King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e © 2005 by Prentice Hall 1 Chapter 10 Gender Identity and Gender...

King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e © 2005 by Prentice Hall1

Chapter 10Gender Identity and Gender Roles

For use with text,Human Sexuality Today,5th edition.Bruce M. King

Slides by Callista Lee


Becoming a man or woman

Gender identity – your personal sense of self as a man (boy) or a woman (girl).

Gender role – everything you feel, think, say and do that shows to yourself and others that you are a man or a woman.

Gender role stereotypes – oversimplified, rigid beliefs that all members of a sex have distinct behavioral psychological and emotional characteristics.


Masculine, Feminine or Androgynous?

Our culture have defined masculine and feminine as polar opposites (e.g., m = loud/ aggressive/brave; f = quiet/passive/timid)

The Bem Sex Role Inventory categorizes people as:– Having mostly “masculine” traits– Having mostly “feminine” traits– Having a pretty even mix of each = Androgyny– Not fitting these stereotypes = Undifferentiated


Biological influences on gender identity

Chromosomal sex + hormonal sex = anatomical sex (genitals, reproductive structures and the brain)

Each ovum (egg) and each sperm has only half of the normal genetic material for a human cell; after conception the zygote contains the full complement of 23 pairs of chromosomes.

The genetic blueprint for females is “XX” and the genetic blueprint for males is “XY.”


The role of hormones

During the first 6 weeks of development the embryo is genetically male or female but its anatomy is sex neutral = undifferentiated.

Before sexual differentiation, the embryo contains gonads that can develop into either testes or ovaries, and a set of “male” tissue (Wolffian duct system) and a set of “female” tissue (Mullerian duct system).

External genitalia are “bipotential.”


Sexual differentiation

Prior to week 7

Differentiation inprogress

Fully differentiated


Becoming anatomically “normal”

Normally, the Y chromosome initiates changes in the embryo that begin the production of testosterone, which will masculinize the embryo. Without testosterone, the male pathway cannot develop and the organs will feminize.

Male development – gonads > testes; Wolffian ducts > internal male reproductive structures.

Female development – gonads > ovaries; Mullerian ducts > internal female reproductive structures.

External genitalia take on the male form in the presence of testosterone; without it, the female.


Sexual differentiation of the brain

Sex differences in the brain are small but significant in a few ways. Testosterone appears to play a role.

Gender identity, sexual orientation and some sexual behaviors are governed by small areas of the hypothalamus.

Both animal and human studies continue to shed light on other sex differences in behavior and cognition. In general, we are more the same than different.


Variations: Intersexed individuals

Prenatal irregularities in either chromosomes or hormones can lead to development of ambiguous genitalia. These individuals are called “intersexuals.”

In the not-so-distant past, doctors were quick to assign a sex based upon what the genitals looked most like or availability of surgery to create more female-looking genitals, but the idea that gender identity may be set in the brain prenatally was not considered.


A failed experiment

1960s - It was believed that children were born psychosexually neutral.

A normal boy suffered a circumcision accident that left him without a penis. Psychologist John Money sought to use this child to prove his theory that if a child is raised as a girl, it will develop a female gender identity.

The child never felt female, however, and reclaimed his manhood in adolescence.


Chromosome variations

1 in 426 people is born with an unusual sex chromosome combination (70 known types).

Klinefelter’s syndrome – XXY or XXXXY– 1 in 500 live births.– Tall, long arms, poor muscular development,

enlarged breasts and hips, a small penis, shrunken testes and low sexual desire. They are often confused about their gender identity.


Other chromosome variations

Turner’s syndrome – X0 – 1 in 2,000-3,000 live births– Ovaries never develop properly > absence of

ovarian hormones.– They do not menstruate or develop adult breasts

and are usually infertile.– Usually short, and with skeletal abnormalities.

Stella Walsh – some body cells were XX and some were XY. She lived as a woman but had nonfunctional male organs. World class athlete.


Hormonal variations

Hermaphroditism – having both male and female reproductive systems due to failure of primitive gonads to differentiate.– 1 in 65,000 births; usually genetic females– Often have one ovary and Fallopian tube on one

side and one vas deferens and a teste on the other, usually with a uterus in between

– Ambiguous external genitalia– 2/3 are raised as boys but at puberty develop

breasts and begin to menstruate


Other hormonal variations

Pseudohermaphroditism – having either testes or ovaries (matching the genetic sex) but with either ambiguous genitalia or genitalia of the other sex.– Many have early problems with gender identity but

most have a heterosexual orientation as adults.– Hormonal and surgical treatments partially correct

the appearance of the genitals.– Adrenogenital syndrome – 1 in 20,000 births;

An XX embryo’s adrenal glands secrete too much masculinizing hormone > masculine genitalia.


Pseudohermaphroditism, cont’d.

– Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AGS) – 1 in 20,000 births; XY testes secrete testosterone but embryonic tissues fail to respond. Female internal structures do not develop because the Mullerian duct inhibiting substance is correctly “read” by the embryo. External genitals generally appear very feminine. Testes do not descend.

– DHT Deficiency type AGS – 38 boys in the Dominican Republic; 18 raised as girls until puberty and then adopted a male identity; this culture could accept a change from female to male and called them quevote (“penis at twelve”) boys.


Gender and sex as social constructs

In our culture we are committed to the idea of persons being either male or female; we accept no third sex, anatomically or socially.

Gender is a social construction of femininity and masculinity; differences in temperament and behavior we expect beyond anatomical differences.

Awareness of intersexed individuals helps us see that sex is not dichotomous.


Gender Identity “Disorder” (GID)

Gender dysphoria – when gender identity does not match anatomical sex; the person feels trapped inside the wrong body.– Awareness often occurs in childhood, with boys

outnumbering girls 7:1 prior to adolescence.– Adults with this condition are referred to as

transsexuals or transgendered persons. Male-to-female transsexuals outnumber female-to-male transsexuals 2:1. Most are heterosexual in relationship to their gender identity.


Transsexualism

Differs from transvestism (cross-dressing for sexual arousal); GID is a gender identity issue.

Causes are not well understood but male-to-female transsexuals have a hypothalamus more similar to a female’s than to a male’s.

Parent-child interactions may also play a role. Sex reassignment surgery follows a long

period of psychotherapy and living as the other sex. Psychotherapy alone does not “cure” GID.


Psychological theories of gender identity development

Freud’s psychodynamic theory – founded on Victorian ideas of morality and sex roles.– Libido = conscious and unconscious sexual desire– Libido develops as it shifts focus from oral > anal >

phallic > latency > genital areas– Problems in libidinal development will manifest in

adulthood in a variety of ways– Oedipus complex in boys; Electra Complex and

penis envy in girls– Identification with the same sex parent is the

ultimate developmental goal


Social Learning Theory

Operant conditioning – we increase behavior which gets rewarded (reinforced) and we decrease behavior which gets punished.

Boys are reinforced for acting in a masculine manner; girls for acting in a feminine manner.

We also learn our gender roles by imitating models of our own sex. – Do daddies wash dishes?– Do mommies fix the plumbing?


Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Infants are “information seekers.”– They watch, imitate, and try things out

A need to understand causes children to want to learn about gender.

Gender constancy – understanding that one’s sex will not change despite a change in hairstyle, wardrobe or activity.– Generally acquired by age 6 or 7


Gender Role Theories

Evolutionary or sociobiological model – different reproductive pressures lead to different values and behaviors.

Sociocultural model – psychological differences between men and women are a social construction.– If society had identical expectations of men and

women, then men and women would act the same– Masculinity is instrumental; Femininity is expressive


Gender roles cross-culturally

Some cultures do not emphasize differences between boys and girls until they are several years old, with ceremonies for the transition.

Margaret Mead found 3 very different cultures– Tchambuli – men were weak, emotional, artistic and

gossipy; women made all the important decisions– Arapesh – both men and women were peaceful,

nurturing and cooperative– Mundugamur – men were violent, competitive,

sexually aggressive, jealous


Gender role socialization (1)

Parents who assume “traditional” (stereotypic) gender roles behave differently toward their children of different sexes; fathers especially.

Consider the differences in toys promoted for each sex child.

Children pick up on some social gender role expectations as early as 14 months.

Gender schema – objects are either masculine or feminine (e.g., dogs/masc. and cats/fem.)



Children organize their world according to gender starting at age 2 or 3.

Classroom tasks are often assigned according to stereotypic gender roles.

Textbooks often emphasize the central, dominant role of men and the supporting role of women.

Most religions support the philosophy of male superiority; clergy are most often male as well.



By age 4, children know stereotypes about clothing, toys, games, work and occupations.

Even Sesame street promotes stereotypes. Peer pressure among teens supports

traditional stereotypical gender roles. Fathers who assume child-rearing

responsibilities learn new intimacy skills. Children raised in single-parent homes are

more likely to be psychologically androgynous.


Gender roles in adulthood

Gender differences are a product of physical differences which are then influenced by social factors resulting in a great diversity between individuals of each sex.

Adult gender roles are in transition today; more egalitarian relationships and androgyny.

Fatherhood > more nurturing abilities Women working outside the home > more

assertiveness and independence


Gender roles and sexual behaviors

Women appear to have a milder sex drive than men, but is it biological, social or bits of both?

Men tend to have more permissive attitudes about sex than do women.

Women want physically attractive mates, but its even more important to men.

Women with egalitarian gender role attributes have more partners than do traditional women.

Women often seek emotional intimacy in sex.


Cross-cultural perspectives

Native American two-spirits – men who assume the dress, behaviors and occupations of females. They were admired for their skills and ability to act as a go-between for men and women.

Samoan Fa’afafine – cross-dressing men who play a female role in society. Sex between a man and a fa’afafine is considered heterosexual.


Socio-cultural theories of gender role development

The home used to be the center of all educational, economic and social activities of the family where both men and women shared in all aspects of family life.

With industrialization (early 1800s) men began to earn their livings away from the home; economic activities of men and women split.

Home became an idealized place of peace and affection in contrast to the business world.


The “New Woman”

Late 1800s – social changes allowed for single, economically independent and highly educated women who did not believe they should have to become dependent on a man in order to be feminine.

Responses – – Antifeminism; return women to the home– Pro-man; segregate boys to preserve masculinity– Pro-feminist; promotion of equality between the

sexes


Gender roles today

Gender role strain perspective – the problem with gender roles is that early socialization is contradictory to adult life experiences.

Multiple roles for women and men are beneficial for mental, physical and relationship health.

Both men and women will respond to the demands of their responsibilities, in the home and in the workplace by learning new skills.

King, Human Sexuality Today, 5/e © 2005 by Prentice Hall 1 Chapter 10 Gender Identity and Gender...

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