Belief & Sextus

7/27/2019 Belief & Sextus

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Scepticism and Religious BeliefScepticism and Religious Belief

The Case of Sextus EmpiricusThe Case of Sextus Empiricus

Renata ZiemiRenata Ziemiskaska
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SScepticceptic -- atheist or fideistatheist or fideist

ll The wordThe word scepticscepticis often understood asis often understood as

atheistatheist, a person hostile to religious faith, a person hostile to religious faith

(G. Berkeley)(G. Berkeley)..

ll But we canBut we can alsoalso observe the closeobserve the closeconnection between scepticism andconnection between scepticism and

fideism, for instance atfideism, for instance at W.W. Ockham,Ockham, M. deM. de

Montaigne,Montaigne, B.B. Pascal.Pascal.


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Ancient ScepticismAncient Scepticism

ll The complex relation between scepticism andThe complex relation between scepticism andreligious beliefreligious beliefcancan bebe foundfound in ancientin ancientscepticism. Iscepticism. I amam goinggoing toto analyseanalyse the case ofthe case ofancient sceptic Sextus Empiricusancient sceptic Sextus Empiricus (his(his worksworkssurvivedsurvived).).

ll SextusSextusworksworks :: Outlines of PyrrhonismOutlines of Pyrrhonism,, PHPH,,Against the ProfessorsAgainst the Professorsin Latinin LatinAdversusAdversusMathematicosMathematicos,, MM((composedcomposed ofofAgainst theAgainst theLogicians, Physicists, Ethicists, Professors).Logicians, Physicists, Ethicists, Professors).

ll the treasury of arguments for and against Godthe treasury of arguments for and against God,,sceptic but not atheist,sceptic but not atheist, scepticsceptic acceaccepptingtingreligiousreligious practicpracticee..


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Sextus EmpiricusSextus Empiricus 2n2ndd centurycentury C.E.C.E.


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SextusSextus sceptical argumentssceptical arguments

ll the results of senses are relative (tenthe results of senses are relative (tenmodesmodes of Aenesidemusof Aenesidemus))

ll no possibility of rational justification of anyno possibility of rational justification of any

thesis:thesis: we are inwe are in trilemtrilemmma of infinitea of infiniteregress,regress, reciprocity or dogmatism (fivereciprocity or dogmatism (fivemodesmodes ofofAgrippaAgrippa))

ll no possibility to establish the criterion ofno possibility to establish the criterion of

truthtruth inin rationalrational waywayll no valid proofsno valid proofs


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Suspension of judgmentSuspension of judgment

ll The result of sceptical arguments isThe result of sceptical arguments iswithholding any beliefs and totalwithholding any beliefs and total epochepoch ..Sceptic neither affirms nor denies anySceptic neither affirms nor denies any

thesisthesis

.

.

ll Scepticism is not a thesis but the attitudeScepticism is not a thesis but the attitudeof suspending judgments,of suspending judgments, epochepoch ..

ll Sextus suspends judgments even aboutSextus suspends judgments even about

the value of his arguments.the value of his arguments.ll Now, some arguments concerning religion.Now, some arguments concerning religion.


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ProblemsProblems withwith thethe concept ofconcept of

godsgods/G/Godod

ll Dogmatists (Dogmatists (stoics, epicureansstoics, epicureans) say that) say that ggod isod is

the indestructiblethe indestructible (immortal, everlasting)(immortal, everlasting) andand

blessed.blessed.They disagree about wThey disagree about whathat itit is to beis to be

blessedblessed..

ll Stoics: to act in accordance with virtue and toStoics: to act in accordance with virtue and to

provideprovide forfor the things subordinatedthe things subordinated

ll Epicurus: to be inactive and takeEpicurus: to be inactive and take no troubleno trouble toto

himself and cause none to others (PH 3.4himself and cause none to others (PH 3.4--5)5)
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The concept ofThe concept ofggodod

ll DogmatisDogmatiststs remain in dispute (remain in dispute (isis godgodcorporeal or not, anthropomorphic or not,corporeal or not, anthropomorphic or not,in space or not, within the universe orin space or not, within the universe or

outside etc.).outside etc.).

ll We are unable to acquire a concept ofWe are unable to acquire a concept ofggodod, because, because we posses neither anwe posses neither anagreed substance for him nor a form nor aagreed substance for him nor a form nor aplaceplace (PH 3.3)(PH 3.3)

llAn example of one unavoidable difficulty:An example of one unavoidable difficulty:


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GGodod is neither a body nor incorporealis neither a body nor incorporeal

(6(6thth argumentargument of 18 against Stoics)of 18 against Stoics)

(1)(1) If there is something divine, it is either a bodyIf there is something divine, it is either a body

or incorporealor incorporeal

(2) It is not incorporeal, since(2) It is not incorporeal, since

(3) What is incorporeal is inanimate and insensitive(3) What is incorporeal is inanimate and insensitive(4) Nor it is a body, since(4) Nor it is a body, since

(5) Every body is changeable and perishable,(5) Every body is changeable and perishable,

whereaswhereas

(6) The divine is imperishable, consequently(6) The divine is imperishable, consequently(7) The divine does not exist (M 9. 151)(7) The divine does not exist (M 9. 151)
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The existence ofThe existence ofggododss

ll Even granting thatEven granting that ggodod is conceivableis conceivable,, it isit is

necessary to suspend judgment aboutnecessary to suspend judgment about

whetherwhether ggododss exist or notexist or not..

ll The dispute among philosophersThe dispute among philosophers showsshowsthat the existence ofthat the existence ofgodsgods is notis not--evidentevident

and in need of proofand in need of proof,, cfcf.. PH 3.6.PH 3.6.

ll All existing arguments are invalid, evenAll existing arguments are invalid, even

ontological one.ontological one.


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Stoic Diogenes of BabylonStoic Diogenes of Babylon andand

ontologicalontological argumentargument

ll the gods are of such a nature as to exist.the gods are of such a nature as to exist.But if so, then they exist. For if they everBut if so, then they exist. For if they everdid exist, they do now, just as if atomsdid exist, they do now, just as if atoms

ever existed they do now. For this sort ofever existed they do now. For this sort ofthing isthing is ungenerableungenerable and incorruptibleand incorruptible (M(M9.135)9.135)

ll SextusSextus answeranswer:: not everything conceivednot everything conceivedhas a share in existencehas a share in existence (M9.49)(M9.49)..

ll WeWe alsoalso havehave strongstrong argumentsarguments againstagainst..


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Providence and Evil (1)Providence and Evil (1)

The extended version of Epicurean argumentThe extended version of Epicurean argument withwithtypicaltypical clearclear dichotomies:dichotomies:

he who says God exists either says that he hashe who says God exists either says that he has

providence for the things in the world or that heprovidence for the things in the world or that hedoes not, and if the former then either for all ordoes not, and if the former then either for all or

only some things. But if he had providence foronly some things. But if he had providence for

all, there would be neither evil nor vice in theall, there would be neither evil nor vice in the

world: yet they say that everything is full of vice,world: yet they say that everything is full of vice,

and consequently he cannot have providence forand consequently he cannot have providence forallall


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Providence and evil (2)Providence and evil (2)

But if only for some, why has heBut if only for some, why has heprovidence for some and not others? Forprovidence for some and not others? Foreithereither

(a) he both wishes and is able to have(a) he both wishes and is able to haveprovidence for all, orprovidence for all, or

(b) he wishes to but is unable, or(b) he wishes to but is unable, or

(c) he is able but doesn(c) he is able but doesn t wish it, ort wish it, or

(d) he neither wishes it nor is able(d) he neither wishes it nor is able (PH 3.9(PH 3.9--1010,, transltransl.. HankinsonHankinson 19951995))


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Providence and evil (3)Providence and evil (3)

(a)(a) is inconsistent with evilis inconsistent with evil

(b)(b) is inconsistent with Godis inconsistent with God power (weak)power (weak)

(c)(c) is inconsistent with Godis inconsistent with God goodnessgoodness

(malign)(malign)

(d)(d) is inconsistent with both His power andis inconsistent with both His power and

goodnessgoodness


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Providence is impious (4)Providence is impious (4)

if they say that the gods provide for everything,if they say that the gods provide for everything,

they will say that they are the cause ofthey will say that they are the cause ofevilevil; and; and

if they say that they provide for some things orif they say that they provide for some things or

even for none at all, they will be bound to sayeven for none at all, they will be bound to say

either that the gods areeither that the gods are malignmalign or that they areor that they are

weakweak (PH 3.12)(PH 3.12)

It is impious to say that gods are cause of evil orIt is impious to say that gods are cause of evil or

that they are weak and malign, so it is better tothat they are weak and malign, so it is better to

say that they do not existsay that they do not exist (or at least that they(or at least that theyhave no providence for the world)have no providence for the world)..


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Suspending judgment about theSuspending judgment about the

nature and existence of godsnature and existence of gods

ll WeakWeakargument against atheismargument against atheism asascounterbalancecounterbalance:: if god do not exist, neither willif god do not exist, neither willpiety, since piety is the knowledge of service topiety, since piety is the knowledge of service tothe gods; but piety does exist; so, too, do thethe gods; but piety does exist; so, too, do the

godsgods (M 9.123)(M 9.123)..TheThe subjectivesubjective objectobject of pietyof pietydoesdoes existexist..

ll Sextus juxtaposes the opposite claims andSextus juxtaposes the opposite claims andsuspends judgment.suspends judgment. HeHe canotcanot saysay thatthat GodGod doesdoesnotnot existexist withoutwithout violatingviolating hishis scepticismscepticism

((negativenegative dogmatismdogmatism).).ll ButBut whatwhat shouldshould we dowe do ififwewe suspendsuspendjudmentsjudments??


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ScepticsSceptics life without beliefslife without beliefs

ll ffollowingollowing ordinary life without opinions, we sayordinary life without opinions, we saythatthat there are godsthere are gods andand wewe areare piouspious towardstowardsthethe godsgods andand say that theysay that they are providentare provident (PH(PH3.2)3.2)

ll

we accept, from an everyday point of view, thatwe accept, from an everyday point of view, thatpiety is good and impiety badpiety is good and impiety bad (PH 1.24)(PH 1.24)

ll It seems inconsistent (or strange). ScepticsIt seems inconsistent (or strange). Scepticssuspend judgment about the existence of God,suspend judgment about the existence of God,and in practice are pious and say that God existsand in practice are pious and say that God exists(hypocrisy, insincerity?)(hypocrisy, insincerity?). It is an example of. It is an example ofgeneral problem at Sextus: how to live, to work,general problem at Sextus: how to live, to work,to actto act without beliefswithout beliefs??


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How to live without beliefs?How to live without beliefs?

SextusSextus answeranswer

ll Sceptic as a human being follows nature andSceptic as a human being follows nature andfeelingsfeelings ((perceivingperceiving,, hungerhunger))..

ll Sceptic as a citizen respectsSceptic as a citizen respects thethe law andlaw andtradition but hetradition but he does not accept anydoes not accept any

common belief as truecommon belief as true..ll Sceptic as a philosopher writes about his ownSceptic as a philosopher writes about his own

impressionsimpressions without accepting his ownwithout accepting his ownwords as truewords as true,, cfcf. PH 1.23. PH 1.23--4.4.

ll

Sceptic says a lot but he does not believe whatSceptic says a lot but he does not believe whathe is saying.he is saying.


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Three ways to defend consistencyThree ways to defend consistency

ll Weak beliefs (Frede)Weak beliefs (Frede)

ll Philosophy without beliefs (Hankinson)Philosophy without beliefs (Hankinson)

ll Development (Bailey)Development (Bailey)


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Michael FredeMichael Fredes interpretations interpretation

ll to limit Pyrrhonianto limit Pyrrhonian epochepochto scientific,to scientific,

philosophical beliefs as concerning what really is,philosophical beliefs as concerning what really is,

the real nature of things.the real nature of things.

ll

Strong belief isStrong belief is

active acceptance as trueactive acceptance as true

,,

weak belief isweak belief is merely passive acceptancemerely passive acceptance

(Frede 1998b, 138).(Frede 1998b, 138).

ll WWeakeakbeliefs allows the sceptic to lead a normalbeliefs allows the sceptic to lead a normal

life and to philosophize.life and to philosophize. AlsoAlso religiousreligious beliefsbeliefscancan havehave status ofstatus ofweakweak beliefsbeliefs..


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WWeakeakbasis in Sextusbasis in Sextus textstexts

ll Frede interprets Sextus consistently andFrede interprets Sextus consistently and

reasonably but ascribes him a kind of Carneadesreasonably but ascribes him a kind of Carneades

fallibilism. In my opinion, it is the mostfallibilism. In my opinion, it is the most

reasonable version of ancient sreasonable version of ancient sccepticismepticism..

ll But such interpretation hasBut such interpretation has a weak basis ina weak basis in

SextusSextus texts.texts. Sextus criticizes Academics forSextus criticizes Academics for

approving what is persuasive, he suggests thatapproving what is persuasive, he suggests that

there is no rational preferencethere is no rational preference; he writes; he writes

that only appearances are accepted by sthat only appearances are accepted by sccepticseptics..


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Philosophy without beliefsPhilosophy without beliefs

(Hankinson)(Hankinson)

ll ScepticismScepticism isis a practice without any beliefs thata practice without any beliefs thatis without any theses, theory, assertions,is without any theses, theory, assertions,opinions, judgments etc.opinions, judgments etc.

llA sceptic lives by impulse and habitA sceptic lives by impulse and habit.. PhilosophyPhilosophy

is just some disposition and ability: theis just some disposition and ability: thedisposition todisposition to epochepochand the ability to produceand the ability to produceopposite arguments and to cure fromopposite arguments and to cure fromdogmatismdogmatism ((therapytherapy))..

ll SSccepticaleptical philosophy is not any thesis but a wayphilosophy is not any thesis but a wayof life (of life (agaggg).).TheThe samesame isis thethe status ofstatus ofreligionreligion:: behaviourbehaviour withoutwithout beliefsbeliefs..


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Moral life without beliefs?Moral life without beliefs?

ll Hankinson (1995, 296) is even ready to accept theHankinson (1995, 296) is even ready to accept theSextusSextus story that a sceptic leads ordinary lifestory that a sceptic leads ordinary life asascoherent ; s/he is a good citizen and has a moral lifecoherent ; s/he is a good citizen and has a moral lifewithout beliefs.without beliefs.

ll The most serious counterexample to the skeptic practicalThe most serious counterexample to the skeptic practical

consistency is the case of a tyrant compelling a skepticconsistency is the case of a tyrant compelling a skepticto perform a forbidden act, for instance to kill his/herto perform a forbidden act, for instance to kill his/herparents (M 11. 162parents (M 11. 162--6). Sextus replies that the sceptic6). Sextus replies that the scepticcan make a choice without beliefs, led by his/hercan make a choice without beliefs, led by his/hereducation and customs. It can be the result ofeducation and customs. It can be the result of

appearances that created his/her dispositions.appearances that created his/her dispositions.ll Such answer seems difficult to acceptSuch answer seems difficult to accept


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Scepticism without rational forceScepticism without rational force

ll Following appearances gives content to life butFollowing appearances gives content to life butsuch life is not human, it is deprived of freedom,such life is not human, it is deprived of freedom,reason, emotion and values.reason, emotion and values.

ll HankinsonHankinsons interpretation cannot explain thes interpretation cannot explain the

logical power of sceptical arguments andlogical power of sceptical arguments andunderstands sceptical philosophy as some kindunderstands sceptical philosophy as some kindof passive life in animal style.of passive life in animal style.

ll If arguments are so worthless, why scepticsIf arguments are so worthless, why scepticsdevote them so much attention?devote them so much attention?The answer isThe answer isin the development theory.in the development theory.


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Development (Development (BaileyBailey))

ll WWe must distinguish between the mature sceptic and thee must distinguish between the mature sceptic and thedeveloping sceptic. The mature sceptic has no beliefs,developing sceptic. The mature sceptic has no beliefs,only assent to appearances. Arguments for him/her canonly assent to appearances. Arguments for him/her canonly have purely therapeutic value; Bailey 1995, 42).only have purely therapeutic value; Bailey 1995, 42).

ll But the developing sBut the developing sccepticeptic must have many beliefsmust have many beliefs andand

the arguments like the Agrippathe arguments like the Agrippas five modess five modes must havemust havesome rational force for him/her .some rational force for him/her .TheThe developingdevelopingscepticismscepticism isis inconsistentinconsistent..

ll After convertingAfter converting toto ssccepticismepticism, the mature sceptic can, the mature sceptic canextend his/her suspension on the very arguments thatextend his/her suspension on the very arguments that

persuaded him/her to start a spersuaded him/her to start a sccepticaleptical way. The tropesway. The tropeswere just a ladder to climb to the level of swere just a ladder to climb to the level of sccepticalepticalthinking.thinking.


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ScepticismScepticism isis not limited tonot limited to maturemature

stagestage

ll The development shows some inconsistency in SextusThe development shows some inconsistency in Sextusposition. We can avoid it by limitingposition. We can avoid it by limiting scepticismscepticism totomature scepticism.mature scepticism.

ll BBut if we pass over the developing scepticism, theut if we pass over the developing scepticism, theposition is deprived of its rational force (the treasure ofposition is deprived of its rational force (the treasure of

scepticism, the sceptical arguments are worthless). Suchscepticism, the sceptical arguments are worthless). Suchpicture opicture offscepticism seems to be onescepticism seems to be one--sided.sided.The betterThe betterpicture of Sextuspicture of Sextus scepticism is including thescepticism is including thedevelopment and its inconsistency.development and its inconsistency.

ll Also religion without beliefs is strange. I can developAlso religion without beliefs is strange. I can develop

from naive beliefs to critical ones, but I must have atfrom naive beliefs to critical ones, but I must have atleast some weak beliefs toleast some weak beliefs to bebe religiousreligious..


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InconsistencyInconsistency

ll In the case of Sextus Empiricus it is better to accept theIn the case of Sextus Empiricus it is better to accept thebasic inconsistency in his texts than tobasic inconsistency in his texts than to treat his streat his sccepticalepticalphilosophy as passive animal lifephilosophy as passive animal life andand his powerfulhis powerfularguments as worthless.arguments as worthless.

ll Scepticism in SextusScepticism in Sextus version seems more reasonableversion seems more reasonable

when we construe it as too ambitious rationalisticwhen we construe it as too ambitious rationalisticphilosophy that fall into inconsistency.philosophy that fall into inconsistency.

ll Sceptic both uses arguments to show uncertainty andSceptic both uses arguments to show uncertainty andrejects them as uncertain.rejects them as uncertain. SScepticceptic both follows ordinaryboth follows ordinaryviews and looks at them from a distance.views and looks at them from a distance.


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SextusSextusss scepticalsceptical positionposition towardstowards

religiousreligious beliefsbeliefs

ll AccordingAccording to Sextus sto Sextus scepticceptic can practice religion butcan practice religion buts/s/he has no religious beliefs.he has no religious beliefs. It is inconsistent becauseIt is inconsistent becausepracticing religion seems require belief spracticing religion seems require belief s..

ll Carneades had better position: we are not certain but inCarneades had better position: we are not certain but inpractice we accept what is probable. Sextus wanted topractice we accept what is probable. Sextus wanted to

be strict sceptic, the better than Carneades and f ell intobe strict sceptic, the better than Carneades and f ell intoinconsistency.inconsistency.

ll Sextus has too strong concept of belief (he implicitlySextus has too strong concept of belief (he implicitlypresupposes the principle: no certainty no belief). Itpresupposes the principle: no certainty no belief). Itcaused inconsistency in his own view.caused inconsistency in his own view.
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