ECOLOGYEnvironment Science

Unit-2

By:Deepa Thomas

What is Ecology?Origin of the word…”ecology”

Greek originOIKOS = householdLOGOS = study of…

Study of the “house/environment” in which we live.

Ecology:The study of the interactions of living things with

each other and their physical environment

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WHAT IS ECOLOGY?Ecology- the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environments, focusing on energy transfer

Ecology is a science of relationships

WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY ENVIRONMENT?

The environment is made up of two factors:

Biotic factors- all living organisms inhabiting the Earth

Abiotic factors- nonliving parts of the environment (i.e. temperature, soil, light, moisture, air currents)

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Organism

Population

Community

Biosphere

Ecosystem

Organism - any unicellular or multicellular form exhibiting all of the characteristics of life, an individual.

•The lowest level of organization

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POPULATION A group of organisms of one species living in the same place at the same time that interbreedProduce fertile offspringCompete with each other for resources (food, mates, shelter, etc.)

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Community - several interacting populations that inhabit a common environment and are interdependent.

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Ecosystem - populations in a community and the abiotic factors with which they interact (ex. marine, terrestrial)

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Biosphere - life supporting portions of Earth composed of air, land, fresh water, and salt water.

•The highest level of organization

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Ecology is study of interactions between • non-living components in the

environment… light water wind nutrients in soil heat solar radiation atmosphere, etc.

AND…

Living organisms…PlantsAnimalsmicroorganisms in soil, etc.

To study Ecology involves…

For non-living (abiotic)ClimatologyHydrologyOceanographyPhysicsChemistryGeologysoil analysis, etc.

For living (biotic) animal

behavior Taxonomy Physiology mathematics

(population studies)

etc.

Ecology…• views each locale as an integrated whole of interdependent parts that function as a unit.

tundra

caribou

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The interdependent parts are…

Nonlivingdead organic

matternutrients in the

soil and water. Producers

green plants

Tundra9

Consumers herbivores and

carnivoresDecomposers

fungi and bacteria

Tundra

Caribou

Scope of Ecology and its relation to other divisions of sciencesEcology is an interdisciplinary field that

includes biology and Earth science. Ecology is closely related to physiology, evolutionary

biology, genetics and ethology.An understanding of how biodiversity affects

ecological function is an important focus area in ecological studies.

Scope of Ecology and its relation to other divisions of sciences

Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science, drawing on many other branches of science.

Applied ecology is the practice of employing ecological principles and understanding to solve real world problems. E.g. calculating fish population, measuring environmental impact from construction or logging, building a case for the conservation of a species, and determining the most effective way to protect a species.

In a broader sense, ecology can also mean: Natural environment: using the principles and methods of

ecology. Human Ecology: looks at humans and their interactions with

the natural environment.

Scope of EcologyEcology can be studied at several levels, from proteins

and nucleic acids (in biochemistry and molecular biology), cells (in cellular biology), organisms (in botany, zoology, and other similar disciplines), and finally at the level of populations, communities, and ecosystems — which are the subjects of ecology.

Because of its focus on the broadest level of life and on the interrelations between living beings and their environment, ecology draws heavily on other branches of science, such as geology and geography, meteorology, pedology, chemistry, and physics.

What are autecology and synecology?Autecology & Synecology are two main branches of

ecology. Autecology refers to study of relationships between

individual species and environment, while synecology refers to the study of relationships between communities and environment.

Synecology means study of structure, nature, organization and development of plant communities.

ECOLOGY: Levels of Organization

- a hierarchy of organization in the environment

Levels of Organization - TermsBiosphere

Surface of the earth Composed of many ecosystems

EcosystemLarge or small as we decideBackyard, O’Melveney Park, Hedge along

Room 110, etc.

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Levels of Organization - TermsPopulation – one species live in one place at

one timeCommunity – All populations (diff. species) that

live in a particular area.

Levels of Organization - Terms

Habitat – physical location of communityOrganism –simplest level of organization

• Very complex• Can contain 100’s to 1000’s of interacting species. 11

THEN…

Ecology is an integrated and dynamic study of the environment which primarily focused on :

. Biodiversity;

. Climate Change; and

. Endangered Animals

BIODIVERSITY

It is the variety of all the different living things and their homes on the planet

What is biodiversity?

Why do we need Biodiversity?

.The natural world is very complex, with many intricate relationships between species and habitats.

.We refer to them as food webs and food chains or eco systems.

.The plants and animals rely in many ways on those on either side of them.

Biological diversity is important because of the way these relationships can combine to provide yet more variation in the living world.

Any human activity that diminishes this 'bio - diversity' could therefore impoverish our own quality of life, reduce the resources available to us and ultimately jeopardise the survival of our descendants.

WHY IS BIODIVERSITY IMPORTANT?

. An Earth rich in wildlife is a sign that it is a healthy planet for us to live on too..When we pollute the air, water

and soil, we risk destroying biodiversity 12

Trees make oxygen for us to breath.

Plants need insects for pollination.

Animals and birds need to eat plants.

Some animals need to eat the animals that eat the plants!

But most importantly everything we use comes from

nature!

Importance of Ecology1. Since all of us live in a natural or partly natural ecosystem,

then considerable pleasure can be derived by studying the environment around us.

2. Human economies are based on the exploitation and management of nature. Applied ecology is used every day in forestry, fisheries, range management, agriculture, and so on to provide us with the food and fiber we need.

3. Human societies can often be understood very clearly from an ecological perspectives as we study, for example, the population dynamics (demography) of our own species, the food and fossil energy flowing through our society.

4. Humans appear to be changing aspects of the global environment in many ways. Thus, ecology can be very useful to help us understand what these changes are, what the implications might be for various ecosystems, and how we might intervene in either human economies or in nature to try to mitigate or otherwise alter these changes. There are many professional ecologists, who believe that these apparent changes from human activities have the potential to generate enormous harm to both natural ecosystems and human economies. Understanding, predicting and adapting to these issues could be the most important of all possible issue for humans to deal with. In this case ecology and environmentalism can be the same

Function of Ecosystem1. It balances the rate of biological energy flow.2. It balances the nutrients cycle.Sun Producer Consumer Decomposers→ → →

(Animals) (Microorganisms)

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Types of EcosystemsThere are many types of ecosystems on earth.Major classes of relatively contained ecosystems are

called Biomes.There are 3 Major classes of ecosystemsTerrestrial EcosystemsFreshwater EcosystemsOcean Ecosystems Aquatic ecosystems

Terrestrial Ecosystems:Many & diverse types of ecosystems. There are seven

major types.Location usually dependent on the latitude of the

area, and amount of precipitation

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Tropical Rain ForestThe Rain forest is made up of three layers.The first layer is called the canopy.The second layer is called the undestoryThe third layer is called the floor.

SavannahWarm, hot climatesMajor vegetation is grassDry and rainy seasonsSeasonal fires help maintain balanceThe Savannah is home to various reptiles,

rodents, birds, and large mammals such as elephants, and zebras

Desert

Super-dry airLittle rain – less than 10 inches a yearHigh daytime temperaturesLots of windTypical animals include insects, reptiles,

birds, and various mammals

Temperate GrasslandsPrecipitation: 10-60cm/yearRich soil; tall dense grassesCentral North America; Central Asia

Deciduous forests

75-250cm/yearWarm summers, cool wintersEurope; NE United States;Eastern

Canada

Coniferous forest:20-60cm/yearShort growing season, cold

winters.Northern Asia; Northern North

America; Himalayas

Tundra Extremely short growing seasons (6 to 10 weeks)Long, cold, dark winters (6 to 10 months)Low PrecipitationSnow provides insulationWildlife includes birds, reindeer, foxes, bears, seals,

and walruses

Aquatic EcosystemsWater covers nearly 75% of the Earth’s surfaceThere are numerous species of plans and animals

who live here. These range in size from microscopic organisms

to the size of a 100 ft whale.An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body

of water. Communities of organisms that are dependent on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems

There are two types of Aquatic Biomes:Marine Biomes-Oceans

Salt water Composes 70% of the earths surface Contains many different organisms Provides most of the earths food nutrients Most oxygen is produced here

Freshwater Biomes - ponds, lakes, rivers and streams

Freshwater ecosystems:Relatively small in area ~ 1.8% of earth's surfaceSupport many species of life including fish,

amphibians, insects and plants.Base of food-web is found in freshwater Plankton

(small microscopic organisms)

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Types Of Freshwater EcosystemFreshwater Ecosystem 1.Lentic

2.Lotic

3.Wetland

Marine Ecosystems:Very large amount of Earth is covered by ocean

(~75%)40% of all photosynthesis occurs in oceans.3 types of oceanic ecosystemsShallow ocean watersDeep ocean waterDeep ocean surface.

Photosynthetic plankton is base of food chain.Only occurs in Deep ocean surface & Shallow ocean

ecosystemsNo photosynthesis can occur in deep ocean because

light cannot penetrate deeply into water.

Habitat vs. Niche

Niche - the role a species plays in a community; its total way of life

Habitat- the place in which an organism lives out its life

Habitat vs. NicheA niche is determined by the tolerance limitations of an organism, or a limiting factor.

Limiting factor- any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence of organisms in a specific environment.

Examples of limiting factors -

•Amount of water•Amount of food•Temperature•Amount of space•Availability of mates

Habitat vs. Niche

Niche (Job): the organism's role in the community, particularly its role in relation to food with other species.

Habitat - a place where a plant or animal can get the food, water, shelter and space it needs to live.

Guild (ecology)A guild (or ecological guild) is any group

of species that exploit the same resources, often in related ways.

The name “guild” emphasizes the fact that these groups are like associations of craftsmen who employ similar techniques in plying their trade. They often are composed of groups of closely related species that all arose from a common ancestor, and they exploit resources in similar ways as a result of their shared ancestry.

Hence, several species within a single genus may constitute a guild within a community; however, guilds may be made up of unrelated species.

Guilds may consist of different insect species that collect nectar in similar ways, various bird species that employ corresponding insect-foraging techniques, or diverse plant species that have evolved comparable floral shapes with which they attract the same group of pollinators.

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What is a habitat?Every animal has a

habitat. The place where an

animal or plant lives and grows is called its habitat.

A habitat is where an animal finds the food, water, and shelter it needs to live.

For example, a toucan’s habitat is the rainforest.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

All living things change to fit their environment

ADAPTATIONS!!!!!!!!

What are adaptations?Adaptations – an inherited characteristic that helps an organism to survive long enough to reproduce more successfully in its changing environment and can either be structural or behavioral.

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Think about the way you dress in the winter.

You don’t wear your shorts and bathing suit when it’s snowing outside!

You wear warm clothes, and maybe even a hat

and mittens to protect yourself from the

weather.

And what if you are having a snowball fight?

You probably run away from the person throwing at you, and maybe even try to sneak up on that person

and throw some snowballs!

The way you dress in the winter, as well as the way that you run and hide from someone

throwing snow at you are kinds of …

Adaptations.

We can separate adaptations into two categories:

Physical (structural)

AND

Behavioral

A

D

A

P

T

A

T

I

O

N

S

Structural Adaptations

Definition: Actual body parts or coloration that help an organism survive in their environment.

EX: camouflage, mimicry, bent hind legs, sharp teeth and claws, body structures.

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Behavioral AdaptationsDefinition: Ways an organism act to help them

survive in their environment.EX: Migration, hibernation, warning calls, mating

dances, hunting in packs.

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Types of Structural AdaptationsCAMOUFLAGE/COLORATION: blending in with the environment for protection from predators or to help sneak up on prey.

Use: Obtaining food and protection

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Types of Structural Adaptations

MIMICRY: copying a behavior or appearance. Used for protection or obtaining food and protection.

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Bent hind legs – prey run fast to escape & predators run faster to catch prey

Types of Structural Adaptations

Used for: protection, locomotion

Types of Structural Adaptations

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Types of Structural Adaptations

Body Structures

Predator – Eyes facing forward to find prey.

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We have been looking at structural adaptations of animals. ADAPTATIONS ON THE BODY, but animals can also have behavioral adaptations. This type of adaptation cannot be seen on the body. It is the way an animal reacts or behaves in certain situations. In other words: INSTINCTS

In simple animals, behavior is governed almost entirely by instinct, meaning that it is pre-programmed by an animal's genes. In more complex animals, instinctive behavior

is often modified by learning, producing more-flexible responses to the outside

world.

Behavioral Adaptations1. Migration - seasonal or periodic

movement of animals in response to changes in climate or food availability, or to ensure reproduction.

Migration most commonly involves movement from one area to another and then back again.

Examples: geese, whales, salmon,Monarch butterflies

Behavioral Adaptations2. Hibernation – adaptive winter

survivaltechnique where animal becomes inactiveand all body processes slow down.

In cold weather most animals must eat large quantities of food to obtain the energy needed to

carry on normal body activities. Examples: bears, chipmunks, squirrels, bats,

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Behavioral Adaptations3. Living in a Group –

more eyes in a group to watch out for prey or predator, protection Examples: fish,

wildebeest, walruses,lions

Behavioral Adaptations

4. Tool Use - any object manipulated by an animal in order to perform a specific task. (monkeys, otters, birds)

5. Playing Dead - By pretending that they are dead, some animals escape bodily harm. (snakes, possums)

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Behavioral Adaptations

6. Calling – communication between animals

7. Threatening Gestures – scares off potential predators

PLANT ADAPTATIONS

All living things adapt is a characteristic of life. All 6 kingdoms adapt. Animals are not the only organisms to adapt.

Structural Plant Adaptations1. Structures - adaptations on the body:

2. Seeds – all seeds have adaptation to better enable it to survive long enoughto plant itself and grow.

holdfasts, empty space for water storage, catch animals for minerals, tallness, heartiness, thorns, flexibility, floatation devices

Plant Adaptations

Protection – thorns, bad taste, poison, coloration, spikes

Obtaining Food – All plants do photosynthesis and make glucose in their leaves. The larger the leaves the more Sun they can capture.

SEEDS

Seeds are the baby plants!!! They are formed when the pollen fertilizes the egg. Fruit protects the seed.

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PLANT STRUCTURE ADAPTATIONSBelow are pictures of plants. Pick out theiradaptations.

SEED ADAPTATIONS

For plants to survive, seeds have to be dispersedaway from the parent plant.

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Types of seed dispersal:

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SEED DISPERSALLook at the seeds below and name how they are dispersed.

PLANT BEHAVIORS

Plants not only have structural adaptations; they have behaviors that help them to survive in their environment.

Tropism: movement of a plant toward or away from a stimulus. Toward is called positive, away is called negative.

Example 1-PhototropismWhen the plant senses light and the shoots

(stems & leaves) grow toward the light source. This is a positive tropism because the plant is

growing toward the stimulus.

Example 2-GravitropismWhen growth of a plant changes in response to

direction of gravity.

Shoots (stems & leaves) have a negative Gravitropismbecause they grow in the opposite direction of the force of gravity.

Roots mostly have positive gravi-tropism because they grow towardthe force of gravity (downward). 31

Ex: gravitropism – responding to gravity

Stems grow up(negative)

Roots grow down(positive)

PLANT BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATIONSDORMANCY - A state of rest or inactivity.

Many plants go dormant in the winter. Fall is the time of year when plants are preparing for dormancy.

Why do trees loose their leaves in the fall?

What other types of plants go dormant in the winter?

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DORMANCYSeasonal Changes in Trees to survive winter. All

trees lose their leaves at some point. Stop taking in water so the xylem will not freeze.

Trees like pines and holly lose their leaves all through out the year. They are called evergreens.

Pines Holly

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THE SURVIVALTRICKS

ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS TO THE DESERT

Water can be stored by animals in fatty deposits in their tails and other tissues (e.g., in the gila monster's tail).

Minimize loss of water out of the skin (cutaneous loss), from urine and feces (excretory loss), and from "breathing" (respiratory loss) through various means (e.g., see torpor).

If heat reduction wasn't enough, then it is time to get rid of body heat by evaporation (costs water though), long appendages (legs, ears, etc.), or small "bodies" (e.g., whole body, leaves, etc.) that radiate heat.

LONG LEGS

HUMP

WOOL or FUR

TWO ROWS OF LONG EYELASHES

BROAD, FLAT ANDLEATHERYPADS

NOSTRILS CAN BE CLOSED

THICK LEATHERY PATCHES ON THE KNEES

HAIR INTHE EARS

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A CLOSER LOOK

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Common adaptations seen in desert plants:1. Enhanced cuticle, a waxy covering, which prevents

water loss.2. Long vertical roots enabling a plant to reach water

sources beneath the soil.3. Shallow, radial roots, those which extend

horizontally, which maximize water absorption at the surface.

4. Tricombs, hair-like projections, that create a thick boundary layer which will deflect heat as well as IR wavelengths.

5. Spines and hairs which discourage herbivores and increase boundary layer effects.

PLANT ADAPTATIONS TO THE DESERT

Water can be stored in the roots, stems, and/or leaves of plants that grow in desert(plants that do this are called succulents).

Many of the desert plants (e.g., this prickly pear cactus) and animals (e.g., desert toads) can tolerate great losses of water out of their bodies without dying.

This can be done by staying out of the sun, by shading (e.g., spines/fur), by posture and orientation (e.g., orienting leaves vertically to minimize surface area directly hit by sun), by insulation, by shiny surfaces that reflect sun, etc. 34

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Small and narrow leaves which decreases heating from the sun.Rotating leaves which enable the plant to orient its leaves away from maximum exposure to the sun.

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THE WATER WORLD

When animals live in the water, they must have special adaptations to help them survive in an aquatic habitat. The more time an animal spends in the water, the more adaptations the animal will have for an aquatic life. Below are examples of some of these adaptations:

1. Streamlined body reduces friction when the animal moves through the water.

2. Smooth, almost furless body helps aquatic mammals move through the water with little friction.

3. Dense fur helps streamline the bodies of some aquatic mammals and keeps them warm.

4. Webbed feet, formed from thin skin between the toes, work like paddles.

5. Long legs and necks keep the bodies of wading birds out of the water and are thin, light, and easy to move, and the long

neck helps the birds to reach the water, or below it, for food.

6. Flippers provide a large surface for pushing against water and act like paddles.

7. Eyes positioned on top of the head allow animals to hide almost fully submerged in water and still detect predators or prey above the water.

8. Nostrils positioned near the top of the head allow animals to come to the surface to breathe while only a small part of the body can be seen. Nostrils close when the animal goes under the water.

9. Blubber, a thick layer of fat or oil stored between the skin and muscles of the body, provides insulation.

10. Transparent eyelids cover the eyes of animals swimming underwater.

11. Flattened tails serve as paddles.

Bluish Grey

White37

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Aquatic Adaptation In PlantsThe presence of little or no mechanical strengthening

tissue in stems and leaf petioles. If these plants are removed from the water, they hang limply. They are normally supported by water all around them and so have no need of mechanical strengthening. Indeed, this would be a distinct disadvantage as it would limit flexibility in the event of changes in water level or water movements.

Submerged plants lack the external protective tissues required by land plants to limit water loss. The epidermal (outermost) layer shows very little, if any, sign of cuticle formation. All the surface cells appear to be able to absorb water, nutrients and dissolved gases directly from the surrounding water.

Roots, which normally play a very important role in the absorption of nutrients and water from the substrate, are often also reduced and their main function is anchorage. The root hairs which function in absorption are often absent and roots themselves may be entirely dispensed with (e.g. Bladderwort).

Many species have very specialized leaf shapes. The submerged leaves are often highly dissected or divided. This has the advantage of creating a very large surface area for absorption and photosynthesis. It also minimizes water resistance and hence potential damage to the leaves. Heterophylly, where leaves of different shapes are produced depending on where on the plant they are, is common.

Air-filled cavities often extend throughout the leaves and stems of aquatic plants, providing an internal atmosphere,giving them access to the internal air-filled cavities as their own personal oxygen source.

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LEAFY SEA DRAGON

Arboreal Adaptations Living in or among trees.Arboreal locomotion is the locomotion of animals

in trees. In habitats in which trees are present, animals have evolved to move in them. Some animals may only scale trees occasionally, while others are exclusively arboreal. These habitats pose numerous mechanical challenges to animals moving through them, leading to a variety of anatomical, behavioral and ecological consequences as well as variations throughout different species.

Adaptations in arboreal animalsLimb lengthArboreal animals frequently have elongated limbs

that help them cross gaps, reach fruit or other resources, test the firmness of support ahead, and in some cases, to brachiate. However, some species of lizard have reduced limb size that helps them avoid limb movement being obstructed by impinging branches

Prehensile tailsMany arboreal species, such as tree

porcupines, chameleons, Silky Anteaters, spider monkeys, and possums, use prehensile tails to grasp branches. In the spider monkey and crested gecko, the tip of the tail has either a bare patch or adhesive pad, which provide increased friction.

ClawsClaws can be used to interact with rough substrates and

re-orient the direction of forces the animal applies. This is what allows squirrels to climb tree trunks that are so large as to be essentially flat, from the perspective of such a small animal. However, claws can interfere with an animal's ability to grasp very small branches, as they may wrap too far around and prick the animal's own paw.

Reversible feetTo control descent, especially down large diameter

branches, some arboreal animals such as squirrels have evolved highly mobile ankle joints that permit rotating the foot into a 'reversed' posture. This allows the claws to hook into the rough surface of the bark, opposing the force of gravity.

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•Small size•Small size provides many advantages to arboreal species: such as increasing the relative size of branches to the animal, lower center of mass, increased stability, lower mass (allowing movement on smaller branches), and the ability to move through more cluttered habitat. Size relating to weight affects gliding animals such as the reduced weight per snout-vent length for 'flying' frogs.

•Hanging under perches•Some species of primate, bat, and all species of sloth achieve passive stability by hanging beneath the branch. Both pitching and tipping become irrelevant, as the only method of failure would be losing their grip.

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Plant Adaptation to an Arboreal Habitat

Arboreal plants are those that live in trees instead of on the ground. Such plants have made adaptations in order to survive in their lofty environments.

ParasitismSome arboreal plants have become parasites,

extracting all of their needs from the host plant. One example of such a plant is mistletoe, an evergreen plant that invades trees in many areas of the United States.

Air PlantsEpiphytes are members of the bromeliad family.

These plants, also called "air plants," live on trees and other plants. They have evolved to be able to obtain all of their water and nutrients directly from the air.

OrchidsThe natural habitat for orchids is trees. They cannot

be planted in soil, as their roots have adapted to need constant exposure to air, and they will die if the air flow is cut off.

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Root AdaptationsEven in the rainforest's wet environment, gathering and using water is challenging. Orchids developed modifications allowing them to capture and store water. The roots of epiphytic species are exposed to the air and susceptible to drying out. Epiphytic orchids developed a tough tissue called velamen covering the root's surface, helping them retain water.

Leaf AdaptationsBecause orchids grow in variety of environments even within the tropical forest, the food-producing leaf structures of individual species vary greatly, depending on the specific habitat. Many orchids growing directly on the ground have green, chlorophyll-filled leaves and use sunlight to create their food. Some epiphytic orchids, those that grow on the trunks of trees, have no green leaves but have chlorophyll in their exposed roots clinging to the tree's bark. Other orchids have no leaves at all and depend on a symbiotic relationship with fungus living in their roots for food.

Flower Adaptations

Orchid flowers are individualized from species to species, adapted for survival in different growing conditions and in the presence of different pollinators. The flowers have a common structure composed of three petals, two of them extending laterally from the center of the flower and third modified into a structure called a lip. This lip forms a cuplike structure where nectar collects, attracting pollinating insects. An orchid's flower color and structure evolved to attract specific pollinators unique to its environment.

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Books/Resources:Environmental Studies by R. RajgopalanEnvironment and Ecology by Dr. Gourkrishna Dasmohapatrawww.mbgnet.net/sets/rforest/adapt.htm