the legally blind person cannot see until he or she is "ithin t"enty feet% &naddition$ a person can be classified as legally blind if she has a field of vision no greaterthan t"enty degrees at the "idest diameter% '+ normal field of vision is close to @4Ddegrees%( Only about 3D percent of legally blind people are totally blind% Legally blindindividuals typically use raille and visual aids%

Lo" vision% People "ith lo" vision can read "ith the help of large8print reading materialsand magnifying obAects% They may also use raille%

Partially sighted% Partially sighted individuals have less severe loss of vision than peoplein the other three categories% + person "ith partial sight may be able to see obAects upclose or far a"ay and "ith corrective lenses may be able to function at normal levels%

The human eye is li!e a camera that collects$ focuses$ and transmits light through a lens to createan image of its surroundings% &n a camera$ the image is created on film or an image sensor% &n theeye$ the image is created on the retina$ a thin layer of light8sensitive tissue at the bac! of theeye%Li!e a camera$ the human eye controls the amount of light that enters the eye% The iris 'thecolored circular part of the eye( controls the amount of light passing through the pupil% &t closes upthe pupil in bright light and opens it "ider in dim light% The cornea is the transparent$ protectivesurface of the eye% &t helps focus light$ as does the lens$ "hich sits Aust behind the iris%

6hen light enters the eye$ the retina changes the light into nerve signals% The retina then sendsthese signals along the optic nerve 'a cable of more than @$DDD$DDD nerve fibers( to the brain%6ithout a retina$ the eye can t communicate "ith the brain$ ma!ing vision impossible%.any


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people have some type of visual problem at some point in their lives% Some can no longer seeobAects far a"ay% Others have problems reading small print% These types of conditions are ofteneasily treated "ith eyeglasses or contact lenses% ut "hen one or more parts of the eye or brainthat are needed to process images become diseased or damaged$ severe or total loss of visioncan occur% &n these cases$ vision can t be fully restored "ith medical treatment$ surgery$ orcorrective lenses li!e glasses or contacts%The +merican Foundation for the lind estimates that@D million people in the nited States are visually impaired% 9isual impairment is a term expertsuse to describe any !ind of vision loss$ "hether it s someone "ho cannot see at all or someone"ho has partial vision loss%Some people are completely blind$ but many others have "hat s calledlegal blindness% They haven t lost their sight completely but have lost enough vision that they dhave to stand 3D feet from an obAect to see it as "ell as someone "ith perfect vision could from3DD feet a"ay%

$a'ses %is'al "mpairment

Some babies have congenital blindness$ "hich means they are visually impaired at birth%Congenital blindness can be caused by a number of things U it can be inherited$ forinstance$ or caused by an infection 'li!e German measles( that s transmitted from themother to the developing fetus during pregnancy%

$onditions that may ca'se vision loss a+ter ,irth incl'de5 +mblyopia 'pronounced* am8blee8oh8pee8uh( is reduced vision in an eye caused by lac!

of use of that eye in early childhood% Some conditions cause a child s eyes to senddifferent messages to the brain 'for example$ one eye might focus better than the other(%The brain may then turn off or suppress images from the "ea!er eye and vision from thateye then stops developing normally% This is also !no"n as a Rla#y eye%R Strabismus'misaligned or crossed eyes( is a common cause of amblyopia$ since the brain "ill startto ignore messages sent by one of the misaligned eyes%

Cataracts are cloudy areas in part or all of the lens of the eye% &n people "ithoutcataracts$ the lens is crystal clear and allo"s light to pass through and focus on theretina% Cataracts prevent light from easily passing through the lens$ and this causes loss

of vision% Cataracts often form slo"ly and usually affect people in their ?Ds and Ds$ butsometimes babies are born "ith congenital cataracts% Symptoms include double vision$cloudy or blurry vision$ difficulty seeing in poorly lit spaces$ and colors that seem faded%

0iabetic retinopathy 'pronounced* reh8ton8ah8pa8thee( occurs "hen the tiny bloodvessels in the retina are damaged due to diabetes% People "ith retinopathy may not haveany problems seeing at first% ut if the condition gets "orse$ they can become blind%Teens "ho have diabetes should be sure to get regular eye exams because there are noearly "arning signs for this condition% To help prevent retinopathy$ people "ith diabetesshould also avoid smo!ing$ !eep their blood pressure under control$ and !eep their bloodsugar at an even level%

Glaucoma is an increase in pressure inside the eye% The increased pressure impairsvision by damaging the optic nerve% Glaucoma is mostly seen in older adults$ althoughbabies may be born "ith the condition and children and teens can sometimes develop itas "ell%

.acular degeneration 'pronounced* mah8!yoo8lur dih8Aeh8nuh8ray8shun( is a gradual andprogressive deterioration of the macula$ the most sensitive region of the retina% Thecondition leads to progressive loss of central vision 'the ability to see fine details directlyin front(% .acular degeneration is often age related 'it occurs in older people$ especiallyolder than ?D($ but sometimes it can occur in younger people% )xcessive exposure tosunlight and smo!ing can increase the ris! for age8related macular degeneration%Symptoms may include increased difficulty reading or "atching T9$ or distorted vision in


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"hich straight lines appear "avy or obAects loo! larger or smaller than normal% Trachoma 'pronounced* truh8!o8muh( occurs "hen a very contagious microorganism

called Chlamydia trachomatis causes inflammation in the eye% &t s often found in poorrural countries that have overcro"ded living conditions and limited access to "ater andsanitation% lindness due to trachoma has been virtually eliminated from the S+%

&f you$ your parent$ or your doctor suspects a visual problem$ you ll probably pay a visit to anophthalmologist 'pronounced* af8thal8mah8luh8Aist($ a medical doctor "ho speciali#es inexamining$ diagnosing$ and treating eyes and eye diseases% 6hen someone goes for anexamination$ the ophthalmologist "ill loo! at the structure of that person s eye%

#ther simple tests an ophthalmologist may per+orm incl'de5 9isual acuity test% + person reads an eye chart to measure ho" "ell he or she sees at

various distances% 9isual field test% Ophthalmologists use this test to measure side$ or peripheral$ vision%

Tonometry test% This test determines the fluid pressure inside the eye to evaluate forglaucoma%

&f your doctor determines that you have an eye condition that is li!ely to cause visual impairment$

many treatments are available% Options may include eyeglasses$ contact lenses$ and eye dropsor other medicines% &n some cases$ surgery may be reBuired% For instance$ cataracts are oftentreated by removing the clouded lens and replacing it "ith an intraocular lens 'an artificial plasticlens that reBuires no special care and restores vision(%Other methods can compensate for visionloss% Guide dogs can help people get from place to place independently% raille allo"s those "ithvisual impairment to read and "rite% Special eBuipment such as microscopic and telescopicglasses and voice8recognition soft"are can ma!e school and home"or! easier%

LEAR-"-& "SAB"L"T"ES

What is Dyscalculia?

0yscalculia is a learning disability that affects the success that a person has "ith mathematical

calculations% This learning disability cannot be officially diagnosed at present$ but it can obviousfrom several distinct symptoms$ such as the inability to visuali#e abstract mathematical conceptsand the tendency to reverse numbers "hen doing calculations%

Visualization Strategies

There are several strategies you can use to help a student "ith dyscalculia "ith visuali#ingmathematical concepts% For example$ you can encourage students to dra" diagrams of problemsbefore solving them% Hou can also help students connect "hat they are learning to real8lifesituations% oth of these strategies can help students to ma!e a concept more XrealY in theirminds% &n addition$ students "ith dyscalculia can often benefit from being able to tal! out mathproblems in groups before solving them%

Se.'encing Strategies

Students "ho have issues "ith number reversals and other seBuencing problems can alsobenefit from some dyscalculia strategies% For example$ you might encourage students "ithdyscalculia to do their calculations on graph paper or on a computer$ "hich can help them to!eep the numbers in the correct order% &f you have room on a "or!sheet or exam for students todo their calculations$ ma!e sure that you leave plenty of "hite space for their "or!% &n addition$


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ensure that your "or!sheets are straightfor"ard and uncluttered% 6hat loo!s li!e a cute"or!sheet to some students can loo! li!e a convoluted mess to a student "ith dyscalculia%

#ther Strategies

Other dyscalculia strategies can help not Aust students "ho actually have dyscalculia$ but also

other struggling students% 6hen students have to memori#e facts or concepts$ encourage them toput the information to a tune or rhythm% +lternatively$ sho" them ho" to ma!e up mnemonics orother hints to help them remember the information% &n addition$ give students a previe" of theinformation you "ill be teaching before you begin instruction% This "ill help students preparementally for the information they "ill be learning%

$haracteristics and Bac6gro'nd "n+ormation +or St'dents with M'ltiple isa,ilities5

Children "ith multiple disabilities "ill have a combination of various disabilities that may include*speech$ physical mobility$ learning$ mental retardation$ visual$ hearing$ brain inAury and possiblyothers% +long "ith multiple disabilities$ they can also exhibit sensory losses and behavior and orsocial problems% Children "ith multiple disabilities 8 also referred to as multiple exceptionalities"ill vary in severity and characteristics% These students may exhibit "ea!ness in auditoryprocessing and have speech limitations% Physical mobility "ill often be an area of need% These

students may have difficulty attaining and remembering s!ills and or transferring these s!ills fromone situation to another% Support is usually needed beyond the confines of the classroom% Thereare often medical implications "ith some of the more severe multiple disabilities "hich couldinclude students "ith cerebral palsy and severe autism and brain inAuries% There are manyeducational implications for these students%

Strategies and Modi+ications5

6hat can you doQ )arly intervention is necessary 8 as soon as the child begins school

&nvolvement of the appropriate professionals$ i%e%$ occupational therapists$speech/language therapists$ physio therapists$ etc%

+ team approach at the school level involving external agency/community liaison "homeet on a regular basis is essential

The physical arrangement of the classroom "ill need to best accommodate this child%Consideration of special eBuipment and assistive technology is essential%

&ntegration among their peers is important to assist these students "ith socialdevelopment% &t s important to integrate multiply disabled children as much as is possible%,esearch does indicate that "hen these students attend their community school andparticipate in the same activities as their peers is social s!ills develop and are enhanced%'Sometimes these students are place full time in a regular classroom "ith support$ho"ever$ in the maAority of cases$ these students are place in a developmental s!ills typeof classroom "ith some integration%

)nsuring that all students demonstrates respect for the multiply disabled student

becomes a teacher responsibility and needs to be ta!en seriously "ith ongoing activitiesthat develop respect from the other students in the class% +n &ndividual )ducation Plan "ill need to be carefully planned out and adAusted on a

regular basis and "ill need to be aligned to the child% ,emember$ these children are often completely dependent upon others for most/all of

their daily needs% +ssistive technologies may assist this child and the support team "ill need to decide

"hich assistive technologies "ill be most appropriate% '&n the &0)+ act* +SS&ST&9)


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T)C-7OLOGH% Consider "hether the child reBuires assistive technology devices andservices% + safety plan "ill need to be developed and is often included in the &)P%

Care needs to be given in your expectations of this student to ensure the child doesn t notbecome frustrated%

.ost importantly$ these identified children are to be given the same rights as non8identified schoolage children including screening$ evaluation and an appropriate program and services%

'al E7ceptionalities

&i+ted and isa,led

ifted students "ith disabling conditions remain a maAor group of underserved and understimulatedyouth 'Cline$ @ (% The focus on accommodations for their disabilities may preclude therecognition and development of their cognitive abilities% &t is not unexpected$ then$ to find asignificant discrepancy bet"een the measured academic potential of these students and theiractual performance in the classroom '6hitmore N .a!er$ @ 4;(% &n order for these children toreach their potential$ it is imperative that their intellectual strengths be recogni#ed and nurtured$ atthe same time as their disability is accommodated appropriately%

ASSESSME-T

&dentification of giftedness in students "ho are disabled is problematic% The customaryidentification methods 88 standardi#ed tests and observational chec!lists 88 are inadeBuate$"ithout maAor modification% Standard lists of characteristics of gifted students may be inadeBuatefor unmas!ing hidden potential in children "ho have disabilities% Children "hose hearing isimpaired$ for example$ cannot respond to oral directions$ and they may also lac! the vocabulary"hich reflects the complexity of their thoughts% Children "hose speech or language is impairedcannot respond to tests reBuiring verbal responses% Children "hose vision is impaired may beunable to respond to certain performance measures$ and although their vocabulary may be Buiteadvanced$ they may not understand the full meaning of the "ords they use 'e%g%$ color "ords(%Children "ith learning disabilities may use high8level vocabulary in spea!ing but be unable toexpress themselves in "riting$ or vice versa% &n addition$ limited life experiences due to impaired

mobility may artificially lo"er scores '6hitmore N .a!er$ @ 4;(% Since the population ofgifted/disabled students is difficult to locate$ they seldom are included in standardi#ed testnorming groups$ adding to the problems of comparison%

&n addition$ gifted children "ith disabilities often use their intelligence to try to circumvent thedisability% This may cause both exceptionalities to appear less extreme* the disability may appearless severe because the child is using the intellect to cope$ "hile the efforts expended in that areamay hinder other expressions of giftedness%

The follo"ing lists are intended to assist parents and teachers in recogni#ing intellectualgiftedness in the presence of a disability%

&i+ted St'dents with %is'al "mpairment Fast rate of learning Superior memory Superior verbal communication s!ills and vocabulary

o advanced problem8solving s!ills

o Creative production or thought that may progress more slo"ly than sightedstudents in some academic areas

o )ase in learning raille


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o Great persistence

o .otivation to !no"

o Sometimes slo"er rate of cognitive development than sighted students

o excellent ability to concentrate

'6hitmore N .a!er$ @ 4;(&i+ted St'dents with Physical isa,ilities 0evelopment of compensatory s!ills

Creativity in finding alternate "ays of communicating and accomplishing tas!s &mpressive store of !no"ledge

+dvanced academic s!ills Superior memory

)xceptional problem8solving s!ills ,apid grasp of ideas

+bility to set and strive for long8term goals Greater maturity than age mates

Good sense of humor Persistence$ patience

.otivation to achieve Curiosity$ insight

Self8criticism and perfectionism Cognitive development that may not be based on direct experience

Possible difficulty "ith abstractions

Possible limited achievement due to pace of "or!'Cline$ @ 2 6hitmore N .a!er$ @ 4;2 6illard8-olt$ @ 1(

&i+ted St'dents with )earing "mpairments 0evelopment of speech8reading s!ills "ithout instruction )arly reading ability

)xcellent memory +bility to function in the regular school setting

,apid grasp of ideas -igh reasoning ability

Superior performance in school 6ide range of interests

7ontraditional "ays of getting information se of problem8solving s!ills in everyday situations

Possibly on grade level 0elays in concept attainment

Self starters


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Good sense of humor

)nAoyment of manipulating environment &ntuition

&ngenuity in solving problems

Symbolic language abilities 'different symbol system('Cline$ @ 2 6hitmore N .a!er$ @ 4;(&i+ted St'dents with Learning isa,ilities

-igh abstract reasoning ability Good mathematical reasoning ability Keen visual memory$ spatial s!ills +dvanced vocabulary Sophisticated sense of humor &maginative and creative

&nsightful )xceptional ability in geometry$ science$ arts$ music

Good problem8finding and 8solving s!ills 0ifficulty "ith memori#ation$ computation$ phonics$ and/or spelling

0istractibility and/or disorgani#ation Supersensitivity

Perfectionism Grasp of metaphors$ analogies$ satire

Comprehension of complex systems

nreasonable self expectations Often$ failure to complete assignments 0ifficulties "ith seBuential tas!s

6ide variety of interests' aum$ O"en$ N 0ixon$ @ @2 Silverman$ @ 4 (

,esearch indicates that in many cases$ a child is diagnosed "ith +0-0 "hen in fact the child isgifted and reacting to an inappropriate curriculum '6ebb N Latimer$ @ 5(% The !ey todistinguishing bet"een the t"o is the pervasiveness of the Racting outR behaviors% &f the acting outis specific to certain situations$ the child s behavior is more li!ely related to giftedness2 "hereas$ ifthe behavior is consistent across all situations$ the child s behavior is more li!ely related to

+0-0% &t is also possible for a child to be OT- gifted and +0-0% The follo"ing lists highlight the

similarities bet"een giftedness and +0-0%

$haracteristics o+ &i+ted St'dents 3ho Are Bored Poor attention and daydreaming "hen bored

Lo" tolerance for persistence on tas!s that seem irrelevant egin many proAects$ see fe" to completion

0evelopment of Audgment lags behind intellectual gro"th


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&ntensity may lead to po"er struggles "ith authorities

-igh activity level2 may need less sleep 0ifficulty restraining desire to tal!2 may be disruptive

Zuestion rules$ customs$ and traditions

Lose "or!$ forget home"or!$ are disorgani#ed .ay appear careless -ighly sensitive to criticism

0o not exhibit problem behaviors in all situations .ore consistent levels of performance at a fairly consistent pace

'Cline$ @ 2 6ebb N Latimer$ @ 5(

$haracteristics o+ St'dents with A ) Poorly sustained attention 0iminished persistence on tas!s not having immediate conseBuences

Often shift from one uncompleted activity to another &mpulsivity$ poor delay of gratification

&mpaired adherence to commands to regulate or inhibit behavior in social contexts .ore active$ restless than other children

Often tal! excessively Often interrupt or intrude on others 'e%g%$ butt into games(

0ifficulty adhering to rules and regulations Often lose things necessary for tas!s or activities at home or school .ay appear inattentive to details -ighly sensitive to criticism Problem behaviors exist in all settings$ but in some are more severe 9ariability in tas! performance and time used to accomplish tas!s%

' ar!ley$ @ D2 Cline$ @ 2 6ebb N Latimer$ @ 5(

8'estions to As6 in i++erentiating ,etween &i+tedness and A ) Could the behaviors be responses to inappropriate placement$ insufficient challenge$ or

lac! of intellectual peersQ &s the child able to concentrate "hen interested in the activityQ

-ave any curricular modifications been made in an attempt to change inappropriate

behaviorsQ -as the child been intervie"edQ 6hat are his/her feelings about the behaviorsQ

0oes the child feel out of controlQ 0o the parents perceive the child as being out ofcontrolQ

0o the behaviors occur at certain times of the day$ during certain activities$ "ith certainteachers or in certain environmentsQGifted students "ith disabilities must be provided "ith appropriate challenges% Thepersonal and societal costs of not developing their potential cannot be overstated%


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e+initions o+ &i+ted

School8 ased 0efinitionsSchools may use a definition of gifted based on relative ability% Students are identified byho" "ell they perform compared to other students in the school% Students in the top ; or @D'or some other number( percent are those singled out as needing a curriculum morechallenging than the regular curriculum% Gifted in this definition is relative because a student"ho is identified as gifted in one school may not be identified as gifted in another school$leaving parents confused%

Giftedness as Potential That .ust be 7urtured0efinitions that consider giftedness as potential to be developed ma!e a distinction bet"een "hata child is capable of achieving and "hat the child "ill achieve% The fact that a child hasexceptional potential is part of "hat ma!es him or her gifted% The child:s environment determines"hether potential leads to achievement$ so people "ho define gifted this "ay stress theimportance of providing an appropriate environment% Gagne:s 0ifferentiated .odel of Giftednessand Talent is an example%

Giftedness as +synchronous 0evelopmentLinda Silverman added a ne" dimension to definitions of gifted "hen she included the unevendevelopment of gifted children$ "hich she called asynchronous development% 0efinitions of giftedthat include asynchronous development consider not only &Z and talent$ but also emotional traitsof gifted children$ such as heightened sensitivity% The definition developed by the ColumbusGroup is an example of this type of definition% Columbus Group 0efinitionRGiftedness is asynchronous development in "hich advanced cognitive abilities and heightenedintensity combine to create inner experiences and a"areness that are Bualitatively different fromthe norm% This asynchrony increases "ith higher intellectual capacity% The uniBueness of thegifted renders them particularly vulnerable and reBuires modifications in parenting$ teaching andcounseling in order for them to develop optimally%R 'Columbus Group$ @ @(

0efinition* &Z is a measure of relative intelligence determined by a standardi#ed test% The firstintelligence test "as created in @ D; by +lfred inet and Th[ophile Simon to determine "hichFrench school children "ere too Xslo"Y to benefit from regular instruction% inet came up "ith theidea of mental age "hen he noticed that children are increasingly able to learn difficult conceptsand perform difficult tas!s as they get older% .ost children reach the same level of complexity atabout the same time$ but some children are slo"er reaching those levels% + ?8year8old child "hocan do no more than a 58year8old has a mental age of 5% 6ilhelm Stern divided the mental age bythe chronological age to get a X.ental Zuotient%Y

.ental +ge/Chronological +ge .ental Zuotient

0efinition* &ntelligence

There are probably as many definitions of intelligence as there are experts "ho study it% Simplyput$ ho"ever$ intelligence is the ability to learn about$ learn from$ understand$ and interact "ithone:s environment% This general ability consists of a number of specific abilities$ "hich includethese specific abilities*

+daptability to a ne" environment or to changes in the current environment Capacity for !no"ledge and the ability to acBuire it

Capacity for reason and abstract thought +bility to comprehend relationships

+bility to evaluate and Audge
http://giftedkids.about.com/od/glossary/g/asynchronous.htmhttp://giftedkids.about.com/od/glossary/g/asynchronous.htm


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Capacity for original and productive thought

+dditional specific abilities might be added to the list$ but they "ould all be abilities allo"ing aperson to learn about$ learn from$ understand$ and interact "ith the environment% )nvironment inthis definition doesn:t mean the environment of the earth$ such as the desert$ the mountains$ etc%$although it can mean that !ind of environment% &t has a "ider meaning that includes a person:simmediate surroundings$ including the people around him or her% )nvironment in this case canalso be something as small as a family$ the "or!place$ or a classroom%

Learning isa,ility Testing * 2nderstanding Testing +or a Learning isa,ility

3hat oes Learning isa,ilities Testing "nvolve9

The learning disability testing process usually begins "hen a child has problems "ith academicsor behavior in school% &n most cases$ a parent s first encounter "ith special education happens"hen a child is not progressing$ and a learning disability is suspected% Typically$ parents noticeearly signs of a learning disability and contact the school for assistance%&nitially$ teachers may meet "ith the parent and decide to try interventions before referring a child

for learning disability testing% &f the parent and educators suspect a disability$ they begin thetesting process% Testing is necessary for children suspected of having a learning disabilitybecause* Learning disability testing is reBuired by federal and state regulations to determineeligibility for special education2 Learning disability testing provides important information about the child s suspecteddisability2 and &f the child Bualifies$ learning disability testing provides specific data for use in developingan &ndividual )ducation Program '&)P(%

3hat does Learning isa,ility Testing "nvolve9Learning disability testing is a complex processes of gathering information in all areas related to astudent s suspected learning disability% Current federal regulations reBuire that no more than sixtydays should elapse from the time a student is referred for learning disability testing until the timethe &)P is developed% To a parent$ those sixty days of "aiting for learning disability testing canseem li!e an eternity% 6hat goes on during that time periodQ 0epending on the area of disabilityand the uniBue Buestions surrounding each child$ the learning disability testing may include* ,evie" of educational records 2 Observations 2 ,evie" of student "or!2

.edical$ vision$ and hearing and audiological examination2 0evelopmental and Social -istory 2 Fine and Gross .otor )valuation2 +daptive ehavior 2

Speech and Language +ssessment2 &ntellectual +bility or R&ZRtests2 +ssessment of +cademic S!ills2 Social and )motional Testing2 ehavioral Testing2 and Psychiatric Testing%

3ho $ond'cts Testing +or Learning isa,ilities9Testing may be provided by a variety of professionals as needed by the &)P team*
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Teachers2 )ducational 0iagnosticians2

School Psychologists2 Speech Pathologists2 .edical Professionals2 Occupational and Physical Therapists2 Counselors

Learning a,o't isa,ility Testing Res'lts&n many cases$ the evaluators issue "ritten testing reports of their findings that are shared by theteam% Some school districts provide testing results in one integrated report rather than individualreports from each practitioner% 6hen possible$ it is helpful for evaluators to attend &)P teammeetings to share their results "ith team members and as! Buestions% +s al"ays$ parent inputand participation is very important to the &)P team decision ma!ing process%

sing Learning 0isability Testing ,esults to .a!e )ducational 0ecisions

&)P team members revie" the information from the testing results and use the findings to* 0etermine if the student s scores and other test results meet eligibility criteria for a

learning disability established by the state2 &f the child Bualifies$ determine the diagnosis 2 0evelop an &)P2 0etermine "hat specially designed instruction is needed 2 and &f thechild doesn t Bualify $ determine "hat other program supports or instructionalinterventions are available for assistance%

Learning disabilities are neurological differences in processing information that severely limit aperson:s ability to learn in a specific s!ill area% )veryone has differences in learning abilities$ butpeople "ith learning disabilities have severe learning problems that persist throughout their lives%Learning disabled people may have difficulty in school or on the Aob% Learning disabilities mayalso impact independent living and social relationships%Learning disabilities are noticed "hen children struggle "ith learning in their school years%Parents and preschool teachers often see early signs of learning disabilities% Children "ithlearning disabilities may have difficulty learning basic s!ills in reading or understanding reading%0ifficulty "riting$ math$ or language may also signal learning disabilities% Some students "ithlearning disabilities may easily learn basic s!ills but have difficulty applying s!ills in problemsolving or higher level school "or!%Living "ith learning disabilities can be a painful struggle for both the parents and the child "ith thelearning disability% &n many cases$ parents are relieved to find an ans"er "hen children arediagnosed "ith learning disabilities% The diagnosis of a learning disability is reassuring because itleads to additional support in school through specially trained teachers and special educationprograms% Students "ith learning disabilities "ill also have individual education programs developed to address their specific learning disability needs%

Learning disabilities are supported "ith specially designed instruction based on each child suniBue strengths$ "ea!nesses$ learning styles$ and the impact of his learning disability%

3hat are Learning isa,ilities Anyway9

Learning disabilities are believed to be caused by neurological differences in the "ay the brainprocesses information% People "ith learning disabilities usually have average or higherintelligence% Simply put$ a person has a learning disability "hen his ability to learn an academicarea is much lo"er than expected for his level of intelligence%Current learning disabilityregulations under the &ndividuals "ith 0isabilities )ducation +ct indicate that Learning disabilities
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exist "hen a student s ability to learn is average or higher$ but his s!ills in one or more academicareas are significantly "ea!er% This "ay of diagnosing a learning disability is typically referred toas the Raptitude achievement discrepancyR method%&n the diagnosis of learning disabilities$ thediscrepancy is usually determined through assessment to determine the child s intelligenceBuotient$ or &Z score $ and his achievement test scores in specific academic areas of reading$math$ and "ritten language% Learning disabilities also include disorders of language processing$listening comprehension$ and oral expression%+ complete revie" of the student s educationalhistory is conducted to rule out other possible explanations for the difference in s!ill developmentand &Z before a learning disability is diagnosed%)arly detection and intervention for learning disabilities are critical% &f you suspect your child has alearning problem$ find out ho" to recogni#e common signs of L0s%

0isabilities of Learning and -eredity 8 +re Learning 0isabilities iologicalQTrue learning disabilities 'L0s( are believed to be an organic type of disability resulting fromneurological processing problems that cause difficulty "ith learning and applying s!ills in one ormore academic areas% )vidence suggests that a child s chances of having a learning disabilityincrease "hen parents or other relatives also have learning disabilities% This suggests thatheredity may play a role in some cases% -o"ever$ there are other possible causes of L0s thatcan be prevented in some cases%$haracteristics o+ Learning isa,led St'dents * 3hat :inds o+ St'dents )ave Learningisa,ilities90espite their difficulty in certain s!ill areas$ learning disabled students are usually of average orhigher intelligence %Some students "ith L0s are also gifted %

Types of Learning 0isabilities 8 6hat are the Types of Learning 0isabilitiesQLearning disabilities can occur in reading$ "riting$ math$ and language

What are Learning Disabilities?

Learn about learning disabilities% &f your child is one of the millions "ho have learning disabilities$learn "hat you need to !no" to understand these disorders and to help your child learn% Findfacts about the various types specific learning disabilities$ related learning disorders$ and mentalhealth issues that can affect your child s education and everyday life%

Learning Disabilities in Reading, Dyslexia

Types of ,eading 0isabilities 8 The &0)+ defines t"o main types of learning disabilities inreading% Learning disabilities in basic reading s!ills involve the foundational s!ills reBuired tounderstand the relationship bet"een letters$ sounds$ and the "ords they represent% ,eadingcomprehension disabilities involve complex thin!ing s!ills such as understanding "ords$ phrasesand larger meanings of passages% Learn more about learning disabilities in reading and otherdiagnostic terms such as 0yslexia%

Dysgraphia and Learning Disabilities in Writing

Learning 0isabilities in 6riting 8 0oes your child struggle "ith "ritingQ &f you suspect a type of

learning disability$ find information you need to understand "riting disorders% Learning disabilitiesin basic "riting s!ills include neurologically8based difficulty "ith producing "ritten "ords andletters% )xpressive "riting disabilities may involve comprehending and organi#ing "ritten thoughtson paper% Find information you need to help your child "ith learning disabilities in "riting andother "riting disorders$ such as 0ysgraphia%
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Learning Disabilities in Math, Dyscalculia

Learning 0isabilities in .ath 8 &f your child struggles "ith math calculation or problem solving$ yoususpect a type of learning disability% Learn "hat you need to !no" about learning disabilities inbasic math$ applied math s!ills$ and other disorders such as dyscalculia% Find information andresources you need to determine if further assessment is needed%

Learning Disabilities in Language, Communication

Learning 0isabilities in Language 8 There are several types of learning disabilities in language%Students "ith language based learning disabilities may have difficulty "ith understanding orproducing spo!en language$ or both% ,eceptive language disorder is a type of learning disabilityaffecting the ability to understand spo!en$ and sometimes "ritten$ language% Learn more aboutthe types of language disabilities and ho" to recogni#e them% ,eceptive Language 0isability 8 L0s in Listening Comprehension Learning 0isabilities in )xpressive Language 8 0isorders of Communication

eha!ior Disorders "ith Learning Disabilities

Children "ith learning disabilities sometimes have behavioral problems% &n some cases$ problems"ith behavior may involve medical conditions such as attention deficit disorders% &n other cases$behaviors may result from frustration "ith learning or learned because of environmental factors atschool$ home$ or both% Learn about the types of behavior problems that may be occur "ithlearning disabilities%

ME-TAL RETAR AT"#-a condition$ usually present from birth$ characteri#ed by intellectual functioning that is belo"average* it ranges in degree from borderline '&Z of @841( to mild '&Z of ;D8;; to approximatelyD( to moderate '&Z of 5;81D to ;D8;;( to se"ere '&Z of 3D83; to 5;81D( to profound '&Z of belo"3D83;(* this technical classification has replaced the older terms moron& imbecile& and idiot'

Mental Retardation * e+inition.ental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning% &t is characteri#ed bysignificantly sub8average intellectual functioning$ existing concurrently "ith related limitations int"o or more of the follo"ing applicable adaptive s!ill areas*

communication

home living

community use

health and safety

leisure

self8care

social s!ills

self8direction functional

academics "or!

&n practice the diagnosis of mental retardation reBuires a determination that a child hassignificantly sub8average intelligence$ "hich is expressed as an &Z score that is more than t"ostandard deviations belo" the mean% 0epending upon the test$ an &Z score belo" D '6&SC8,(
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or ? ' inet( is considered to be significant% Performance in all areas of functioning is alsoexpected to be lo"$ and achievement and general development should coincide "ith the lo"functioning% + measure of adaptive behavior is also reBuired in order to prevent culturallyRdifferentR children from misdiagnosis$ although tests of adaptive behavior have correlated highly"ith &Z tests$ meaning they measure the same traits and are probably interchangeable% &nreporting an &Z$ examiners should not disregard the standard error of measurement% + pupil "itha score of D could very "ell have a Rtrue scoreR above or above D% &f a mista!e is made$ thepupil must suffer the conseBuences by having an inappropriate label attached and opportunitiesdiminished because of lo"er expectations%&n many "ays$ retarded children present opposite characteristics of the gifted but also the same!inds of programming problems% The maAority of children classified as retarded are able to liveindependently as adults$ a small minority reBuire supervised adult living$ and only a very smallnumber reBuire care in a private or state facility% Thus$ the maAority of children identified asretarded can and "ill attend public schools and$ given proper consideration and programming$ "illbe able to succeed in school and in a vocation% -o"ever$ Aust as in the case of the gifted$ theteacher is concerned principally "ith the vast average group of students and finds it difficult toprovide necessary services for the retarded "ho reBuire individuali#ed attention and assistance%Children "ith mental retardation develop in the same "ay as people "ithout mental retardation$but more slo"ly% y definition$ persons "ith mental retardation have problems "ith thin!ing andlearning such as attention$ perception$ or memory% 0epending on the extent of the disability there"ill be different outcomes for academic$ social$ and vocational adAustment%Over 3DD causes of mental retardation have been identified$ but many others are not !no"n% The!no"n categories fall into these general classifications*Genetic 8 x8ray exposure$ genes inherited from parents$ ,h blood factor incompatibility$ 0o"n sSyndrome$ error in metabolism$ or recessive genetic traits%Problem in Pregnancy 'prenatal(8 poor nutrition$ measles$ tumors$ glandular disorders$ infections$exposure to toxic agents and drugs$ or radiation%irth Problems 'perinatal( 8 premature birth$ prolonged birth$ reduction of oxygen to the infant sbrain%Post irth 'postnatal( 8 disease that affects the brain 'chic!en pox$ measles$ meningitis$ "hoopingcough(2 fever$ inAuries to the brain$ lac! of certain chemicals in the blood$ or glandular imbalance%

)nvironmental Factors 8 deprived environment and malnutrition%

Only 5I of the population have mental retardation$ and only about @;I of this small group havegreater than mild disabilities%y comparison to peers$ a mentally retarded person passes through developmental milestonesmore slo"ly and "ill be slo"er to learn and reveal slo"er development of physical s!ills% 0ue toother complications$ there may also be concomitant conditions associated "ith the condition suchas physical handicaps$ speech impairments$ visual impairments$ hearing defects$ epilepsy$ andothers%

CharacteristicsThe characteristics of mental retardation are some"hat circular$ because students are identifiedand diagnosed on the basis of criteria that are later used to describe them%

&ntellectual S!ills% y definition mental retardation means that mental s!ills are subaverage$ sothis is the primarycharacteristic%

+daptive S!ills% 0ue to the fact that adaptation to one s social and physical environment reBuiresintellectual ability$ persons "ith mental retardation are li!ely to demonstrate significant differencesfrom others% &f they do not$ classification as mentally retarded is erroneous$ despite the measureintelligence Buotient%

+cademic +chievement% 0ue to subaverage intellectual functioning$ persons "ith mentalretardation are li!ely to be slo"er in reaching levels of academic achievement eBual to theirpeers% This stands to reason% -o"ever$ many students are ultimately able to reach some level ofliteracy$ it Aust ta!es much longer%


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.otivation% .otivation is a problem for persons "ith any disability because it is learned%Constant comparison to others "ho perform in many areas "ith apparent ease can be frustratingand diminish motivation$ diminish self8esteem$ and sometimes create Rlearned helplessnessR andbelief in failure%

Speech and Language% 0ue to diminished intellectual functioning and associated neurologicalconditions$ many children "ith mental retardation have delayed language and speech problems%

Physical Characteristics% +s in the case of speech and language problems$ mentally retardedpersons have slo"er physical development 'e%g%$ toilet training$ "al!ing( and are li!ely to havesome forms of associated physical problems%

0ifficulty +ttending% Children "ith mental retardation do not necessarily have more difficultyattending than children of the same mental age$ but they are often associated "ith age peers andthe contrasts are more noticeable in terms of developmental delay%

&mpairments in memory$ particularly short8term memory% ,esearch has sho"n that manypersons "ith

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