Basic Terminology. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon2 Research Methods in Human Sexuality A Scientific...

Basic Terminology

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon 2

Research Methods in Human Sexuality

• A Scientific Approach to Human Sexuality• Populations and Samples: Representing the

World of Diversity• Methods of Observation• The Correlational Method• The Experimental Method• The Comparative Method• Ethics in Sex Research

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Empiricism

• To study human sexuality, an empirical approach is used. – Knowledge is based on research evidence– Evidence must be reliable (when you repeat

the study, the results are the same no matter who conducts the study)

– Evidence must be valid (evidence must be logically related to what you are studying)

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The Scientific Method

– Induction is formulating a research question or hypothesis (a testable trial explanation or prediction) from observations/evidence

– Deduction is testing the hypothesis using evidence

– You then draw conclusions, and – Retest the conclusion with new evidence

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Populations and Samples

• Population– A complete group of people or animals or things; the

group to which you want to generalize your findings– Target population: particular group being studied (e.g,

Americans, homosexuals)

• Sample– Part of a population from which you will collect data– In order to generalize results to the population,

samples need to represent all the types of individuals in your population accurately.

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Populations and Samples• Sampling Methods

– Random sample• Every member of a population has an equal chance of being in

the sample being studied• For example, put all members of a population in a hat and draw

the number needed for the sample

– Stratified random sample• Random sample in which known subgroups in a population are

represented in proportion to their numbers in the population• For example, if 87% of the population is Caucasian, sampling is

done to ensure that 87% of the sample is Caucasian

– Sex research suffers from volunteer bias• People who participate are those willing to discuss intimate

matters.

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Methods of Observation

• The Case-Study Method– Individual case studies are in-depth

biographies of individuals using interviews, questionnaires, and clinical

– Ethnographic case studies are detailed descriptions of groups or cultures using observation, participant observation, interviewing and historical records

– Problems with case studies• Not as rigorous as experiments• Observer bias


Surveys

– Study of a sample obtained using written questionnaires on which participants record their information.

• Will people tell you the truth?• Are people really aware of what they actually do?

Interviews

• Structured interviews – reading a set of questions that are prepared ahead of time to participants and recording their answers

• Unstructured interviews – using content free questions to encourage participants to talk about what you are studying.

Eg. Tell me about __ ?

What kinds of __ have you experienced?


Questionnaires Vs. Interviews

• Questionnaires are less expensive• Questionnaires may be administered to many

people at once• Questionnaires are anonymous and therefore

people may tell you more or may be more truthful

• Interviews can be given to those who can’t read• Interviews can be more flexible and allow for more

detailed information

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Types of Surveys

• Surveys of Human Sexuality – The Kinsey Reports (1948 – 1953)– The NHSLS Study (1992)– The Playboy Foundation Survey (1974)– The Magazine Surveys– Surveys of Specific Populations


Limitations of Surveys

• Volunteer bias• Faulty estimation, poor recall• Social desirability

– A response bias in which the person provides a socially acceptable response

• Exaggeration• Denial• Misunderstanding because of differences in

meanings of terms

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• The Naturalistic-Observation Method– Behavior is observed where it naturally

happens– Unobtrusive, without manipulation– Ethical dilemmas may arise

– Eg. Behavior at a Prom, Sorority party, rave, etc.

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• The Laboratory-Observation Method– Individuals are observed in a laboratory,

where the situation can be better controlled.– Masters and Johnson’s research

• Measured the physiological responses involved with sexual behavior

– Instruments directly measured vasocongestion (blood flow to the genitals) and myotonia (muscle tension)

– Data depicted the sexual response cycles of men and women

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• Physiological Measures of Sexual Arousal– Penile strain gauge

• Device for measuring sexual arousal in men• Measures vasocongestion, which leads to erection

in men

– Vaginal photoplethysmograph• Device for measuring sexual arousal in women• Measures vasocongestion, which leads to vaginal

lubrication in women



Vaginal Photoplethysmograph

Penile Strain Gauge (Penile Plethysmograph)

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The Correlational Method

• Correlation– Statistical measure of the relationship between

two variables

• Correlational coefficient– Statistic that expresses the strength and direction

(positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables

• Positive correlation: both variables increase or both variables decrease

• Negative correlation: one variable increases and the other variable decreases

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The Correlational Method

• A correlation between two variables does not indicate that the relationship is a causal one. – Variable A may cause changes in variable B. – Variable B may cause changes in variable A.– Variable C may cause changes in variables A and

B.

• However, a correlation does allow predictions to be made about the value of one variable given the value of the other.

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The Experimental Method

• Experiment– Scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-

and-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables

– Aspects of an experiment:

Sample, Experimental Group, Control Group, Independent Variable, Dependent variable, Stimulus, Pre-Test, Post-Test

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• Independent variable– The variable that is believed to cause change

in other variables

• Dependent variable– The variable that is changed by the

independent variable.

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• Experimental group– Group of study participants who receive a

treatment

• Control group– Group of study participants who do not

receive the experimental treatment– However, other conditions are held

comparable to those for the experimental group.



• Participants are put into the experimental or control group via random assignment. – Random assignment is important due to:

• Selection factor– Bias that may operate in research when people are

allowed to determine whether they will receive a treatment

– Groups should be relatively equal if random assignment is used



• The Effect of Caffeine on Sexual Arousal Time• IV = Caffeine, DV = Sexual Arousal Time• Experimental Group: Drink a beverage with

caffeine and be presented with an arousing image; arousal time would be measured

• Control Group: Drink a beverage without caffeine and be presented with same arousing image; arousal time would be measured

• If the Experimental group was slower to be aroused, it would be due to the caffeine.


Ethics in Sex Research

• Ethical issues:– Do no harm– Confidentiality – Informed consent– Deception

The Tuskegee Syphilis

Study 1932-1974

What is a Theory?

Definition: a set of related hypotheses that provide a better explanation than any single hypothesis.

You are using a theory if you are dealing with any of the following:

• Definitions• Components of concepts• Relationships between

concepts• Attempts to model how a

system works• Explanations• Predictions

Some Theoretical Approaches to Sex and Gender

Nature Vs. Nurture Theories• Biological Theories• Cross-Species Studies• Evolutionary Psychology• Cross-Cultural Studies• Psychoanalytic Theory• Learning Theory• Feminist Theory• Queer Theory

Biological Approaches

• Assuming that genetics, anatomy and physiology can explain sexuality and gender

• The study of brain, internal and external genitalia as well as the hormone and nervous systems that connect the parts of the body that are involved in sex and gender identity.

• Sometimes called the ‘Nature’ approach

Cross-Species Studies

• Looking at other animals to see if what humans do is “natural” (occurs in nature) or “unnatural”

• The Bonobos are a good example of a species of chimpanzee that has contributed knowledge about primate sexuality.

• Also part of the “nature” approach

Bonobo Intercourse in Missionary Position

Bonobo Females “GG Rubbing”

Bonobo Males

“Rump-Rubbing”

Bonobo Female Masturbating

Bonobo Male Display

Evolutionary Psychology• A theory that assumes that human

behaviors have evolved over time just as anatomical and physiological features have

• Human behaviors can be more or less adaptive, and result in more or fewer genes being passed on to the next and subsequent generations

• One evolutionary psychology theory is Parental Investment Theory

Some Parental Investment Theory (PIT) Definitions

• Parental investment – biological, economic, social and emotional support for offspring.

• Differential reproduction – variability in the number of offspring produced by individuals.

• Reproductive potential – the maximum number of offspring possible for an individual.

• Reproductive success – production of offspring that survive and reproduce.

Logical Connections from PIT• Human males only have to make a minimal

parental investment to obtain reproductive success (a few sperm)

• Female humans must make an enormous parental investment to obtain reproductive success (+/- 5 years)

• Male humans have reproductive potential limited only by the number of partners

• Females have limited reproductive potential because of the investment needed from mothers

• Males and females will have significantly different mate selection strategies because of differential parental investment.

Some PIT Assumptions• Human mate choice is influenced by

inherited characteristics

• Inherited characteristics will reflect the most successful mating strategies over time

• Human mate choice is influenced by both conscious and unconscious factors

• Culture is the learned set of strategies that help individuals maximize their reproductive success.

• Also part of the “nature” approach

Cross-Cultural Studies

• Bronislaw Malinowski studied sexuality among the Trobriand Islanders (north of Australia) during World War I.

Premarital sex with multiple sexual

partners normal

Kids encouraged to masturbate, Etc.

Part of the “nurture” approach

Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund FreudSex is the central issue in the psyche

Sexual Symbolism

Stages Psychosexual Development

1.Oral Stage

2.Anal Stage

3.Phallic/Oedipal Stage

4.Latency Stage

5.Genital Stage

Combines “nature” and “nurture”

Learning Theory

• Rewards

• Punishment

• Modeling

Definitely a “nurture” approach

Feminist Theory

• Developed in the late 1960’s and 1970’s

• Attempted to include women in the theoretical and practical approaches to understanding culture and humans, especially in terms of sexuality and gender

• Address issues of women’s rights and gender stratification

Queer Theory

• Challenges the polarized views of western society that see only two genders and one acceptable sexual orientation.

• Proposes alternative models of sex and gender

• Challenges the idea that only certain kinds of sexual activities are “natural” and that others are immoral and “unnatural”

Basic Terminology. Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon2 Research Methods in Human Sexuality A Scientific...

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