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Createspace.com

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Agricultural Machinery &

Mechanization Basic Concepts

Segun R. Bello [MNSE, R. Engr. COREN]

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Copyright 2012 by Segun R. Bello

Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, 480001 Nigeria segemi2002@yahoo.com; bellraph95@yahoo.com http://www.dominionpublishingstores.yolasite.com http://www.segzybrap.web.com +234 8068576763, +234 8062432694

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Dedication

To Bukky, my Wife & Children

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Acknowledgement

Unlimited gratitude goes to God Almighty, the author of life and the giver of knowledge, for His grace and inspirations in the pursuit of this divine agenda in the course of my career. Glory be to His name.

I sincerely thank all students, past and present, of the departments of agricultural technology, agricultural engineering and engineering technology, Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, Federal College of Agriculture Moor plantation Ibadan, College of Agriculture Jalingo and Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike and all who had come in contact with my books in various fields of agricultural engineering practice such as Farm power and machinery, Farm power and mechanization, and Horticultural machinery among several other related courses, whose teaching experiences and inputs were put together to form major part of this work.

The contributions of various authors whose works; journals, manuals, monographs, books, articles and slides were sited or quoted wholly or in part and listed in the reference section of this book is acknowledged. I equally want to acknowledge authors whose names were not listed and wish to say that their contribution forms vital part of a major contribution to knowledge.

My special thanks go to my dear friend, companion and wife, who had always back-up the realization of Gods plan for me. She is a virtuous woman and help meet indeed. Her understanding and tolerance in taking full responsibility of running our home during the entire review and upgrade exercise are quite commendable.

I am grateful to my children, Ayomikun, Pelumi, Damilola and Adeola, who were so wonderful and cooperative during this period. I am greatly encouraged and strengthened by their prayers, my God shall surely reward them. Amen

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Content

Preface xiii CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Agricultural Mechanization ............................... 1 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Mechanization .................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Concepts of mechanization............................................................................. 2 1.3 Motorization and tractorization .................................................................... 18 1.4 Machine and human labour measurement ................................................. 19 CHAPTER 2 Agricultural Machinery and Development ............................ 21 2.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 21 2.1 Aspects of agricultural machinery ............................................................... 21 2.1.1 Development of agricultural machinery ...................................................... 22 2.1.2 Adaptation of agricultural machinery .......................................................... 23 2.2 Standardization of farm machinery.............................................................. 24 2.3 System approach to manufacturing ............................................................ 24 CHAPTER 3 Economics of Machinery Use .............................................. 25 3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 25 3.1 Definition of economic variables.................................................................. 25 3.2 Machinery costs and categories .................................................................. 29 3.2.1 Fixed or ownership costs .............................................................................. 31 3.2.2 Operating costs ............................................................................................... 40 3.2.3 Timeliness costs ............................................................................................. 45 3.3 Decision making in machinery procurement ............................................. 46 3.4 Machinery selection procedure .................................................................... 54 3.5 Determination of machinery capacity.......................................................... 55 3.6 Field machine performance factors ............................................................. 58 CHAPTER 4 Land Clearing and Development ............................................ 65 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 65 4.2 Land clearing ................................................................................................... 65 4.3 Land clearing methods and machinery....................................................... 66 4.4 Machinery power sources ............................................................................. 69 4.5 Land clearing attachments/detachable ....................................................... 70 5.4 Factors affecting the choice of land clearing ............................................ 77 5.5 Estimation of land clearing cost................................................................... 78 5.6 Disposal of vegetation ................................................................................... 81 5.7 Landform and development .......................................................................... 89

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5.8 Equipment for landform ..................................................................................91 CHAPTER 5 Tillage Operation and Equipment............................................95 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................95 5.2 Soil dynamics and tillage relations ..............................................................97 5.3 Mechanical behaviour of agricultural soil ...................................................98 5.4 Design and performance of tillage equipment ......................................... 102 5.5 Implement and traction machine dynamics .............................................. 103 5.6 Types of tillage operations........................................................................... 109 5.7 Conventional tillage implement................................................................... 114 5.7.1 Primary tillage implement ............................................................................ 114 5.7.2 Secondary tillage implement ....................................................................... 128 5.8 Effects of machinery traffic on agricultural soil ....................................... 137 CHAPTER 6 Bed Planting Operations .............................................................. 141 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 141 6.2 Bed planting and tillage practices .............................................................. 141 6.3 Method of crop planting ............................................................................... 143 6.4 Crop planting patterns .................................................................................. 143 6.5 Functional requirement for crop planting ................................................. 149 6.6 Functional classification of planting equipment ...................................... 154 6.7 Small scale no-till seeders ........................................................................... 168 6.8 Row-type planters .......................................................................................... 172 6.9 Mechanical precision drilling....................................................................... 176 6.10 Crop planters .................................................................................................. 177 CHAPTER 7 Post Planting Operations ........................................................ 189 7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 189 7.2 Thinning operations and equipment .......................................................... 189 7.3 Crop protection and equipment .................................................................. 198 7.4 Weed management and equipment ............................................................ 199 7.5 Fertilizer application and devices ............................................................... 205 7.6 Chemical application and equipment ......................................................... 212 7.6.1 Spraying system, equipment and calibration ........................................... 212 7.7 Chemigation .................................................................................................... 227 7.8 Fertigation ....................................................................................................... 229 CHAPTER 8 Soil and Water Conservation ................................................. 238 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 238 6.2 Soil conservation practices and equipment ............................................. 238 6.3 Irrigation practice and equipment............................................................... 243 CHAPTER 9 Crop Harvest and Transport Equipment .............................. 254 9.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 254

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9.2 Grain crop harvest machine ........................................................................ 254 9.3 Combine harvester performance................................................................ 259 9.7 Fruit and vegetable harvest machine ........................................................ 260 9.7.1 Methods of fruit harvest ............................................................................... 261 9.8 Agricultural transport vehicles ................................................................... 266 CHAPTER 10 Crop Processing and Machinery ...................................... 273 10.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 273 10.2 Drying systems .............................................................................................. 274 10.3 Grain cooling methods................................................................................. 281 10.4 Densification of agricultural materials ...................................................... 282 10.5 Agricultural technological process machines ......................................... 284 10.5.1 Pressing/wafering machines ....................................................................... 284 10.5.2 Pelleting machine .......................................................................................... 284 10.5.3 Briquetting ...................................................................................................... 287 10.5.4 Dewatering machines ................................................................................... 288 10.5.5 Cutting of agricultural materials................................................................. 289 10.5.6 Size reduction processes and machines .................................................. 291 10.5.7 Kneading machines ...................................................................................... 297 10.5.8 Rice milling machines .................................................................................. 299 10.5.9 Destoning machine ....................................................................................... 301 10.5.10 Fruit processing machines .......................................................................... 303 10.5.11 Oil processing machines ............................................................................. 310 10.5.12 Grain transport machines ............................................................................ 318 10.5.13 Crop residue processing machines ........................................................... 320 CHAPTER 11 Crops Storage Structures .............................................. 329 11.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 329 11.2 Storage of agricultural crops ...................................................................... 329 11.3 Crops storage structures............................................................................. 331 11.3.1 Traditional storage structures .................................................................... 331 11.3.2 Improved traditional storage structures ................................................... 339 11.3.3 Improved storage structures ...................................................................... 340 Bibliography ................................................................................................................... 344 Index 352

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Preface

New ideas and developed technologies in agricultural occupation depend to a large extent on scientific research results and diversity which are responsible for increased agricultural production. The dynamic nature of agricultural operations and machine complexity are indices of such scientific research diversity as evident in the wide spread requirements in agricultural operation if increased production must be sustained.

Documentation forms a major integral part of research and development, especially in engineering education and communication. Hence, this book presents research documentations in agricultural machinery and discussed in details the basic concepts of agricultural mechanization. Chapter one discuss the problems, prospects and utilization of agricultural machinery. Chapter two discussed the essentials of agricultural mechanization, strategies and technological advancements as agriculture goes global. Chapter three x-rays the principles of machine use and cost factors.

Chapter four presents the principles and practice of land clearing and landform as well as information and necessary skills for effective land clearing programme. Chapters five and six described various bed preparation and crop planting operations including state of the art equipment that facilitate effective bed preparation for crop establishment and machine operations.

Crop maintenance and protection practices such as crop thinning, weed control and fertilizer/chemical application and equipment were discussed in Chapter seven. Crop establishment equipment and sprayer calibration were also highlighted. Chapter eight described soil and water conservation equipment such as irrigation equipments, pumps etc. Crop harvesting and processing machine for various agricultural crops were discussed in Chapters nine and ten, while Chapter eleven described various crops storage structures.

This book will go a long way to acquaint students and researchers with the nitty-gritty of agricultural machinery operations and also provide requisite knowledge and skills for effective agricultural mechanization.

Segun R. Bello 480001, Ishiagu

Nigeria

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CHAPTER 1

Concepts of Agricultural Mechanization

1.0 Introduction

Among the three basic essential needs of life (food, clothing and shelter), food remains the strongest of all human survival factors. Food can simply be regarded as the direct product of primary agricultural production and it is rated highest among the three basic essential needs of man; hence agriculture could simply be referred to as a life-safer profession. To attain security and self-sufficiency in food production and distribution, all players in agricultural production sector must support traditional farmers through accelerated input supplies (such as improved crop varieties /animal species, improved farming systems, improved hand tools etc and procurement of appropriate agricultural tractors and machinery etc., at all levels.

Agricultural engineers are known to have been involved in solving the aspect of support to solving major challenges in the traditional and industrial agriculture. They made significant contributions to transforming basic agricultural operations, meet basic food needs of the expanding human population, and also help evolve productive and sustainable agricultural systems and practices which has become a major area of priority intervention. From the analyses of various agricultural systems, we can understand the usefulness of various agricultural machines involved in the conservation and preservation of land, water, and biological resources for future generations. This involvement is made possible through effective agricultural mechanization. The concepts of agricultural mechanization are discussed in the following sections.

1.1 Mechanization

Mechanization of agriculture is recognized as one of the greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. Generally, agricultural mechanization involves the selection, operation, utilization, and maintenance of mechanical devices and systems in agricultural operations and production for the utmost benefits of man. Among several definitions, the followings have been extracted to fully describe the scope of agricultural mechanization as defined by scholars and researchers:

1. Starkey (1998) defined farm mechanization as the development and introduction of mechanized assistance of all forms and at any level of sophistication in agricultural

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production to improve human efficiency, timeliness of operation and labour involvement. For instance, timeliness of tillage and planting, weeding and/or harvesting are critical factors where affordable labour is insufficient to permit timely operation.

2. Odigboh, (1991) defined agricultural mechanization as the use of any machine to accomplish a task or operation involved in agricultural production.

3. Mijinyawa et al., (2000) expressed farm mechanization as the application of engineering principles and technology in agricultural production, storage and processing; where these activities and applications are not limited within the boundaries of the farm units only.

4. Clarke, (2000) inferred that the term mechanization is generally used as an overall description of the application of agricultural inputs to production, processing and storage of farm products.

5. Ou et al., (2002) reported agricultural mechanization as an engineering system that requires not only advances in machine development and applications but also close cooperation of many sections. In recognition of this fact, certain environmental, agricultural, social and economic conditions must be ascertained to favour investment in mechanization technologies and their sustainable use.

From the foregoing, it can be deduced that mechanization has to do with machinery/implement power sources, management of farm inputs, labour and time. Hence, mechanization may be simply said to be the increase in production per worker per hectare of farmland cultivated.

1.2 Concepts of mechanization

Objectives of mechanization

The primary objective of agricultural mechanization as summarized by Pellizzi (1992), include:

1. Minimization of production costs, 2. Optimization of product quality, 3. Protection of workplace and environment and 4. Minimization of farm production flexibility.

Other objectives include:

1. Improvement in timeliness of agricultural operation and its increased efficiency 2. Preservation and improvement of quality of agricultural production e.g. the use

of combines in crop harvest and processing

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3. Achievement of a better utilization of natural resources and increased raw material supply for industrial use

4. Provision of off- farm employment and increased human labour availability in other sectors.

5. Enhancement and stabilization of high commodity price through improved inputs and food supply

6. Increase in foreign exchange earnings through massive agricultural products exportation and diversification of economic base

7. Improvement in water supply and living standard of rural dwellers.

Purpose of mechanization

Farm mechanization has been known to help in the effective utilization of farm inputs in order to achieve the following purposes:

1. Increase labour productivity: The introduction of machinery to substitute for labour (laborsaving) is a common phenomenon associated with the release of labour for employment in other sectors of the economy or to facilitate cultivation of a larger area with the same labour force.

2. Increase land productivity: The purpose of mechanization is here to produce more from the existing land. Machinery is a complementary input, required to achieve higher land productivity, for example, through the introduction of pump sets, or faster turn-around-times to achieve higher cropping intensity. In labour surplus economies, net labour displacement or replacement should be avoided.

3. Decrease cost of production: Introduction of a machine may lower production costs or offset increased costs of draft animals or labour.

Benefits of mechanization

Beside reduction in human drudgery and costs of farm operations, mechanization offers potential benefit of increased returns from agricultural inputs. Increased returns from agricultural input can be achieved in the following ways:

a. Improvement in crop yield per hectare and quality b. Extension of cultivated area c. Possibility of raising new crops and livestock which were not initially possible d. Improvement in timeliness of farming operations, timely provision of suitable

conditions and environment for plant and animal growth,

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The most obvious benefit of mechanization is the work potential of the agricultural tractors utilized versus hand labour and animal traction involvement. This is most advantageous in communities where labour is scarce or expensive. The labour requirements for preparing one hectare of land for planting using draught animal power are only 12% of that required when using hand labour.

When using a tractor with a plough, this falls to less than 1%, increasing labour productivity tremendously. As labour is a constraint in many farming communities, the use of animal traction and tractors brings the opportunity to expand the acreage. Motorization is likely to have an even greater potential for area expansion as long as land is available. Labour productivity will increase considerably. A farmer owning a tractor would normally be able to increase his income through increased production and by doing contract work for other farmers.

Problems of mechanization

The neglect of agricultural mechanization by policy makers who intend to see every problem from the economists point of view caused one of the major problems facing the use of machines in Nigeria agriculture. Inadequate attention had been paid to mechanization in Nigeria over a long time which is obvious from the scanty and uncoordinated nature of data available. This trend is being reversed by the recent advances of the federal government in the agricultural revolution currently taking place in Africa in general and Nigeria in particular. Despite these advances, the following problems still hinders agricultural mechanization

1. Huge cost of investment on equipment. 2. Government policies on agricultural machinery import and implementation. 3. Inadequate man power development and skill acquisition on technological

advancement in agricultural mechanization. 4. Poor infrastructure development regarding appropriate machinery requirement. 5. Poor price control (common commodity price) of products of agricultural

mechanization during peak production and harvest gluts. 6. Poor accessibility to credit facilities (loans, grants etc) from agricultural

development banks. 7. Loss of technical skills and service: The Agricultural engineers who made

significant contributions to transforming society and solved most of the major

problems in the agricultural industry have essentially became a victim of their

success, as the demand for their specialized expertise dwindled and young people

with technological interests veered away from the agriculture industry.

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Olaoye (2007) enumerated three other key factors that influence a successful mechanization programme and these include: 1. Socio-economic factors, 2. Availability of mechanization supporting infrastructure and 3. Land and agro-ecological conditions.

Involvements of mechanization in agricultural production

The involvements of mechanization in agricultural operations and production include: 1. The process of selection of agricultural systems and inputs, 2. Handling/management of the selected systems and utilization of the inputs, 3. Operation of machines/equipment and optimization of operational time and 4. Maintenance of mechanical devices and systems involved in agricultural

operations and production

Nigeria agricultural mechanization programme

The fortunes from oil notwithstanding, successive governments experimented with different programmes and agencies to rejuvenate the agricultural sector. Some of these programmes and agencies (Table 1-1) have agricultural mechanization as a cardinal mandate.

Table 1-1: Agencies with agricultural mechanization related mandates S/N Programmes and agency Acronyms Remarks 1. Farm Settlement FS Regional level

2. National Accelerated Food Production Project

NAFPP Federal level

3. Agricultural Development Project ADP State level

4. Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development Bank

NACRDB Federal level

5. Operation Feed the Nation OFN Federal level 6. Commodity Board CB Federal level

7. National Agricultural Credit Guarantee Scheme

NACGS Federal level

8. River Basin Development Authority RBDA Federal level

9. Land Use Policy LUP Federal level

10. Green Revolution GR Federal level 11. Strategic Grains Reserve SGR Federal level

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S/N Programmes and agency Acronyms Remarks

12. National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization

NCAM Federal level

13. Directorate of Foods, Roads and Rural Infrastructure

DFRRI Federal level

14. National Directorate of Employment NDE Federal level

15. Rural Agro Industrial Development Scheme

RAIDS Federal level

16. Crop Storage Unit CSU Federal level 17. Rural Artisan Training and Support Unit RATSU Federal level

18. Agricultural Machinery Mechanics and Operators Training Centre

AMMOTRAC

Federal level

19. Tractor and Equipment Hiring Units TEHU State level

20. National Agricultural Land Development Authority

NALDA Federal level

21. Departments of Rural Development DRD Federal and State level

22. Family Economic Advancement Programme

FEAP Federal level

23. National Poverty Eradication Programme

NAPEP Federal level

24. National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy

NEEDS Federal level

25. State Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy

SEEDS State level

26. Local Economic and Environmental Management Programme

LEEMP State level

27. National Programme for Food Security NPFS Federal level

28. National Food Reserve Agency NFRA Federal level

29. Commercial Agriculture Development Programme

CADP Federal and State level

Source: Adama et al., 2009.

In addition to these agencies and programmes, the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) and Millennium Development Goals (MGD) have interesting programmes aimed at developing African agriculture for poverty eradication (Asika, 2005; FGN, 2006).

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Agricultural mechanization assessment

Several authors have studied the status of mechanisation with reference to the intensity of power or energy availability, and its impact in increasing the agricultural and labour productivity. Giles (1975) reviewed power availability in different countries, and demonstrated that productivity was positively correlated with potential unit farm power. The NCAER (1981) assessed the impact of tractorisation on the productivity of land (yield and cropping intensity), and economic growth (income and employment).

Status of agricultural mechanization: Binswanger (1982) defined the status of mechanisation by the growth of mechanical power-operated farm equipment over traditional human and animal power operated equipment. Rijk (1989) reviewed the growth of mechanisation in different Asian countries, and suggested the formulation of strategy for mechanisation policy based on economics of use of animate and mechanical power for different field operations. Such policies are in different stages of formation and implementation in various countries across Europe and some part of the developed and developing world today.

Indicators of agricultural mechanization

Singh and De (1999) reviewed the methodologies adopted by several authors to express agricultural mechanisation indicator. Three indicators of agricultural mechanization identified include; levels of mechanization, mechanization index, and degree of mechanization.

a. Levels of mechanization (LOM)

It is clear now that agriculture has always been mechanized, employing four main sources of power or a combination of two or three sources including: human, animal, mechanical/engine and renewable energy resources, and giving rise to four broad levels of agricultural mechanization technology. The level, appropriate choice and subsequent proper use of these inputs into agriculture has a direct and significant effect on achievable levels of land productivity, labour management, profitability of farming, sustainability, environmental and the quality of life of people engaged in agriculture.

According to Nowacki (1974), the following indices were used in the assessment and grading of different levels of mechanization:

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1. Hand tools (M1) = 1, 2. Animal drawn (M2) = 2, 3. Tractorized/Mechanized (M3) = 3, 4. Renewable (M4) = 4 (This index is introduced).

For instance in Nigeria, (M1 and M3) were generally applicable. The tools and implements used in each level of agricultural mechanization are as classified below.

Level 1: hand-tool technology (HTT)

This is the most basic level of agricultural mechanization, where human being is the power source, using simple tools and implements. A farmer using hand-tool technology can cultivate only about one hectare of land. He cannot do more than that because of certain scientifically established facts (Odigboh, 1991). Human power accounts for the lions share of work in overall agricultural production, most especially in the tropical and sub tropical African countries. It has been suggested that a power-use intensity of 0.4 kW/ha is required for effective human level of agricultural mechanization. Some basic features of tools in use include:

Hoes: A wide variety of hoes used in farm operations includes; forked hoes and pickaxes. The main use for the forked hoes and pickaxes is to dig compacted manure out of animal compounds.

Figure 1-1: Traditional hand hoes

Material handling tools: Material and earth handling tools such as rakes, shovels and spades are found within the agricultural hand tool list. The shovels and spades are mainly of the D-handled type, commonly used in moving materials from one place to another. Some very old ones have T-handles. Rakes are used mainly to prepare fine seedbeds in the vegetable plots. Hoes were made by blacksmiths from high-quality material. Some hoes are also made from old discs from tractor-operated implements.

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Figure 1-2: Material handling tools

Cutting tools: Cutting tools such as axes and sickles in varying sizes made by local blacksmiths can be bought in local shops. Blacksmiths often use very basic production methods but turn out effective tools provided they can find the right type of scrap steel, such as vehicle leaf-springs.

Figure 1-3: Cutting tools

Various types of sickle were seen: some were made locally but others were very old imported examples. The wooden handles on the latter usually had been broken and were replaced with a piece of rag wrapped around the tang.

Differences in tools used by women and men

There is a gender perception attached to different tools: some are seen as being mens tools and others as womens tools. Mens tools are considered to be ploughs, cultivators, ox-carts, axes, adzes, pickaxes and shovels. Womens tools are considered to be hoes, watering cans, sickles, and other lightweight items. These perceptions date from the times when men and women were more equally present in rural areas and when there were certain mens tasks and certain womens tasks in agriculture. But

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today, even though the gender perceptions about tools still persist, even the men freely state that women now use all of them.

Level 2: draft-animal technology (DAT)

Because of the limitations of the human power availability on the field, horses, mules, oxen and bullocks became the principal sources of power on the farm. They develop more power than human power for agricultural operations. Because of their availability for use in most stringent conditions, they are often referred to as the beast of burden.

Figure 1-4: Harrowing with donkeys

Traditional animal drawn ox-ploughs

The plough in its different shapes as traditional plough or as mouldboard plough is probably the most popular land preparation tool that is used in both developing and developed countries. There is no other tool that symbolizes agricultural development, like the plough. The plough can be pulled by one or more pairs of donkeys or oxen.

Figure 1-5: Traditional animal drawn ox-ploughs

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Level 3: mechanical-power or engine-power technology (EPT)

Mechanical power as used on the farm consists of internal combustion engine, the electric motor, and the steam engine sometimes called external combustion engine, the water wheel and windmill. The internal combustion engine and electric motor are the most important. Recently internal combustion engine are being complimented by hydraulic power transmission.

Higher levels of mechanisation are preferred by farmers to ensure timeliness, to increase yield of crops, and to reduce the cost of cultivation, provided the farm size is large enough to use the machine and sufficient labour at reasonable wages are not available when required. To maximise profit, alternative mechanisation technologies are adopted using animate and mechanical power sources to accomplish different field operations for different crops (Singh, 1992, 1997, 2006; Singh & Chandra, 2001; Singh & Singh, 2003; Government of India, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991).

Level 4: renewable energy technology (RET)

All energy sources mentioned above have an impact on the environment. Concerns about the greenhouse effect and global warming, air pollution, and energy security have led to increasing interest and more development in renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, wave power and nuclear energy.

b. Agricultural mechanization index (MI)

Agricultural mechanization index is one of the three mechanization indicators used for the purposes of characterization of farming systems. This index is the measure of the assessment and grading of the different levels of mechanization practiced in a particular area. The index of mechanization is limited to the prominent available power sources in the particular zone under consideration.

Relative to different power sources predominant in an area or region, mechanization index is seen as a deviation of the actual amount of motorized farm work from the normal values at regional level.

Mechanisation index , MI is expressed by the percentage of machine work EM to the sum of manual EH, animal EA and machine work EM expressed in energy units, as suggested by Nowacki (1978), has been accepted for model forecasting.

A mechanisation index based on the matrix of use of animate and mechanical energy inputs as given by could be given by (Singh, 2006) in equation below.

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= = + + .1.1 Where:

MIE = Mechanization Index, % = Average sum of all mechanical operational works of the machine, kWhr/ha = Sum of all average work outlays in kWhr/ha by animates ( animal, human), and tractor powered machines.

A mechanization index, (MI) based on the use of human and mechanical energy inputs, represents the percentage of work of tractors and the total of human work and that of the machinery and is calculated using the following relations;

= x 100% 1.2 By implication, parameter is determined based on the exact response of the average farmers in the surveyed areas on the estimated resting period in minute per hour of work on each manual operation.

For macro-level planning, a mechanisation index based on the ratio of electrical and mechanical power over total farm power introduced as a measure of qualitative assessment of modernisation of agriculture, is expressed in equation (1.3) by Singh, 2006:

= + + .1.3

Where: MIE is the mechanisation index (indicator); PH is the human power PA is the draught animal power and PM is the total electrical and mechanical power.

A higher mechanisation index/indicator based on electrical power and stationary engines as per equation (1.1) might only reveal mechanisation of stationary operations. From a qualitative drudgery reduction point of view, a mechanisation index MITP based on mechanical tractive power PMt could be a better measure, Equation (1.4):

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= + + 1.4

A major defect in quantifying a mechanisation indicator based on the ratio of mechanical tractive farm power to total farm power is that it does not bring to light the actual use scenario. Whilst unit farm power could be considered as indicative of potential power availability, it may not necessarily be fully utilised on the farms. This may depend upon availability of diesel and electricity, and adequate workload. The majority of the farmers in developing countries use tractors for transport of agricultural and non-agricultural commodities.

The mechanisation index based on equation (1.4), therefore, does not lay emphasis on quality output and associated cost factors for the matrix of energy sources. Incorporating the concept of cost factors in to equation 1.5 (Singh, 2006):

= + + .1.5 Where:

MImij is the mechanisation index of the ith crop in the jth state; CEMij is the cost of use of machinery in the ith crop in the jth state; CEHij is the cost of use of human labour in the ith crop in jth state; and CEAij is the cost of use of animal labour in the ith crop in the jth state.

The level of mechanization index (LOM) is based on the premise that a mechanized farmer is the one that finds a way to utilize amounts of mechanical energy that higher than the typical values using locally available technology. This situation is expressed by the expression in equation (1.6) below by Zangeneh et al., (2010);

=

. .1.6 Where

LOM = Level of mechanization = Tractors power = Correction factor for utilized power (0.75). The field capacity was multiplied by rated power so that the quantification of energy expenditure will be in work unit (kWh) = Total farmland area cultivated.

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c. Degree of mechanization

Degree of Mechanization (M) is described as the average energy input of work provided exclusively by different levels of mechanization technology (labour) per hectare. The degree of mechanization can be evaluated for different levels of mechanization as follows:

Human power sources

The degrees of mechanization of available power for human labour are defined by the following relations (Nowacki, 1974):

LH = 0.1 x NH x THA 1.7 Where

LH =Average energy input or work provided per hectare by human labour kW hr/ha.

0.1= Theoretical average power of an average man working optimally. NH = Average number of labour employed. TH =Average rated working time devoted to manual operation. TH was

determined as a function of rate of energy consumption and resting period for different manual operations (planting, weeding, fertilizer application and harvesting).

A = Area of land cultivated (ha). A was determined for each farm settlement by multiplying areas of cultivated land in hectare allocated to each participating farmer by the total number of farmers.

According to Caruthers and Rodriguez (1992), resting period tR was defined as follows:

t = 60 1 .1.8 Where:

tR = Required resting time for 8 hrs effective working hrs per day in minute per hour of work

P = Rate of power consumption in watts for various farming activities.

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Mechanical power sources

Degree of Mechanization represents the first degree of mechanization for motorized machinery coexisting with a high participation of operators (Nowacki, 1974, Segun et al., 2010). It is indicated as;

LM = 0.2 x NM x[

] 1.9 Where;

LM = Average energy input or work per hectare by motorized machines 0.2 = Corrector co- efficient of the tractor-powered machine. NM = Rated working power of the tractor (kW) A = Area worked in hectare by motorized machines. TM = Rated working time of the motorized energy source, hr/ha. TM represents

the inverse of the effective field capacity of the machine given by TM = 1/Ca (hr/ha)

Effective field capacity Ca, is expressed by the equation 1.10 as Ca =

.1.10

Where Ca = Effective field (area) capacity, ha/hr, s = Field speed, km/hr; w = Implement width of cut, m; Ef = Field efficiency, decimal;

Optimum level of mechanization

Optimum level of mechanization is the degree of mechanization that produces the most beneficial production systems in terms of efficiency and economic returns. The following factors are important in ensuring optimum level of mechanization:

1. Soil-implement and tractor interaction: The duration of production operation is affected by the soil-implement-tractor interaction. There is travel reduction (Slip) as the tractor goes over the soil during operation. The nature of soil, moisture content affects the travel reduction considerably. The speed of operation has profound effect on tractor implement performance. Maximum permissible forward speed is related to such factors as: Nature of operation, condition of field and amount of power available.

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2. Crop-implement suitability: Implement chosen must be such as to produce optimum growth condition for the selected crop. There must be a relationship existing within one operation and the other.

3. Appropriate power-implement match: This implies that there is optimum power implement match for every available power from the power source. Factors affecting this include nature of soil-soil types, rock out crops i.e. remnants of rock materials after weathering.

4. Selection of operation: Operations to be mechanized are affected by some factors such as: a. Type of crop to be mechanized b. Availability of some specific machinery for specific operation c. Weather condition of the area to be mechanized d. Topography of the field area.

5. Selection of implement size: The following factors should be considered in choosing the size of machine to buy: a. Difference in cost between large and small machine b. Amount of use that will be made of the machine each year c. The amount and cost of available labour d. The financial position of the buyer.

6. Decision of ownership of implement: In large hectares of land, it is advisable to buy equipment but on small hectares of land or smallholdings, it is better to hire, considering this from the viewpoint of costing. It may be disadvantaged to get machine for hire at the appropriate time needed. When purchasing consideration is made on those implements or machinery that will suite the size or power of the available machine.

Appropriate mechanization technology

Appropriate mechanization is the practice of applying actual machinery and equipment to production process such that human involvement is minimal, production cost kept at minimum and output yield is optimum. Applying appropriate mechanization technology implies minimal machinery involvement and high percentage of product optimization.

Terminologies such as "intermediate technology" and "selective mechanization" are either inappropriate or have no practical meaning. or have no practical meaning. The term appropriate mechanization may be used, and refers to the level of mechanization and how it is used for a specific situation. Developed countries of Europe and North America rose to the pinnacle of developing their agriculture on appropriately engineered mechanization such that a very small percentage of their population is involved in direct food and fiber production today (Odigboh, 1997).

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Therefore, the appropriateness of a particular mechanization technology can only be determined after a careful consideration of the technical, economic and social characteristics of each situation. Nigeria mechanization situation can only be improved when the new and improved technologies to be adopted for agricultural mechanization are appropriate and acceptable both in terms of farmers socio-economic status and environment as well as resources and technical suitability for such technologies.

In order to formulate appropriate technology for Nigeria agricultural development, Odigboh, (1997) gave a pointer to some critical issues needed in policy making process for technology development. Modifications to these issues were not limited to policy formulation but indigenization of these policies and effective implementation.

1. Encouragement of indigenous agricultural and industrial machinery designs from research institutions and

2. Effective maintenance and management policy for agricultural machinery 3. Evolvement of workable engineering infrastructural development policy 4. Undertaking of rigorous human resources development and strict implementation

of environmental policy 5. Encouraging community-based participatory technology development

programme for mechanization of small scale farms in Nigeria 6. Promoting the role of the medium and small scale farmers and other technology

institutions like National Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) 7. Evolving an institutional framework for quick understudying of emerging

technologies i.e. encouraging the concept of technology transfer. 8. Establishment and monitoring of Institutional framework for the training and re-

training of agricultural machinery operators and mechanics for better proficiency. For instance, the operation of Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) in Akure and Misau in Nigeria should be better improved for such training.

Factors affecting mechanization in the tropics

Tropical agricultural mechanization involves the use of tools, implements and machines to improve the efficiency of human time and labour. The most appropriate machinery and power source for any operation depends on the work to be done, cultural settings, affordability, availability and technical efficiency of the options. These indications were clearly evident that agricultural mechanization is not an end in itself, but a means of development that must be sustained. Therefore a socially beneficial agricultural production is determined based on a wide range of social, economic and ecological factors. These factors determine whether a technology is

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practicable, beneficial and sustainable in such area. Factors affecting mechanization in the tropics include:

a. Vegetation b. Climate c. Type of crop and crop varieties d. Nature of soil - soil depth varies with location. Soil with deep depth supports

mechanical tillage e. Insufficient research funding and facilities.

1.3 Motorization and tractorization

Motorization

This is the introduction of machines or engine-powered machinery into a particular production system; Agricultural motorization concerns the use of engine powered machinery for carrying out agricultural activities. In more detail, it comprises:

1. Tractors and their implements and equipment and other self-propelled machinery

2. Power tillers and other specialized engines

3. Engines used for propelling stationary machinery or carried on a persons back

The percentage of the productive land tilled with motorized traction remains very low in the Sub-Saharan Africa. Estimates range from 1% (FAO, 1987 and Gifford and Rijk, 1980 in FAO, 1995) to 4% (Mrema, 1992). Taking into account that more than half (FAO yearbooks, as in Caumont, et al., 1995) of the tractors are used in Southern Africa, the percentage of the total area cultivated with tractors in West Africa is practically negligible. Animals provide the power to an estimated 9% (FAO, 1987 and Gifford and Rijk, 1980 in FAO, 1995) to 16% (Mrema, 1992) of the area. This leaves 80 to 90% for cultivation by hand.

Tractorization

Tractorization simply means the introduction of tractors into a system. The introduction of tractor vehicles (tractorization) into agriculture has grossly increased engineering involvement in agriculture and hence the choice of equipment acquisition, hazards prevention programme and increased maintenance activities.

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1.4 Machine and human labour measurement

Productivity may be conceived of as a measure of the technical or engineering efficiency of production which is characterized by a shift of the production function and a consequent change to the output/input relation. The productivity of machine and human labour could be determined based on the principle of production schedule which represent the maximum amount of output that can be produced from any specific set of inputs given the existing technology. The input of labour and capital are the explicit independent variables in the production function measured in terms of man-hours and in machine-hours and are related by the following equation (Jhingan, 1997, Olaoye and Rotimi, 2010). Q = F(K, L) 1.11 Where: Q = Output, F = functional relationship, K= the amount of capital, L= the amount of labour.

The productivity of labour, machine and total productivity were expressed mathematically by Ortiz-Canavate and Salvador, (1980) as presented in the following equations: A = ; A = . .1.12 A = + . .1.13 Where:

AM = Productivity of machines, defined as the work carried out as a function of the machinery employed

AH = Productivity of labour, defined as the work carried out as a function of labour employed

AT = Total productivity and all other terms as defined previously.

Resting period

According to Caruthers and Rodriguez (1992), resting period tR, for different manual operations (planting, weeding, fertilizer application and harvesting) was defined as follows:

t = 60 1 250P . .1.14 Where: t = the required resting time for 8 hrs effective working hrs per day in minute per

hour of work P = rate of power consumption in watts for various farming activities.

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Gross margin analysis for crop production

The profitability of production of a particular arable crop could be determined using the gross margin analysis. This is the difference between the total revenue and the total cost of investment. The gross margin is the value of total profit expected from a production activity, and its value is obtained from the expression given by Jhingan, (1997, Olaoye and Rotimi, 2010). GM = TR TC .1.15 Where:

GM = Gross margin/gross profit value;

TR = Total revenue, expressed as (TR = P x Y);

P = Price;

Y = Yield tons/ha or kg/ha;

TC = Total cost, expressed as (TC = FC+VC);

FC = Fixed cost and

VC = Cost of the variable inputs

Note: Values of all farm labour should be based on the variable inputs (i.e. the prevailing agricultural wages per day) and outputs (i.e. the prevailing market prices) based on the conditions as at the time of the analysis. FLV = (wage/day, market prices) .1.16 Where

FLV= Values of all farm labour f = mathematical function

Net energy or output by farm power

For any given task, the energy or net output delivered by a power system is expressed by the relation

() = () ()

For instance this energy requirement has been estimated as a continuous effort at 26%29% for donkeys, and 24%27% for horses (Inns, 1992).

The energy accumulated by animals is partially released in a mechanical form when pulling equipment or carrying a load. Use of the animal energy available to perform sustained work varies in efficiency according to local working conditions (types of cultivation works, implements and harnessing systems used).

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