1

STRESTRESSSS

The specification

2

WHAT IS STRESS?

What you feel when there is a lack of fit between the person and their environment (i.e. where the perceived demands of a situation are greater than the perceived ability to cope).

The physical sensations related to activity of the ANS.

Terminologically challenged

Autonomic Autonomic nervous nervous systemsystem

CorticosteroidCorticosteroidss

AdrenalineAdrenaline

HypothalamHypothalamusus

AdrenocorticotropiAdrenocorticotropic hormonec hormone

SupercallifragilisticexpialidociousSupercallifragilisticexpialidocious

The ANSThe autonomic nervous systemThe central nervous

system

Parasympathetic & Sympathetic

Rest and

digest

Fight or

flight

The stress response is The stress response is adaptive adaptive

For our distant ancestors the stress response was important to the survival because it enabled them to cope with situations of threat.

It is an essential part of our survival and future reproductive success.

Fight or flight response

For our distant ancestors the stress response was important to the survival because it enabled them to cope with situations of threat.

It is an essential part of our survival and future reproductive success.

Fight or flight response

The body’s response to stress

1. Short term stress acute

adrenal medulla

1. Short term stress acute

adrenal medulla

2. Long term (continuing) chronic stress

adrenal cortex

1. Adrenal medulla - SAM 1. Adrenal medulla - SAM systemsystem

9

Immediate (acute) stressorsImmediate (acute) stressors

The ‘fight or flight’ response.

Causes the hormone adrenaline to be released by the adrenal medulla (in the adrenal glands).

Arouse the sympathetic branch of the ANSArouse the sympathetic branch of the ANS

Physiological sensation that accompanies being scared or thrilled, i.e. being ‘aroused’. Sweatiness and increased heart and breathing rate; stops you wanting to pee and slows down digestion, prevents erection and ejaculation.

2. Adrenal cortex – HPA axis2. Adrenal cortex – HPA axis

which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroids such as cortisol.

which stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce corticosteroids such as cortisol.

If stress continues (chronic)If stress continues (chronic)

which secretes ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)

Stimulates the pituitary glandStimulates the pituitary gland

Hypothalamus produces CRF (corticotrophin releasing factor)

The function of cortisol is to maintain a steady supply of blood sugar for continued energy. This enables the body to cope with the stressor, as distinct from the burst of energy needed for ‘fight or flight’.

Takes about 20 minutes.

Two systems

Fight or flight

SAM

S Sympathetic nervous system

A Adrenaline

M Adrenal Medulla

SAM

H P C

C A C

Not so scary

GENDER BIAS

Research with males gave us the fight-flight response

Subsequent research with females found a ‘tend and befriend’ response which would be adaptive for ancestral females (Taylor et al., 2000). tending (attachment behaviour). befriending (forming defensive networks of females).

Research with males gave us the fight-flight response

Subsequent research with females found a ‘tend and befriend’ response which would be adaptive for ancestral females (Taylor et al., 2000). tending (attachment behaviour). befriending (forming defensive networks of females).

Exam questionYou are a passenger in a car that has suddenly slammed on its brakes to avoid hitting a dog. Your breathing quickens, your mouth is dry and you have a feeling of ‘butterflies’ in your stomach. But after a few minutes these physical changes start to disappear. Using your knowledge of the body’s response to stress, explain why you are likely to have experienced:

a)The changes that occurred in the first 30 seconds; (2 marks)

b)the changes that occurred after a few minutes. (2 marks)

Jan 2009

Stress-related illness and Stress-related illness and the immune systemthe immune system

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immune system is designed to defend the body against millions of antigens (i.e. bacteria, viruses, toxins and parasites) that would otherwise overwhelm it.

Cortisol directly suppresses immune system functioning by decreasing the production of lymphocytes.

Stress depresses the immune system

Kiecolt-Glaser et al. (1984) looked at natural killer (NK) cells in the blood of medical students taking exams.

✴ Blood samples taken one month before the exam (low stress) and during the exam period (high stress).

✴ Questionnaires assessed psychological variables e.g. life events.

Findings

✴ NK cell activity was significantly reduced in the second blood sample.

✴ NK cell activity was particularly reduced in participants reporting other significant life stressors, and in those who were anxious and depressed.

Stress depresses the immune systemKiecolt-Glaser et al. (1995) compared female caring for relatives suffering from senile dementia with a matched control group.

All participants were given a wound – a ‘punch biopsy’ which is a cut of 3.5mm just below the elbow.

Cytokine levels were monitored – substances involved in the immune response.

Findings

Complete wound healing took significantly longer in the carers than the controls.

Cytokine levels were higher.

Carers indicated on a perceived stress scale that they were feeling more stressed.

Acute stress may enhance the immune

system

Evans et al. (1994) looked at the activity of one particular antibody salivary IgA (sIgA) which coats the mucous surfaces of the mouth, lungs and stomach, and helps protect against infection. Arranged for students to give talks

to other students (mild stress). These students showed an

increase in sIgA, whereas levels of sIgA decreased during examination periods which stretched over several weeks.

Stress appears to have two effects on the immune system: up-regulation for very short-term stress and down- regulation for long-term stress. This fits the SAM/HPA distinction

Stress and illness Cardiovascular disorder

Cardiovascular disorders includeHypertension (high blood pressure). Coronary heart disease (CHD) e.g. blocked or hardened arteries, causes reduced blood flow to heart which may result in heart attack. Stroke (brain damage caused by disruption of blood supply to the brain).

Stress linked to cardiovascular disorders because …SNS activation constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure and heart rate.May wear away lining of blood vessels.Stress raises glucose levels leading to clumping in blood vessels which cause blocking.

STRESS AND CHD

Russek (1962) looked at heart disease in medics.

One group were designated as high stress (GPs and anaesthetists) while others were classed as low stress (pathologists and dermatologists).

Russek found heart disease was greatest among GPs (11.9% of sample) and lowest in dermatologists (3.2% of sample).

Melchior et al. (2007) New Zealand study of 1000 people over 1 year, aged 32, range of occupations.

15% of those in high stress jobs developed clinical depression, compared to 8% in low stress jobs.

Stress and illness Mental illness

Stress linked to mental illness because …Stress acts as a trigger.Diathesis-stress model.

Mariah Carey

Sandy and Vandita play for the same netball team. Two weeks ago, while playing in a competition, they both grazed their elbows. Vandita’s wound is healing well, but Sandy’s wound is taking much longer to heal. Sandy is very worried about the plans for her wedding and her forthcoming house move.

Using your knowledge of psychology, explain why Sandy’s wound is taking longer to heal than Vandita’s. (4 marks)

Jan 2010

Exam question

The specification

24

Life changesLife changes Holmes and Rahe

(1967) SRRS Rahe et al. (1970)

found a weak but significant correlation between illness and life changes (LCUs) in 2600 Navy men.

The key feature of life changes is the psychic cost of change.

• More importantly it might be lack of control.

• Also, research is correlational.

• Retrospective recall may be unreliable.

• Negative response bias.

Daily hasslesDaily hassles

Anita DeLongis et al. (1982) hassles and uplifts scale. DeLongis et al. (1988) found hassles were related to ill

health (not life changes or uplifts).

Accumulation effect e.g. Road rage worse after a bad day at work

(Gulian et al., 1990) Amplification effect

e.g. Ongoing life changes may make an individual more vulnerable to hassles.

Research suggests that hassles are a more significant determinant of stress-related illness than life changes.

One reason may be that people are more likely to seek support for major life events (Flett et al., 1995).

Research suggests that hassles are a more significant determinant of stress-related illness than life changes.

One reason may be that people are more likely to seek support for major life events (Flett et al., 1995).

Any idiot can handle a crisis-it’s this day-to-day living that wears you out.

Anton Chekhov

Explain what psychological research has shown about the stressful impact of either life changes or daily hassles. (4 marks)

Explain what psychological research has shown about the stressful impact of either life changes or daily hassles. (4 marks)

27

What’s the catch?

EXAM QUESTIONEXAM QUESTION

Workplace stressorsWorkplace stressors

Sir Michael Marmot

7000+ civil servants (Whitehall study).

Asked about e.g. workload, sense of control.

Measured health status.

Five years later

It was not the hard-working executives most at risk of heart attacks; it was the people at the bottom of the hierarchy, which ran contrary to the thinking of the time.

Stress-related illness was found in those who

Felt least controlHad least social support

Individual differencesIndividual differencesRichard Lazarus proposed the transactional model.

There is an interaction between a person’s perception of how well they can cope and the effects of stress on that person.

If you feel in control, then stress will effect you less.

Stress and personality

TYPE A TYPE B

Friedman and Rosenman (1959)

WESTERN COLLABORATIVE PROJECT

Type A: competitive, hostile, achievement-oriented, impatient.

Increases vulnerability to stress or just experience more stress.

Type B: patient, relaxed, easy-going.

3000 Californian men. Personality assessed using questionnaire.

8 ½ years later twice as many Type A’s (12%) had died of CHD.

22 years later 15% had died of CHD but not especially Type A.

Myrtek (2001) meta-analysis showed that hostility rather than Type A is the key component.

Stress and personality

31

Kobasa and Maddi (1977)

THE HARDY PERSONALITY

See themselves in control.

Have a strong sense of commitment.

See problems as challenges.

Stress management techniques emphasise the role of control.

May not be suitable for everyone

Mr Harris is about to move his business into a brand new building. He is very keen to create a healthy working environment and reduce workplace stress. In this way he hopes to improve productivity and reduce absenteeism.

What advice would you give Mr Harris? Use your knowledge of psychological research in this area. (6 marks)

Jan 2010

Exam questions

Describe personality factors that have been shown to influence the way people respond to stress. (5 marks)

Jan 2010

The specification

33