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Transcript of BAHAN UAS KP.public Policy and Science-JARKOM
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Public Policy and Science
fadillah putra
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Introduction� The study of public policy is firmly grounded in the study
of politics, which is as ancient as human civilization itself.
� Most of the ancient philosophers looked at politics ingeneral, theoretical ways.
�Platos Republic The search for justice. One of Platos objectivesin the Republic was to show that justice is worthwhilethat justaction is a good in itself, and that one ought to engage in justactivity even when it doesnt seem to confer immediateadvantage.
� Aristotles Politics - Since we see that every city-state is a sort of community and that every community is established for the sake
of some good (for everyone does everything for the sake of whatthey believe to be good), it is clear that every community aims atsome good, and the community which has the most authority of all and includes all the others aims highest, that is, at the goodwith the most authority. This is what is called the city-state orpolitical community. [I.1.1252a1-7]
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Introduction
� Modern political theory.
� Niccolo Machiavelli.
� If we understand and plan the political actions wetake in pursuit of our goals, we are better preparedto seize the political opportunities that arise in thenormal course of political life.
� Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, Weber,Durkheim.
� Focused on the exercise of power betweenindividuals, families, groups, communities, and thevarious levels of government.
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Introduction
� The systematic study of public policy is a 20th
century phenomenon.
� Dates to 1922, when political scientist Charles Merriamsought to connect the theory and practice of politics to
understanding the actual activities of government, that
is, public policy.
� Nevertheless, most of the literature on public policydates back only about 50 years.
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Introduction
� The study of public policy is the examination of thecreation, by the government, of the rules, laws, goals, andstandards that determine what government does or does
not do to create resources, benefits, costs, and burdens.� In studying public policy, we focus on those decisions
made (or implicitly accepted) by government andnongovernmental actors to address a problem that asignificant number of people and groups consider to beimportant and in need of a solution.
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Introduction
� A major element of studying and
teaching public policy is the
reliance of policy studies on a
broad range of the social
sciences.
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Introduction
Table 1.1. Selected Disciplines That Study Public Policy
Discipline Description Relationship to
Public Policy
Some important
journals
Political Science The study of political
relationships; that is, the
study of the processes by
which societies seek to
allocate political power and
the benefits of such power,
The political process is the
process through which
policies are made and
enforced.
American Political Science
Review, American Journal
of Political Science, Journal
of Politics, Policy, Political
Research Quarterly, Public
Opinion Quarterly
Sociology Sociology is the study of
social life, social change,
and the social causes and
consequences of human
behavior. Sociologists
investigate the structure of
groups, organizations, and
societies, and how people
interact within these
contexts.
Community and group
activities are an important
part of policy making,
because groups of people
often form to make
demands.
American Sociological
Review, Contemporary
Sociology, Journal of
Sociology
Economics The study of the allocation
of resources in a
community, however
defined. Economists study
markets and exchanges.
Welfare economists seek to
understand the extent to
which an overall
community·s welfare can be
maximized.
There are many economic
factors that influence
public policy, such as
economic growth,
productivity, employment,
and the like. The tools of
economics are often used
to promote policies or to
explain why policies
succeed or fail.
American Economic
Review, Econometrica,
Journal of Applied
Economics, Journal of
Political Economy.
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Introduction
Table 1.1. Selected Disciplines That Study Public Policy
Discipline Description Relationship to
Public Policy
Some important
journals
Public
Administration
The study of the
management of government
and nonprofit organizations,
including the management
of information, money, and
personnel to achieve goals
developed through the
democratic process.
The management of public
programs is an integral part
of the policy process. PA
scholars study the
motivation of program
implementers and targets
and help research
innovations to improve
service delivery.
Public Administration
Review, Journal of Public
Administration Research
and Theory
Public PolicyThe study of what
governments choose to do
or not to do, including
studies of the policy
process, policy
implementation and impact,
and evaluation.
We give this label to the
highly interdisciplinary
study of the public policy
process. Policy scholars
develop theories about how
the policy process works
and develop tools and
methods to analyze how
policy is made and
implemented.
Journal of Policy Analysis
and Management, Journal
of Public Policy, Policy
Studies Review, Policy
Studies Journal, Journal of
Policy History
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Introduction
� Because the field of public policy studies is sonew, it has yet to coalesce around a shared set of principles, theories, and priorities (paradigm).
� For public policy to be useful, we must bridge thegap between what academics know and howpractitioners and citizens use what we know tomake better policy (or better policy arguments).
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Policy Science as Applied Science
� You may question whether policy is
science, but science is defined as the
state of knowing: knowledge rather than
ignorance or misunderstanding.
� The values of empirical science: the
number of teeth for men and women.
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Policy Science as Applied Science
� Anecdotal evidence versus scientific evidence:The case of food stamps (discuss).
� The problem with anecdotes is that they are littletidbits of information that are unsystematicallygathered and that reflect the biases of the personrelating the story.
� Question: Is the food stamp program a failure?
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Policy Science as Applied Science
� Scientific evidence (evaluation).� Compared to nonrecipients,
� Participants spend a larger portion of their total expenditures on all food items.
� Foods used at home by recipients have a greater monetary value per person and morenutrients per dollar.
� Recipients are more likely to shop for food on a monthly basis, resulting in betterplanning and lower transportation costs.
� The availability of twelve essential nutrients in the diet is higher for recipients.
� One dollar increase in food stamp benefits increases food expenditures between17 and 47 cents, whereas a dollar increase in income only increases foodexpenditures 5 to 10 cents.
� Information is:
� Peer-reviewed� Aggregate information rather than disconnected cases.
� Runs counter to common wisdom.
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Policy Science as Applied Science
� Do food stamps work? Not necessarily.
� Difference between policy description and
policy advocacy.
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Policy Studies as a Science
� We can say that the careful study of public
policy is scientific because it contributes
to knowledge by relying on methodological
rigor.
� Policy analysts share a commitment to
methodology, but not to any one particularmethod.
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Policy Studies as a Science
� Harold Lasswell argued that quantitative
analysis and the scientific method were
important elements of any policy science.
� But, Lasswell recognized that you must
combine quantitative and qualitative
information.
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Policy Studies as a Science
� Lasswells recommendations for an empiricallydriven, methodologically rigorous, yet flexiblestyle of policy research has served as the basis for
policy studies in late 20th century.� But it is also driven by the desire to solve
problems.
� No common paradigm. Dye lists eight theoretical
traditions.� Most of these theories need testing.
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Policy Studies as a Science
� Theorizing is important, because they make
sense of ambiguous evidence, and they
develop concepts that apply to more thanone case.
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Science, Rationality, and the
Policy Process� Policy analysis is an important component of
policy sciences.
�But researchers should keep rational analysis incontext: within the interplay of evidence, valueand belief systems of the participants, thestructure of the process, and the distribution of power.
� Most policy analysis is not value neutral. Problemidentification is rarely neutral, for example.
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What Is Public Policy?
� Attributes common to various definitions of public policy.� The policy is made in the publics name.
� Policy is generally made or initiated by government.
� Policy is interpreted and implemented by public andprivate actors.
� Policy is what the government intends to do.
� Policy is what the government choosesnot
to do.
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What Is Public Policy?
Table 1.2. Defining Public Policy
Definition Author
The term public policy always refers to the
actions of government and the intentions
that determine those actions.
Clarke E. Cochran, et al.
Public policy is the outcome of the struggle
in government over who gets what.
Clarke E. Cochran, et al.
Whatever governments choose to do or not
to do.
Thomas Dye
Public policy consists of political decisions
for implementing programs to achieve
societal goals.
Charles L. Cochran and Eloise F. Malone.
Stated most simply, public policy is the sum
of government activities, whether acting
directly or through agents, as it has an
influence on the life of citizens.
B. Guy Peters.
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The Research-to-Policy Gap
� Large investments have been made in policy-relevant data collection and research.
� Yet, opportunities for increasing knowledge andputting data to use are often lost.
� Researchers and decision makers work in differentspheres.
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How is the gap manifested?
� Stereotypes
� Assumptions about howdecisions are made
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Researchers' Stereotypes of
Policymakers
y Uninterested or too busy to read
y Reach hasty conclusions
y Actions unsubstantiated by data
y Distrust survey and research findings
y Limited perspectivey Should be responsible for drawing
implications from the data
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Policymakers Stereotypes of
Researchers
y Avoid policy implications of findings
y Prone to professional "faddism"
y Excessive use of technical jargon
y Inconclusive generalities about broad
theoretical matters
y Little appreciation of real problems and
data needs
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Assumptions about Decision-making
� Practice rational decision-making
� Prioritize goals and objectives
� Examine alternative solutions
systematically� Choose alternatives that maximize goals
Researchers may assume that
policymakers:
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Policymaking is Not Linear
PROBLEMSSOLUTIONS
POLITICS
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A Window of Opportunity
for Policy Change
Window of
opportunityPOLITICS
PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS
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Moving the Spheres Together
PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS
POLITICS
Agenda
Setting
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Characteristics of Issues that Get on
the PolicyA
genda
� Clear, measurable indicators
� Policy champions� Feasible policy or program
alternatives
� Attention-focusing events
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Agenda Setting Activities
� Press conferences and other kinds of
support for journalists
� Public events, seminars and speeches
� One-on-one meetings with policymakers
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Coalition Building
Links together individuals from
yGovernment
yThe academic community
yThe media
yNGOs and advocacy groupsyBusinesses
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Coalition Building Activities
� Create and/or facilitate media or
advocacy networks
� Provide information to existing
networks
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Policy Learning
� The ongoing stream of information
to policymakers
� An understanding by all actors of
complex power relations andchanging institutionalarrangements
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Policy Learning Activities
� Policy analyses
� Publications� Electronic communications
(websites, CD-roms, e-newsletters)
� Seminars and briefings
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Crafting the Policy Message
Policy communication messages
yderive directly from the datayhelp decision makers to
understand policy implications
and to make grounded policy
recommendations.
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Research
Key
Findings
Recommendations
Implications
Research to Recommendations
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Implications ar e:
� Broad statements that express a
direction, new information, or a
need implied by the findings.
� Analyses derived from two or more
findings.
� Guides to help the audience begin
to interpret the findings.
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Making the Link to
Recommendations
Implications are a bridge from
your key findings to policyrecommendations.
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Recommendations:
� Offer specific actions that you
urge a policymaker or program planner to take.
� Should start with an action &be S.M.A.R.T.
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A S.M.A.R.T.
Recommendation Is:
� Specific
� Measurable� Action-oriented
� Realistic
� Timebound
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Skilled Attendance at Delivery, by
Residence, India 1998-99
56
23
18
11
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Urba R ra
D r Tra e rse/m e
Sour e: OCR Ma r o, India Na iona Family Health Survey, Demographic and
Health Surveys.
Per cent of live bir ths
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Implications� Rural women may be at significantly
higher risk of maternal death than
urban women because of the lowlevel of skill attendance at birth.
� A higher percentage of the urban
women who have skilled care rely ondoctors, which may result in higher
medical costs.
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Recommendations� Within one year, conduct a behavior change
campaign in rural areas to increase
awareness of the importance of skilled care,
and in urban areas to build support for using
nurse/midwives.
� Within two years, expand the number of
trained nurse/midwives by 50%, and include acommunity service requirement to increase
the pool of skilled providers in rural areas.
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Place of Delivery, by Education,
Peru 2000
15
29
8184
69
18
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
No ducation r imar ducation econdar +
Deliver at health f acility Deliver y at home
Sour ce: OCR er u Demographic and Health Sur vey.
er cent of live bir ths
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Implication� Educational level is clearly related to
whether women in Peru deliver their
babies at home or in facilities, but onlythe most educated women rely on
facilities. Since women with primary
education are quite similar to those with
no education, programs need to targetboth groups to address their needs for
safe delivery.
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Evaluating Policy Communications
Have policy communications activities :
� Helped your issues gain the attention
of policy makers;
� Enhanced coalition efforts to increasethe saliency of your issues; or
� Supported policy learning?
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And UltimatelyThe Window of
Opportunity
Is there evidence of change in
� Policies,� Programs,
� Strategies, or� Resource allocation?
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Need for Benchmarks
Coalition building Policy Learning
Agenda Setting
³best´
³wor st´
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Initial Assessment
Coalition building
Agenda Setting
Policy Learning
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Post-Intervention Assessment
Coalition Building:
No change
Agenda Setting:
Improved
Policy Learning:
Improved
Window open
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In Summary
� Policy change is a complex, dynamic process.
� Research can play a key role but the research-to-
policy gap must be bridged.
� Agenda-setting, coalition building & policylearning are key elements in policy change.
� Effective policy communication depends on clearfindings, implications & recommendations.