Attitudes Values and Organizational Culture

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{\rtf1{\fonttbl {\f2 Times New Roman Italic;} {\f3 Times New Roman;} {\f4 Times New Roman;} {\f5 Times New Roman;} {\f6 Times New Roman;} {\f7 Times New Roman Italic;} {\f8 Times New Roman Italic;} {\f9 Times New Roman;} {\f1000000 Times New Roman;} }{\colortbl; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; \red0\green0\blue0; }\viewkind1\viewscale100\margl0\margr0\margt0\margb0\deftab80\dntblnsbdb\expshrt n\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\qj \li1828\sb0\s l-340\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1828\sb0\sl-340\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1828\ri1002\ sb219\sl-340\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs28 At titudes, Values and Organizational Culture: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Disenta ngling the Concepts \par\pard\ql \li1838\sb151\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\cha rscalex119 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Geet Hofstede \par\pard\ql \li1838\sb0\sl -207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-2 07\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207 \slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\s lmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb140\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul 0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Abstract\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw1 688\colsr160\colno2\colw7152\colsr160\ql \li278\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li278\sb55\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\f s16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\ql \li278\ri328\sb2\sl-180\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw 0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Institute for \line \up0 \expndtw0\c harscalex104 Research on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Intercultural \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Cooperation, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Maa stricht and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Tilburg, the \line \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex103 Netherlands\par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \l i283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li2 83\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283 \sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\s b0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0 \sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\s l-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl- 172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-17 2\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\ slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\sl mult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmu lt0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult 0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \p ar\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par \pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\p ard\qj \li283\ri467\sb117\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Organizati on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Studies\par\pard\qj \li283\ri611\sb7\sl-17 7\slmult0\fi23 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 1998. 19/3 \line \up0 \expndtw0\char scalex109 477-492\par\pard\ql \li283\ri228\sb6\sl-177\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0 \charscalex108 C 1998 EGOS \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 0170-8406/98 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 001-0019 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 $3.00\par\pa

Transcript of Attitudes Values and Organizational Culture

Page 1: Attitudes Values and Organizational Culture

{\rtf1{\fonttbl{\f2 Times New Roman Italic;}{\f3 Times New Roman;}{\f4 Times New Roman;}{\f5 Times New Roman;}{\f6 Times New Roman;}{\f7 Times New Roman Italic;}{\f8 Times New Roman Italic;}{\f9 Times New Roman;}{\f1000000 Times New Roman;}}{\colortbl;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;\red0\green0\blue0;}\viewkind1\viewscale100\margl0\margr0\margt0\margb0\deftab80\dntblnsbdb\expshrtn\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg1}{\bkmkend Pg1}\par\pard\qj \li1828\sb0\sl-340\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1828\sb0\sl-340\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1828\ri1002\sb219\sl-340\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf3\f4\fs28 Attitudes, Values and Organizational Culture: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Disentangling the Concepts \par\pard\ql \li1838\sb151\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Geet Hofstede \par\pard\ql \li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1838\sb140\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Abstract\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw1688\colsr160\colno2\colw7152\colsr160\ql \li278\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li278\sb55\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\ql \li278\ri328\sb2\sl-180\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Institute for \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Research on \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Intercultural \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Cooperation, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Maastricht and \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Tilburg, the \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Netherlands\par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li283\ri467\sb117\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Organization \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Studies\par\pard\qj \li283\ri611\sb7\sl-177\slmult0\fi23 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 1998. 19/3 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 477-492\par\pard\ql \li283\ri228\sb6\sl-177\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 C 1998 EGOS \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 0170-8406/98 \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 001-0019 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 $3.00\par\pa

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rd\column \qj \li1848\sb0\sl-200\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri733\sb16\sl-200\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Sentiments collected through paper-and-pencil surveys are often arbitrarily classi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 ied according to categories imposed by the researcher, such as attitudes, values, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 and manifestations of organizational culture. The question is, to what extent are \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 such classiications supported by the distinctions that respondents make in their \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 own minds? In this paper, distinctions between categories of sentiments are sup-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ported empirically from the results of an employee survey in a large Danish insur-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 ance company (n = 2,590). The 120 questions used were classiied into attitudes, \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 values, perceptions of organizational practices (for diagnosing organizational cul-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tures), and demographics.\par\pard\qj \li20\ri713\sb0\sl-201\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Perceptions of organizational cultures were measured using an approach developed \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 by the author and his colleagues in an earlier study across 20 Danish and Dutch \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 organizational units. In the insurance company study, employee attitudes were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 found to be clearly distinct from employee values. Perceptions of organizational \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 practices were unrelated to values, and only overlapped with attitudes' where both \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 dealt 'with communication. In the latter case, both can be seen as expressions of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 the organization's communication climate. Other perceptions of organizational \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 practices did not form recognizable clusters at the level of individuals, but only at \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 the level of organizational (sub)units.\par\pard\qj \li1857\sb0\sl-196\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li29\ri733\sb46\sl-196\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Descriptors: \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 attitudes, values, organizational culture, survey methods, organiza-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tional communication, insurance companies\par\pard\ql \li1862\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1862\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li34\sb46\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Introduction: Researchers' and Respondents' Minds\par\pard\qj \li1852\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li24\ri724\sb6\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Survey research tries to collect information about what is on the respon-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 dents' minds, their sentiments or 'mental programmes'. The social science \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 literature (anthropology, economics, political science, psychology, sociol-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 ogy) offers many words for describing mental programmes. A cursory \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 inventory yielded the 51 terms listed on p. 478 (developed from an earlier \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 collection in Hofstede 1981).\par\pard\qj \li24\ri728\sb9\sl-236\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 No two of these terms are exactly synonymous, and many overlap to some \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 extent. Some of the terms mean different things in different (sub)disciplines \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 (e.g. values) and for different authors (e.g. climate); and even if they are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 meant to refer to the same thing, deinitions vary (e.g. culture).\par\pard\qj \li24\ri709\sb1\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Among the ifty terms, some can be applied to the mental programmes of \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 individuals (e.g. personality); some apply only to collectivities (e.g. climate \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and culture). All of them are \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 constructs. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 A construct is 'not directly acces-\par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg2}{\bkmkend Pg2}\par\pard\li835\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li835\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li835\sb145\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2385 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 478\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\li2366\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li2366\sb193\sl-230\slmult0\fi14\tx4564\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 aspirations\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 ideology\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 paradigms\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-2

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30\slmult0\fi14\tx4569\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 attitudes\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 instinct\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex101 perceptions\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi14\tx4564\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 beliefs\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 intentions\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 personality\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi9\tx4569\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 cathexes\tab \dn2 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 interests\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 philosophies\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4560\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 climate\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex102 life style\tab \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex100 preferences\par\pard\li2366\sb14\sl-230\slmult0\fi9\tx4564\tx6748 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 culture\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 models\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 purposes\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4564\tx6748 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 derivations\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 morale\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 residues\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4560\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 desires\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 morals\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 rules\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4560\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 dispositions\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 mores\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 satisfaction\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4564\tx6744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 drives\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 motivation\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 sentiments\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi4\tx4560\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 emotions\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 motives\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 standards\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4555\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ethic\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 myths\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 stereotypes\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4550\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ethos\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 needs\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex101 temperament\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4555\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 expectancies\tab \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 norms\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex125 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 traits\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4550\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 goals\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex101 objectives\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 utilities\par\pard\li2366\sb15\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4545\tx6739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 habits\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex101 obligations\tab \dn2 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 valences\par\pard\li2366\sb10\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx4545\tx6734 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ideas\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex102 opinions\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex100 values\par\pard\ql \li2361\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2361\ri312\sb144\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Bible to observation but inferable from verbal statements and other behav\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 iors and useful in predicting stil other observable and measurable verbal \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and nonverbal behavior' (Levitin 1973: 492). Constructs do not 'exist' in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 an absolute sense; we have deined them into existence. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The basic problem in interpreting survey results is bridging the gap between \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the researcher's and the respondents' minds. If a researcher imposes on the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 data, she analyzes a framework that does not relect distinctions made by \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 respondents. Her conclusions are gratuitous: they tell us something about \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the researcher, but not about the respondents. \par\pard\ql \li2356\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2356\sb19\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Attitudes, Values, and Culture \par\pard\qj \li2356\sb0\sl-237\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2356\ri312\sb28\sl-237\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Three of the constructs most frequently covered by quesionnaires are \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 atti\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 tudes, values, \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 organizational culture. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 One deinition of an attitude is: 'a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object or situation pre\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 disposing one to respond in some preferentialmannee (Rokeach 1972: 112). \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 One deinition of a value is 'a broad tendency to prefer certain states of afairs \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 over others' (Hofstede 1980: 19). One deinition of an orga

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nizational culture \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 is 'the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 of one organization from another' (Hofstede 1991: 262). \par\pard\qj \li2351\ri313\sb1\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The main purpose of this article is to use empirical data for testing to what \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 extent the distinctions in respondents' minds warrant the use of attitudes, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 values and organizational culture as separate constructs, and to what extent \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 these three can be considered to be independent of each other. Based on \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 earlier experience (e.g. Hofstede \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1994: Chapt. 3), I expected to ind that \par\pard\qj \li2356\ri322\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 attitudes and values are diferent and independent constructs. With regard \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 to organizational culture I expected the relationships to be more complex, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 as will be outlined below. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg3}{\bkmkend Pg3}\par\pard\li1747\sb0\sl-241\slmult0\par\pard\li1747\sb179\sl-241\slmult0\fi0\tx7780 \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 479\par\pard\qj \li1761\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1761\ri845\sb100\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Attitudes are the most common component of surveys; they include, but \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 are not limited to, components of job \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 satisfaction. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Virtually all surveys of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 employees in organizations cover attitudes; the 'objects or situations' (see \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 above) covered are different aspects of the job and the work situation, and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 information about attitudes is relatively easy to translate into practical con\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 clusions. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri837\sb0\sl-242\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 The study of values assumes a more basic interest; information about val-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ues does not as a rule lead to immediate practical conclusions. The differ-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ence between values and attitudes is illustrated in the following example: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in an employee survey, 'how satisied are you with your career opportuni-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ties?' is an attitude question, but 'how important is it to you to have career \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 opportunities?' is a value question. \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 Motivation \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 is an assumed mental pro-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 gramme that is often associated with both attitudes and values (in motiva-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tion theory terminology, with 'expectancies' and 'valences', e.g. Vroom \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1964). \par\pard\qj \li1780\ri826\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Whereas attitudes and values can thus be conceptually distinguished in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 researcher's mind, we cannot be sure without further proof that respon\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 dents' answers make the same distinction. In the example mentioned, are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 we sure that opinions on 'how satisied are you with your career opportu\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 nities?' do not inluence or are not inluenced by the value choice of whether \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 career opportunities are important (compared to other objectives)? Only if \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 the two can be proven independent, does adding the second question offer \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 additional information. \par\pard\qj \li1790\ri816\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Organizational, or corporate, culture has been a popular issue in the man-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 agement literature since the early 1980s (e.g. Deal and Kennedy 1982). The \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 concept of 'organizational culture' as that aspect of the organization which \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 is managed was already used by Blake and Mouton (1964: 169), but it only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 became common parlance two decades later. Culture is a characteristic of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 the organization, \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 not of individuals, \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 but it is manifested in and measured \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 from the verbal and/or nonverbal behaviour of individuals \u8212? aggregated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex1

Page 5: Attitudes Values and Organizational Culture

05 to the level of their organizational unit. Traditionally, organizational cul-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 ture has mostly been studied by case-study description, often involving par-\line \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ticipant observation \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 (e.g. Hofstede \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 1994: Chapt. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 1). These methods can \par\pard\qj \li1795\ri830\sb19\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 provide profound insight, but they are subjective and not reliable in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 sense of different researchers necessarily arriving at the same conclusions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 (Hofstede 1991: 249-250). \par\pard\qj \li1795\ri816\sb2\sl-238\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Questionnaires claiming to study organizational culture are sometimes little \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 more than employee attitude surveys. Ouchi and Wilkins (1988: 236) con\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 clude that `... the use of survey methodology is seen by many current schol\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ars of culture as being too much the product of the social scientist's rather \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 than the participant's point of view and therefore inappropriate as a method \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 for measuring culture'. However, Ouchi and Wilkins \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 (Op.Cit.: \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 244) also \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 give the opposite argument: Although rarely written in journal articles, it is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 often said by those who are statistically inclined that organizational culture \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 has become the refuge of the untrained and the incompetent ...' A prudent \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 middle way is to say that organizational culture should neither be studied \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 solely \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 by case studies nor solely by questionnaires. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg4}{\bkmkend Pg4}\par\pard\li830\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li830\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li830\sb191\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2380 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 480\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2380\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2380\ri314\sb69\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 In order to relect the respondents' points of view, questionnaire approaches \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 to the study of organizational culture should be clear about what they are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 supposed to measure. They should also be analyzed at the level of organi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 zational units and not of individuals. This is a dificulty for many psycho-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 logically (rather than sociologically) trained researchers; authors have often \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 tried to demonstrate the reliability of instruments for measuring culture on \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 the basis of correlations between scores for individuals, whereas, in actual \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex123 fact, it can only be proven on the level of aggregate scores for cultural \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 units. \par\pard\ql \li2376\sb0\sl-207\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2376\sb201\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 National Cultures and Dimensions of Values \par\pard\ql \li2366\ri309\sb126\sl-240\slmult0\fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 In the past decades I have been involved with two subsequent large research \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 projects on culture, one into cross-national differences in mental programmes \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 within the same multinational corporation and one into cross-organizational \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 diferences in mental programmes within the same countries. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 The research into cross-national differences used an existing data bank of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 employee surveys in the IBM Corporation. The available questions, from \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 more than 100,000 questionnaires, dealt with attitudes and values. The latter \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 included statements about general beliefs, such as 'competition between \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 employees usually does more harm than good, agree/disagree', which were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 statistically indistinguishable from values. Consistent differences between \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 matched groups of employees from diferent countries were found for the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 value scores, not for the attitude scores. Correlation- and factor analyses \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 were performe

Page 6: Attitudes Values and Organizational Culture

d on the country mean scores on 32 value questions from 40 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 countries. Analyses based on group mean scores are called \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 ecological analy\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 ses. \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Ecological factor analyses are of necessity characterized by lat matri\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 ces, that is, few cases compared to the number of variables; often fewer cases \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 than variables. Textbooks on factor analysis require that the number of cases \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 should be much larger than the number of variables, but for ecological fac\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 tor analysis this constraint does not apply. The stability of the factor struc\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 ture for ecological matrices does not depend on the number of aggregate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 cases but on the number of independent individuals who contributed to the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 cases: in the cross-national study, not 40 but over 40,000. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 The ecological correlation- and factor analyses showed four dimensions of \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex114 national value differences (Hofstede \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 1980): \par\pard\ql \li2404\sb48\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 I. large vs. small power distance \par\pard\ql \li2380\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 2. strong vs. weak uncertainty avoidance \par\pard\ql \li2380\sb13\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 3. individualism vs. collectivism \par\pard\ql \li2371\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 4. masculinity vs. femininity. \par\pard\qj \li2371\ri328\sb43\sl-220\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Subsequent research by Bond et \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 al. (The Chinese Culture Connection, \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 1987) \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 on country mean scores of the answers of students from 23 countries on \par\pard\qj \li2371\ri323\sb4\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 40 questions from a Chinese Value Survey led to the addition of a ifth \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 dimension: \par\pard\ql \li2380\sb8\sl-207\slmult0\tx5337 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex113 5. long- vs. short-term orientation \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (Hofstede 1991: Chapt. 7). \par\pard\qj \li2376\ri328\sb26\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 This approach to the study of national cultures has been a true paradigm \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 shift from earlier approaches. Initial reactions varied from enthusiastic (e.g. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg5}{\bkmkend Pg5}\par\pard\li1751\sb0\sl-241\slmult0\par\pard\li1751\sb139\sl-241\slmult0\fi0\tx7795 \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 481\par\pard\qj \li1766\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1766\ri854\sb137\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Eysenck 1981; Triandis 1982; Sorge 1983) to condescending (e.g. Roberts \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and Boyacigiller 1984) or ridiculizing (e.g. Cooper \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 1982). The reactions \par\pard\qj \li1771\ri840\sb21\sl-243\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 followed strikingly closely the pattern described for paradigm shifts in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 physical sciences by Kuhn (1970). Since the later 1980s the idea of dimen\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 sions of national cultures has become part of what Kuhn called 'normal \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 science'; the four or ive dimensions I introduced have become part of most \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 international management textbooks, and the approach has also found its imi\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tators. An overview of standard criticisms and my position on these is found \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 in Harzing and Hofstede (1996). The ive usual criticisms are: \par\pard\qj \li1785\ri855\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi24 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1. Surveys are not a suitable way to measure cultural diferences (answer: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 they should not be the only way). \par\pard\qj \li1785\ri840\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 2. Nations are not the proper units for studying cultures (answer: they are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 usually the only kind of units available for comparison). \par\pard\qj \li1790\ri835\sb0\sl-246\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 3. A study of the subsidiaries of one company cannot provide information \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 about entire national cultures (answer: what was measured were \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 dferences \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 among \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 national cultures

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. Any set of functionally equivalent samples can \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 supply information about such differences). \par\pard\qj \li1790\ri830\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 4. The IBM data are old and therefore obsolete (answer: the dimensions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 found are assumed to have centuries-old roots; they have been validated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 against all kinds of extenal measurements; recent replications show no loss \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 of validity). \par\pard\qj \li1804\ri826\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 5. Four or ive dimensions are not enough (answer: additional dimensions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 should be statistically independent of the dimensions deined earlier; they \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 should be valid on the basis of correlations with external measures; candi\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 dates are welcome to apply). \par\pard\ql \li1804\ri812\sb0\sl-242\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Evaluations of the implications of the theory have recently been published \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 for psychology in Smith and Bond (1993); for organization sociology in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Hickson and Pugh (1995); for anthropology in Chapman (1997). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 In a recent version of the research instrument (IRIC 1994), each of the ive \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 dimensions is measured by four survey questions that are intercorrelated at \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the country level. Psychologists sometimes have dificulty in understanding \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 that these questions do not necessarily correlate at the individual level. They \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 are meant to be a test of national culture, not of individual personality; they \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 distinguish cultural groups or populations, not individuals. \par\pard\ql \li1819\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1819\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1819\sb22\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Organizational Cultures and Dimensions of Practices \par\pard\qj \li1814\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1814\ri806\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 The research project into cross-organizational differences within the same \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 countries (Hofstede et al. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1990) surveyed employees and managers from \par\pard\qj \li1819\ri801\sb4\sl-236\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 20 work units in Denmark and the Netherlands. It attempted to cover a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 wide range of different work organizations, making it possible to assess \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 the relative weight of similarities and differences within the range of cul-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ture differences that can be found in practice. The 20 units to which access \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 was obtained were from three broad kinds of organizations: (1) private com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 panies manufacturing electronics, chemicals, or consumer goods (six total \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 divisions or production units, three head ofice or marketing units, and two \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg6}{\bkmkend Pg6}\par\pard\li859\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li859\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li859\sb177\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2409 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 482\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2414\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2414\ri285\sb63\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 research and development units); (2) ive units from private service com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 panies (banking, transport, trade); and (3) four units from public institu-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 tions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 (telecommunications, police). Unit sizes varied from \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex123 60 to 2,500 \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri290\sb0\sl-246\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 persons. Twenty units was a small enough number to allow studying each \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 unit in depth, qualitatively, as \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 a \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 separate case study. At the same time, it \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 was large enough to permit the statistical analysis of comparative quanti\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 tative data across all cases. \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 Extensive open interviews (nine per unit, a total of 180 interviews) con-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 tributed to (1) a qualitative picture of each unit's culture as a whole, and \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri290\sb0\sl-240\slmult

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0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 (2) the design of a questionnaire for the quantitative phase of the project. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 This included the 32 values and beliefs questions for which cross-national \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 diferences had been found, plus about \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 100 new questions. Some of the \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri290\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 new questions also dealt with values; 54 new questions dealt with percep\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 tions of the practices in the respondents' work unit. These were formulated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 in a format shown by the following examples: \par\pard\ql \li2423\sb143\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 'Where I work: \par\pard\li2409\sb47\sl-207\slmult0\fi4\tx6215 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 * Meeting times are\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Meeting times are\par\pard\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi115\tx4814\tx4958\tx6211 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 kept very punctually\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 2 3 4 5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 only kept approximately\par\pard\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx6211 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 * Quanity prevails\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Quality prevails\par\pard\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi115\tx4819\tx4963\tx6215 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 over quality\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 I\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 2 3 4 5\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 over quantity'\par\pard\qj \li2409\ri295\sb112\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Which statement was put on the left side and which on the right was deter\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 mined at random, to avoid acquiescence bias. \par\pard\qj \li2400\ri289\sb20\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 The questionnaires were answered by a strictly random sample from each \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 of the 20 organizational units, consisting of (about) 20 managers, 20 non\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 managerial professionals, and 20 non-professional employees per unit. The \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 number 20 thus played an important role in the design of the study; it is \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 the minimum sample size that allows statistical conclusions of suficient \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 reliability. A total of 1,295 respondents provided answers to 131 questions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 each. The analysis, however, was based on \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 mean scores \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 (weighted across \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 the three occupational groups) for the 20 organizational units, not on the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 1,295 individual scores. \par\pard\qj \li2400\ri275\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 The values questions that had diferentiated so much across countries, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 showed much smaller score diferences across organizational units. What \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 did diferentiate the strongest across units were the practices questions. This \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 led to the conclusion that cultural diferences between matched samples of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 respondents from different countries are primarily a matter of values, while \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 cultural diferences between matched samples of respondents from difer\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 ent organizations within the same country are primarily a matter of \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 prac\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 tices, \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 as perceived by the respondents. \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 Practices are relections of symbols, heroes and rituals that are speciic to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 one culture as opposed to others; they are the visible part of cultures, while \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 values represent the invisible part. Practices are less basic than values, and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 are amenable to planned change; values do change, but according to their \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 own logic, not according to anyone's plans. \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb17\sl-220\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 Our indings about the central role of practices in organizational culture \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 contrast with the common belief in the management literature (e.g. Peters \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg7}{\bkmkend Pg7}\par\pard\li1747\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li1747\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li1747\sb58\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx7785 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 483\par\pard\qj \li1761\sb0\sl-241\slmult0 \par\pard

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\qj\li1761\ri871\sb40\sl-241\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 and Waterman 1982) \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 that shared values \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 are the core of an organization's \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 culture. The disagreement can be understood from the fact that the man\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 agement literature nearly always draws its information about company \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 values from managers, even top managers. We surveyed samples of the total \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 populations, as we believe that an organization's culture is located in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 mental programmes of \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 all \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 members of the organization. There is little doubt \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 that practices are designed according to the values of the founders and, in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 later phases, of signiicant top managers of the organization in question, but \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 this does not mean that all members of the organization share these values. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 A work organization is not a total institution. Members have to follow the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 practices if they want to remain members, but they do not have to confess \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 to the values. Leaders' values become followers' practices. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri875\sb0\sl-245\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 A cross-organizational factor analysis with orthogonal rotation (an ecolog\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 ical factor analysis, based on the mean scores for each question) produced \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 six clear and mutually independent dimensions of (perceived) practices \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 distinguishing the twenty organizational units from each other. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 The \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 six \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 dimensions were labelled: \par\pard\ql \li1795\sb23\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 1. process oriented vs. results oriented \par\pard\ql \li1776\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 2. employee oriented vs. job oriented \par\pard\ql \li1780\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 3. parochial vs. professional \par\pard\ql \li1771\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 4. open system vs. closed system \par\pard\ql \li1776\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 5. loose vs. tight control \par\pard\ql \li1776\sb33\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 6. normative vs. pragmatic \par\pard\ql \li1771\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\tldot\tx6753 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 For each of the six dimensions, three key 'where I work\expndtw0\charscalex100\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 ' questions were \par\pard\ql \li1776\ri865\sb6\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 chosen, in order to calculate an index value of each unit on each dimension. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 The key questions for each dimension were strongly intercorrelated at the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 unit level, but not necessarily at the level of individual responses. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Dimension \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 1 explores the differences between a concen with means and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 a concern with goals. The three key items show that, in the process-oriented \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 cultures, people perceive themselves as avoiding risks and spending only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 a limited effort on their jobs, while each day is pretty much the same. In \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 the results-oriented cultures, people perceive themselves as being comfort\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 able in unfamiliar situations and putting in a maximal efort, while each \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 day is felt to bring new challenges. \par\pard\qj \li1761\ri851\sb23\sl-237\slmult0\fi19 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 Dimension 2 explores the diferences between a concen for people and a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 concern for getting the job done. The key items selected show that, in the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 employee-oriented cultures, people feel that their personal problems are taken \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 into account, that the organization takes a responsibility for employee wel\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 fare, and that important decisions tend to be made by groups or committees. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 In the job-oriented units, people experience a strong pressure for getting the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 job done. They perceive the organization as only being interested in the work \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 employees do, not in their personal and family welfare; and they report that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 important decisions tend to be made b

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y individuals. \par\pard\qj \li1776\ri856\sb27\sl-233\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 Dimension 3 compares and contrasts units whose employees derive their \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 identity largely from the organization with units in which people identify \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 with their type of job. The key questions show that members of parochial \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 cultures feel that the organization's norms cover their behaviour at home \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg8}{\bkmkend Pg8}\par\pard\li888\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li888\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li888\sb97\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2438 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 484\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2438\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2438\ri251\sb74\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 as well as on the job. They feel that in hiring employees, the company \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 takes their social and family background into account as much as their job \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 competence; and they do not look far into the future (they assume the orga\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 nization will do this for them). Members of professional cultures, however. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex123 consider their private lives to be their own business. They feel that the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 organization hires on the basis of job competence only. and they do think \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 far ahead. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ri256\sb0\sl-242\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 Dimension 4 looks at the differences between open and closed systems. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 The key items show that in the open-system units members consider both \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 the organization and its people to be open to newcomers and outsiders: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 almost anyone would it into the organization. and new employees need \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 only a few days to feel at home. In the closed-system units, the organiza\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 tion and its people are felt to be closed and secretive, even in the opinion \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex124 of insiders. Only very special people it into the organization, and new \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 employees need more than a year to feel at home. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ri252\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Dimension 5 looks at the amount of internal structuring in the organization. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 According to the key questions, people in 'loose control' units feel that no \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 one thinks of cost. meeting times are only kept approximately. and jokes \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 about the company and the job are frequent. People in 'tight control' units \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 describe their work environment as cost-conscious, meeting times are kept \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 punctually, and jokes about the company and/or the job are rare. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ri261\sb0\sl-242\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 Dimension 6, inally, deals with the popular notion of 'customer orienta\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 tion'. Pragmatic units are market-driven; normative units perceive their task \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 towards the outside world as the implementation of inviolable rules. The \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 key items show that, in the normative units, the major emphasis is on cor\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 rectly following organizational procedures, which are more important than \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 results; in matters of business ethics and honesty, the unit's standards are \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 felt to be high. In the pragmatic units, there is a major emphasis on meet\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 ing the customer's needs, results are more important than correct proce\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 dures. and in matters of business ethics, a pragmatic rather than a dogmatic \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 attitude prevails. \par\pard\qj \li2438\ri261\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 In a later study, perceptions of practices were also analyzed at the indi-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 vidual level, after elimination of the unit differences. The individual dif-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex129 ferences in answers were shown to relect differences in individual \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 personality according to the 'big five' dimensions of personality (Hofstede \par\pard\li2433\sb39\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2956\tx3033 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 et al.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 993).\par\pard\qj \li2433\ri261\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \ex

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pndtw0\charscalex113 What had not yet been studied was: To what extent do perceptions of prac\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 tices also relect attitudes, and can attitudes and perceptions of practices \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 really \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 be \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 handled as independent constructs? The present article will pro\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 vide empirical evidence on the relationships between measured attitudes. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 values. and perceptions of practices in a large questionnaire survey. in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 which, exceptionally, all three types of questions were included. \par\pard\qj \li2433\ri256\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 As stated earlier, attitudes and values were expected to show up as differ-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 ent and independent concepts. For conceptual reasons, I \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 expected \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 percep-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 tions of practices to be entirely different from values, and usually also \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 different from attitudes. This is because attitudes and practices are speciic \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 to actual situations. while values are abstract preferences. Attitudes and \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg9}{\bkmkend Pg9}\par\pard\li1703\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1703\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1703\sb51\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7742 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 485\par\pard\qj \li1718\sb0\sl-245\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1718\ri898\sb11\sl-245\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 values are, by deinition, evaluative (they have a positive and a negative \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 pole), while perceptions of practices are supposed to be descriptive. As \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 it is not always possible to suppress afect when describing something, I \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 was prepared to ind perceptions of practices showing some overlap with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 attitudes. \par\pard\ql \li1728\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1728\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1728\sb28\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Culture or Climate? \par\pard\qj \li1732\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1732\ri889\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Questionnaire approaches to the study of organizational culture are often indis\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tinguishable from studies of organizational \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 climate. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Historically, the concept \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 of climate preceded that of culture, with important publications on climate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 dating from the 1960s and 70s. In an authoritative monograph, Litwin and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Stringer (1968:1) deined `organizational climate' as follows: \par\pard\qj \li1737\ri899\sb134\sl-200\slmult0\fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 '... the term organizational climate refers to a set of measurable properties of the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 work environment, perceived directly or indirectly by the people who live and work \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 in this environment and assumed to inluence their motivation and behavior'. \par\pard\ql \li1742\sb175\sl-207\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 And later (p. 5): \par\pard\qj \li1747\ri899\sb159\sl-200\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The concept of climate provides a useful bridge between theories of individual moti\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 vation and behavior, on one hand, and organizational theories, on the other.' \par\pard\qj \li1742\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1742\ri869\sb27\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 The concept of climate thus links the individual and the organizational \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 level. However, although climate studies, like culture studies, have been \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 criticized for being little else than studies of job satisfaction (Johannesson \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1973), Schneider and Snyder (1975: 327) showed empirically that climate \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 measures that are designed to relect organizational/descriptive rather \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 than individual/evaluative diferences difer from satisfaction measures. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Nevertheless, the term climate does have an evaluative connotation. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Climates are better or worse, wholesome or insalubrious, so it should be \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 no surprise if climate measures are found to overlap with satisfaction \up0 \expndtw

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-2\charscalex100 measures. \par\pard\ql \li1756\sb9\sl-230\slmult0\tx4560\tx5227\tx6864 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 In a review essay, Schneider \tab \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 (1975: \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 472) argues that \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 `organizational \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri860\sb0\sl-244\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 climate' is too general a research area, and that any number of kinds \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 of climates may be identiied depending upon the criterion of interest. \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 One of these that has retained the attention of researchers. even after the word \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 `culture' became popular, is the communication \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 climate. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Poole (1985: 80) \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 found that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 factor-analytic studies of climate have consistently isolated \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 independent dimensions directly related to communication processes'. \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri855\sb2\sl-236\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The question remains as to what, exactly, the difference is between the ear\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 lier concept of climate and the later concept of culture. In some studies, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 there is none. Gordon and Ditomaso (1992), for example, relate organiza\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 tional culture to corporate inancial performance and measure the former \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 using a `Survey of Management Climate' which was designed before the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 term 'culture' became fashionable. \par\pard\qj \li1761\ri864\sb1\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 However, the literature cited above reveals a number of substantial \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 differences: \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg10}{\bkmkend Pg10}\par\pard\li864\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li864\sb0\sl-207\slmult0\par\pard\li864\sb205\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx2414 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 486\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2419\sb0\sl-220\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2419\ri280\sb112\sl-220\slmult0\tx2616 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 \u8226? Climate derives from sociology, culture from anthropology, and this \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 afects the methods by which they are studied; \par\pard\qj \li2419\ri270\sb24\sl-240\slmult0\tx2611 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 \u8226? Climate is more closely linked with individual motivation and behaviour \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 than culture, which resides entirely at the organizational level; \par\pard\qj \li2419\ri285\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx2616\tx2611 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \u8226? Climate has an evaluative connotation and partly overlaps with satisfac-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 tion; cultures can be diferent without one being objectively better than \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 the other. Peters and Waterman's (1982) claim that strong cultures are \par\pard\qj \li2606\ri280\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 better than others has been suficiently refuted (e.g. Soeters 1986). Strong \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 cultures, in the sense of cohesive cultures which impose extensive and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 immutable mental programming, are, for that same reason, dificult to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 change and are likely to adapt less well to changing circumstances than \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 weaker ones. \par\pard\ql \li2414\sb28\sl-207\slmult0\tx7641\tx7708 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \u8226? Climate can fruitfully be seen as a sub-set of culture (Poole \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1 \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 985: 84). \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri285\sb3\sl-244\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Moran and Volkwein (1992), commenting on our Danish\u8212?Dutch organiza\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 tional culture study, aptly conclude that our focus on practices means an \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 overlap between the organizational culture and organizational climate con\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 structs. The diference between practices and climate, as we see it, is that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 practices can be purely descriptive, while climate, as argued above, has an \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 evaluative connotation. \par\pard\ql \li2414\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2414\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2414\sb28\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Research Method \par\pard\ql \li2404\ri281\sb239\sl-244\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 \ul0\nosupersub\cf5\f6\fs18 Access was ob

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tained to the results of an employee survey held in a large \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 Danish insurance company (3,400 employees) in 1988. The insurance indus\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 try seems to be an attractive ield for climate and culture research. Other \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 studies of insurance companies were e.g. reported in Schneider and Snyder \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 (1975), Morgan (1986:121) and Gordon and Ditomaso (1992). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 The Danish survey met three objectives: \par\pard\li2409\sb29\sl-207\slmult0\fi23\tx2649 \up0 \expndtw-8\charscalex89 1.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Periodic measurement of employee attitudes, following an earlier sur-\par\pard\li2409\sb33\sl-207\slmult0\fi0\tx3033 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 vey in\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 1983 and a sample mini survey in 1986;\par\pard\qj \li2409\ri295\sb4\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 2. A diagnosis of the corporate culture and its sub-cultures, allowing a corn\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex121 parison with the results of the organizational culture study across nine \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 (other) Danish and eleven Dutch organizational units described above. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 which had just been inished; \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri275\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 3. A study of forces driving and restraining the access of women to higher \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 positions in the corporation. The share of female employees had recently \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 passed the 50 percent mark, but the top ifty management positions were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 only occupied by males. A committee of female employees had pressed the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 management to address the issue of careers for women in the survey, and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 had acted as a support group in the design of the questionnaire. \par\pard\qj \li2404\ri285\sb17\sl-220\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 The survey was carried out by company staf with professional support \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 from the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 (IRIC) at \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri271\sb4\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Maastricht, the Netherlands. Prior to the composition of the questionnaire, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Danish IRIC collaborators held open-ended interviews with a selection of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex117 informants from all levels \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 (including the General Manager) and depart-\par\pard\ql \li2414\sb8\sl-207\slmult0\tx7646\tx8015\tx8544\tx8625 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex120 ments of the company: a total of 24 interviews were held \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (I I \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 men. \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 1 \tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 3 \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg11}{\bkmkend Pg11}\par\pard\li1732\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1732\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li1732\sb3\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx7771 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 487\par\pard\qj \li1747\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1747\ri874\sb28\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 women). The interview results were used for determining which issues were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 relevant for inclusion in the survey questionnaire. \par\pard\qj \li1742\ri874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 The survey questionnaire, in Danish, consisted of 120 questions, divided \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 as follows: \par\pard\qj \li1751\ri874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\tx1953 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8226? \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 50 questions about attitudes, for example: \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 'how satisied are you with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 the use of your skills in your job?' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 (5-point scale from 'very dissatis-\par\pard\qj \li1953\ri874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 ied' to 'very satisied'). Some of these were exact copies of questions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 used in the company's previous attitude survey rounds, in order to mea\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 sure trends over time. \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri869\sb20\sl-240\slmult0\tx1953 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8226? \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 29 questions about values, for example \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 'how important is it to you \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 use your skills in your job?' (5-point scale from 'of utmost importance' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 to 'not important'). Most of these had been used in

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the earlier cross-\par\pard\qj \li1953\ri874\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 national and cross-organizational research projects, but some value-laden \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 beliefs were added in view of the survey's focus on careers for women, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 e.g. 'In general, women are not interested in taking a management role' \par\pard\ql \li1958\sb9\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 (5-point scale from 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree'). \par\pard\qj \li1761\ri869\sb2\sl-240\slmult0\tx1958 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8226? \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 31 questions about practices, in the 'where I work' format shown above. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 These included the \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex90 18 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 (6 x 3) key questions used for scoring the six \par\pard\ql \li1756\ri863\sb0\sl-241\slmult0\fi196\tx1963\tx1963\tx1963 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 dimensions of organizational culture in IRIC's earlier cross-organiza-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 tional research project in Denmark and the Netherlands. \line \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 \u8226? \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 10 questions about demographics (gender, married or living together vs. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 single, children under 15 at home, age group, education level, position \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 level in company, length of service in company, same in present depart-\line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 ment, full time vs. part-time employment, gender of boss). \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 The questionnaire was completed during working hours and returned \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 anonymously by 2,590 employees, a 76 percent response rate. In the 1983 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 survey, only a 70 percent response rate had been attained, in spite of a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 much shorter questionnaire (40 items). The reason for the better response \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 in \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 1988 was that the 1983 questionnaire had been composed from a man\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 agement point of view only, and many issues relevant to \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 employees \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 had \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 not been included at all. \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri845\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The answers on the organization culture (practices) questions were not only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 studied for the total company, but also separately for 131 work groups of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 between 8 and 54 members. A cluster analysis of the work group cultures \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 showed three large sub-cultures in the company: a professional, an admin\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 istrative and a customer interface sub-culture. This analysis is being \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 reported elsewhere (Hofstede 1998). \par\pard\ql \li1766\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1766\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1766\sb29\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 Results \par\pard\qj \li1756\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1756\ri845\sb2\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 The total response matrix (120 variables, 2,590 cases) was factor analyzed, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 using a principal components programme on SPSS. Thirty-three factors \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 produced eigenvalues over 1.0, but a scree analysis showed that only seven \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 factors made a substantial contribution, together explaining 29.9 percent of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 the total variance. The factor loadings are shown in Table 1. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg12}{\bkmkend Pg12}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw4140\colsr160\colno2\colw4700\colsr160\ql \li849\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li854\sb107\sl-230\slmult0\tx2399 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 488\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li849\sb42\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Table I\par\pard\qj \li854\ri309\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx2409\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Results of a\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Loading\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Type* \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Factor Analysis of\par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 an Employee\par\pard\ql \li854\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx2399\tx3364 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Survey in a\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 -.55\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li854\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\tx2399\tx3364 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Danish Insurance\ta

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b \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.54\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li849\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\tx2399\tx3364 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Company (120\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 -.53\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li849\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\tx2495\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 questions; 2.590\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 .47\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li854\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\tx2495\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 respondents)\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 .47\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2500\sb0\sl-144\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2500\sb1\sl-179\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 .43\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li2500\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 .42\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .42\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb4\sl-184\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 -.41\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-170\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .40\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb7\sl-177\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .39\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb6\sl-184\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .38\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .38 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2404\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 -.37\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb0\sl-177\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .37 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 P\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .36\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2496\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .36\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 P\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3359 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 P\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2491\sb170\sl-184\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .72\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .71\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .69\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .64\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .61\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb2\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .61\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .51\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .48\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .45\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .42 \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb3\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .41\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 A\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2491\sb170\sl-184\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .69\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb3\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .65\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .63\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-171\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .59\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb2\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .58\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb2\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .54\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2486\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .48\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .46\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .42 \up0 \ex

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pndtw-2\charscalex100 (2)\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .41\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2491\sb166\sl-184\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .66\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 -.62\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-178\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 .55\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex90 .51\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .50\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb1\sl-178\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-3\charscalex100 .49\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.48\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex91 V\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb1\sl-171\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 -.46\tab \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex96 V\par\pard\ql \li2491\sb3\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 D\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 -.43\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2395\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx3350 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 -.41\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\par\pard\ql \li2400\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\tx3355 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.36\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 P\par\pard\column \ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li30\sb58\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Question Content\par\pard\ql \li4300\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li30\ri1462\sb9\sl-180\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Factor 1: Communication Climate \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Attention paid to physical working condiions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Company and people open to outsiders \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 No competition between departments \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Company customer oriented\par\pard\ql \li30\ri2202\sb3\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Good cooperation between units \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Good physical working conditions \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Everybody supplies maximal effort \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Good cooperation between sectors\par\pard\qj \li30\ri1309\sb3\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Good cooperation head ofice vs other locations \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Changes after consultation with those involved \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Good cooperation inside own unit\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1237\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Enough information on other parts of company \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 No groups of employees looking down on others \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Organization changes suficiently prepared\par\pard\qj \li30\ri1587\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Aware of competition with other companies \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Employees told about good performance\par\pard\ql \li25\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 OVERALL SATISFACTION\par\pard\ql \li30\ri2845\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Suficient information \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Everybody cost-conscious\par\pard\ql \li25\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Meeting times kept very punctually\par\pard\qj \li4300\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li30\ri1654\sb11\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Factor 2: Attitudes about Work Content \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Right amount of responsibility\par\pard\qj \li25\ri3421\sb2\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Able to use skills \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Challenging tasks\par\pard\ql \li30\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Right amount of inluence\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1631\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Right amount of deinition of responsibility \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Right amount of freedom in job\par\pard\ql \li25\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Work not boring\par\pard\ql \li20\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 OVERALL SATISFACTION\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1789\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Enough opportunities for further learning \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Enough job security\par\pard\ql \li25\sb2\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Enough opportunity to help others\par\pard\qj \li43

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00\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li25\ri1847\sb10\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Factor 3: Values about Work Context \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance job security\par\pard\ql \li25\ri1875\sb4\sl-179\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Importance clearly deined job \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance physical working conditions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance opportunity to help others \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Importance cooperation\par\pard\qj \li25\ri2308\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance relationship with boss \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance living area\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1828\sb0\sl-183\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Dislikes competition between employees \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Female\par\pard\ql \li25\sb1\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Lower education\par\pard\qj \li20\ri2879\sb174\sl-182\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 Factor 4: Gender Issues \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Older\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1578\sb0\sl-175\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 In marriage. the man's career should prevail \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Long service with company\par\pard\ql \li20\ri1280\sb0\sl-179\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Genders are not equally suited for leadership \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Wants to spend rest of career with this company \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Male\par\pard\qj \li25\ri1765\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Work is more important than leisure time \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Prefers to work for a male boss\par\pard\ql \li25\ri1482\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Long service in present department \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Women generally not interested in mgmt role \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Proud of working for this company \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 We are always correctly dressed \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg13}{\bkmkend Pg13}\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li196\sb27\sl-230\slmult0\fi1564\tx7804 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 489\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li196\sb6\sl-184\slmult0\fi0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Table I\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi9\tx1776\tx2731\tx3696 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Continued\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Loading\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Type*\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Question Content\par\pard\li196\sb134\sl-184\slmult0\fi3499 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Factor 5: Attitudes about Direct Boss\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\tx3700 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.75\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Boss helps us ahead\par\pard\li196\sb4\sl-184\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\tx3700 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.73\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Boss creates conidence\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi1670\tx2736\tx3700 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .72\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Satisied with boss' leadership style\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 -.70\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Boss gets results\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi1574\tx2740\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 -.66\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Boss acts visibly\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\fi1579\tx2740\tx3710 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 -.63\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Boss makes decisions\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi1675\tx2740\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-7\charscalex93 .41\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 People are told when they have done a good job\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .36\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 My boss rates my performance as good\par\pard\li196\sb176\sl-184\slmult0\fi3508 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Factor 6: Attitudes towards Work Pressures\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .60\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Not under pressure\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .59\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 No conlicts between work and private life\par\pard\li196\

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sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .55\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Would like to have more work\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 A8\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 No interruptions disturbing work\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 Suficient time for private life\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi1675\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Not nervous or tense\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1679\tx2745\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .44\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Enough job security\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3705 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .39\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 No organization changes without preparation\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3710 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .38\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Employees' personal problems taken into account\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi1679\tx2745\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .36\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 A\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 No time wasted on correcting mistakes\par\pard\li196\sb181\sl-184\slmult0\fi3513 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Factor 7: Values about Work Content\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .72\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Importance variety and adventure\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .69\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance challenging work\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .68\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Importance use of skills\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-182\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .67\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance career opportunities\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 .54\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Interested in training for career\par\pard\li196\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .45\tab \up0 \expndtw-5\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Importance earnings\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi1679\tx2750\tx3715 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 .43\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Importance freedom in job\par\pard\li196\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi1584\tx2750\tx3710 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 -.40\tab \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 V\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Wants to be manager rather than specialist\par\pard\ql \li1790\sb165\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 All loadings over .35 are shown. Signs of loadings depend on the wording of the \par\pard\ql \li1785\sb16\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 question. Question content has been worded taking the sign of the loading into account. \par\pard\ql \li1795\sb56\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 *Types of questions: A = attitudes; V = values; P = practices; D = demographics \par\pard\qj \li1785\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1785\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1785\ri831\sb170\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 The seven factors, ater an orthogonal rotation, could be interpreted as \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 follows: \par\pard\qj \li1785\ri826\sb23\sl-237\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 Factor 1: Attitudes and practices related to communication and coopera\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tion. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for 20 items, 11 classiied as 'attitudes' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 and nine as 'practices'. An example of an attitude is: satisfaction with coop\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 eration between work units within the same department. An example of a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 practice is: company and people open and transparent to newcomers and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 outsiders, vs. closed and secretive, even among insiders. Included in the 20 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 items is a .36 loading for 'overall satisfaction'. I have labelled this factor \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 `communication climate'. \par\pard\ql \li1785\sb29\sl-230\slmult0 \u

Page 19: Attitudes Values and Organizational Culture

p0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 Factor 2: Attitudes about work content. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for \par\pard\qj \li1785\ri831\sb6\sl-235\slmult0\fi28 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 11 items, all of them classiied as attitudes. An example is: satisfaction with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 the amount of responsibility delegated to the respondent. Included is a \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 .48 loading for 'overall satisfaction', which is thus primarily related to \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 satisfaction with work content, and secondarily to satisfaction with com\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 munication. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg14}{\bkmkend Pg14}\par\pard\li873\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li873\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li873\sb131\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2423 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 490\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\ql \li2428\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2428\sb78\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 3: Values about work context. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for \par\pard\qj \li2423\ri255\sb2\sl-240\slmult0\fi28 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 10 items; the top seven were all 'how important' questions (security, clearly \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 deined job, physical working conditions, opportunity to help others, co\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 operation, relationship with boss, living area). Also included were \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 a \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 .42 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 loading for gender (being female) and a .41 loading for (lower) education, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 showing that the work context was more important for women and for those \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 in simple jobs (these two categories showed considerable overlap in this \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 company). \par\pard\qj \li2423\ri255\sb20\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 4: Gender issues. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for 12 items, includ\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 ing all value questions about careers for women, e.g. 'In marriage or part\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 nership, the man's career should prevail'. The more traditional views were \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 associated with the folowing demographics: being older (a .66 loading), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 having longer service, and being male (a .49 loading). \par\pard\qj \li2414\ri254\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 5: Attitudes about the direct boss. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for eight items, seven of them attitudes explicitly related to the direct boss. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 The large number of items on this subject was due to the carryover of ques\up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 tions from the 1983 survey. \par\pard\qj \li2419\ri254\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 6: Attitudes towards work pressures. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 10 attitude items, all of them related to pressures and conlicts at \up0 \expndtw-2\charscalex100 work. \par\pard\ql \li2414\ri255\sb0\sl-245\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf6\f7\fs18 Factor 7: Values about work content. \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 Loadings over .35 were found for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 eight items; six of them were 'how important' questions. No demographics \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 were associated with this factor, which shows that gender, for example, was \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 unrelated to values about the importance of the work content. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Not associated (over .35) with any of these factors were 46 questions: \up0 \expndtw-9\charscalex93 14 \par\pard\qj \li2414\ri264\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 out of the 50 attitudes, six out of the 29 values, 21 out of the 31 practices, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 and ive out of the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 10 demographics. These would obviously have been \par\pard\qj \li2414\ri264\sb0\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 included in additional factors, had we decided to retain these; but they \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 would not have formed meaningful clusters. One of the unassociated ques\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tions is 'how satisied are you with your career opportuniies?': it shows \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 only a .26 loading on Factor 2. \par\pard\ql \li2419\sb0\sl-

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230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2419\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li2419\sb45\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 Discussion \par\pard\qj \li2409\sb0\sl-236\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2409\ri264\sb10\sl-236\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 The factor analysis showed that questions about attitudes and those about \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 values loaded systematically on diferent factors. For attitudes, we ind \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Factors 1, 2, 5 and 6 (communication, work content, the direct boss, and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 work pressures); for values, Factors 3, 4 and 7 (work context, gender issues \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 and work content). Attitudes (how one feels about a situation) and values \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 (what state of affairs one would prefer) are diferent constructs, not only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 in the minds of researchers but also in those of respondents. \par\pard\qj \li2409\ri250\sb5\sl-235\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 The practices questions did not behave well in the factor analysis. Out of \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the 31 questions, nine loaded on Factor 1, together with questions express-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 ing attitudes about communication and cooperation, and overall satisfac-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tion. In the analysis at the level of organizational units, the nine practices \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 questions that showed up here related to diferent organizational culture \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg15}{\bkmkend Pg15}\par\pard\li1728\sb0\sl-195\slmult0\par\pard\li1728\sb0\sl-195\slmult0\par\pard\li1728\sb68\sl-195\slmult0\fi0\tx7771 \dn3 \expndtw0\charscalex112 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 491\par\pard\qj \li1737\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li1737\ri874\sb108\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 dimensions (cf. Hofstede et al. 1990: 303). The irst two items labelled `P' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 in Table 1, Factor 1, relect an open communication climate; the 3rd and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 6th a professional organization; the 4th and 7th a results-oriented organi\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 zation; the 5th an employee-oriented organization, while the 6th and 7th \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 marginally relect a tight organization. \par\pard\qj \li1747\ri869\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 One practice question loaded marginally on Factor 4 (gender issues); the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 rest did not relate to the seven factors in Table 1. Most practices questions \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 therefore did not diferentiate in a meaningful way at the level of individ\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 ual respondents. It must be remembered that these questions were selected \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 because of their ability to discriminate at the level of organizational units, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 not at the level of individuals. \par\pard\qj \li1747\ri864\sb20\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Thus, most organizational practices that the respondents perceived did not \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 systematically associate with positive or negative attitudes; not even with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 attitudes about the direct boss, or about work pressures. This shows that \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 organizational cultures contain many elements that to the members of the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 organization are afect-neutral. They represent 'the way we do things \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 around here', but these are not necessarily good or bad in the employees' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and managers' minds. \par\pard\qj \li1756\ri860\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 A limited number of perceived practices had afective connotations, rela\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 ting to attitudes about communication and cooperation. The secondary asso\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 ciation of the 'communication climate' factor with 'overall satisfaction' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 shows that at least in this company, good communication and cooperation \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 was one of the essential conditions for being a satisied employee. Practices \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 which were associated with the 'communication climate' factor were: atten\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 tion to physical working conditions, openness to outsiders, competition with \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 other companies but not between departments, everybody supplying max\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 imal efort, changes after consultation only, good performance noticed, \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 cost-consciousness and punctuality. \par\pard\qj \li1

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766\ri854\sb0\sl-244\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Although nobody has found \u8212? or is likely to ind \u8212? a simple one-to-one \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 relationship of any aspect of organizational culture with organizational per\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 formance, there is little doubt that organizational culture affects perfor\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 mance; in the long run, it may be the one decisive inluence for the survival \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 or fall of the organization \u8212? although this is dificult to prove, if only \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 because the necessary longitudinal analyses are hardly feasible. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri840\sb0\sl-238\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 What the present study showed is that in many respects, what is good for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 the organization and what is good for its members are two independent \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 things. Circumstances and/or management actions can afect the organiza-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 tional culture without negatively or positively inluencing employee atti-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 tudes. Circumstances and/or management actions can affect employee \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 attitudes without changing the organizational culture. It is only in the area \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 of communication and cooperation where management actions afecting the \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 culture also afect employee attitudes negatively or positively. In other \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 areas, those responsible for leading organizations have an option to choose \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 the best for both organization \ul0\nosupersub\cf7\f8\fs20 and \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 members; they may also choose the worst \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 for both. \par\pard\qj \li1766\ri835\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 The ethical implication of this is that satisfying a moral responsibility for \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 the success of the organization and satisfying a moral reponsibility for the \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg16}{\bkmkend Pg16}\par\pard\li883\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li883\sb0\sl-230\slmult0\par\pard\li883\sb121\sl-230\slmult0\fi0\tx2438 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 492\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Geert Hofstede\par\pard\qj \li2438\sb0\sl-240\slmult0 \par\pard\qj\li2438\ri235\sb70\sl-240\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 well-being of its members are two separate goals. This has great implica\up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 tions at a time when top managers and shareholders in some countries and \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 companies seem to believe that ruthless exploitation of 'human resources' \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 is an essential condition for maximum shareholder value. \par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\par\pard\li2534\sb59\sl-184\slmult0\fi23\tx5803 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Blake, Robert R. and Jane S. Mouton\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hofstede. Geert\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi43\tx5817\tx6287 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1964 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 The managerial grid. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Houston: Gulf.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1981\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 'Culture and organizations'. \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Inter-\par\pard\li2534\sb10\sl-184\slmult0\fi3739 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 national Studies ofManagement and\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-164\slmult0\fi14\tx6278\tx7526 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Chapman. Malcolm\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Organization 10:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 15-41.\par\pard\li2534\sb7\sl-184\slmult0\fi43 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1997 Preface to 'Social anthropology.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi494\tx5803 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 business studies, and cultural issues'.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hofstede. Geert\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi494\tx5822\tx6278 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 International Studies ofManagement\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1991\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Cultures and organizations: soft-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi484\tx6278 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 and Organization \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 26/4: 3-29.\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 ware of the mind. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 London: McGraw-\par\pard

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\li2534\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\fi3744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hill UK.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-170\slmult0\fi9 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Cooper, Cary L.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi33\tx5803 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1982 Book Review of Hofstede: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture's\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofstede, Geet\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi484\tx5817 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 consequences. Journal of Occupa-\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1994 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Uncommon sense about organiza-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi489\tx4579\tx6268 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 tional Behaviour \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 3/2:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 123.\tab \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 tions: Cases, studies andfield obser-\par\pard\li2534\sb10\sl-184\slmult0\fi3744 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 vations. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-170\slmult0\fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Deal, Terrence E. and Allan A. Kennedy\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi28\tx5793 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1982 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Corporate cultures: The rites and\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofstede, Geert\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\fi489\tx5812 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 rituals of corporate life. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Reading\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1998 'Identifying organizational subcul-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi489\tx6264\tx6835 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 MA: Addison-Wesley.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 tures:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 an empirical approach'.\par\pard\li2534\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\fi3724 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Journal of Management Studies \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 35/\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-170\slmult0\fi4\tx6287\tx6475 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Eysenck, Hans J.\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 I:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1-12.\par\pard\li2534\sb2\sl-184\slmult0\fi28\tx3028 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1981\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 'The four dimensions'. Book Review\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-181\slmult0\fi480\tx5793 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of Hofstede: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture's consequences.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofstede. Geert, Bram Neuijen. Denise D.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi480\tx5784 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 New Society. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 16 April.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Ohayv. and Geert Sanders\par\pard\li2534\sb5\sl-184\slmult0\fi3273 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1990 'Measuring organizational cultures'.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi0\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Gordon, George G., and Nancy Ditomaso\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Administrative Science Quarterly\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-178\slmult0\fi28\tx6264 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1992 'Predicting corporate performance\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 35: \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 286-316.\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi484 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 from organizational culture'. \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Journal\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi475\tx5270\tx5793 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of Management Studies\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 29:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hofstede. Geert, Michael H. Bond, and\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi480\tx5784 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 783-798.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Chung-Leung Luk\par\pard\li2534\sb4\sl-184\slmult0\fi3278 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1993 'Individual perceptions of organiza-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi0\tx6259 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Harzing, Anne-Wil, and Geert Hofstede\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 tional \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 cultues'. Organization Studies\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi23\tx6283 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1996 'Planned change in organizations:\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1414: 483-503.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi480 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 the inluence of national culture'in\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi470\tx5788 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Research in the sociology of orga-\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 IRIC\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi475\tx5807\tx6273 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 nizations. \ul0\nosupers

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ub\cf2\f3\fs16 Vol. 14: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Cross-cultural\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1994\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 VSM 94: Values survey module 1994.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi470\tx6264 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 analysis of organizations. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 P.A.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Maastricht: Institute for Research on\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi480\tx6264 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Bamberger. M. Erez and S.B.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Intercultural Cooperation.\par\pard\li2534\sb6\sl-184\slmult0\fi480\tx4075\tx4852 \dn2 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Bacharach\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 (eds.),\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 297-340.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi475\tx5779 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Greenwich. CN: JAI Press.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Johannesson, Russell E.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-184\slmult0\fi3273 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1973 'Some problems in the measurement\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-169\slmult0\fi0\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Hickson, David J., and Derek S. Pugh\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of organizational climate'. \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Organ-\par\pard\li2534\sb2\sl-184\slmult0\fi19\tx6259 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 1995 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Management worldwide: The impact\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 izational Behavior and Human\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-175\slmult0\fi470\tx6264\tx7492\tx7574 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 of societal culture on organizations\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Performance \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 10:\tab \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 1\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 18-144.\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-178\slmult0\fi470 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 around the globe. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Harmondswoth:\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-178\slmult0\fi480\tx5788 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Penguin.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Kuhn, Thomas S.\par\pard\li2534\sb0\sl-184\slmult0\fi3268 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 1970 The structure of scientific revolu-\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-176\slmult0\fi0\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hofstede. Geen\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 tions, \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 2nd ed. Chicago: University of\par\pard\li2534\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\fi19\tx6254 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1980 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture's consequences: interna-\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Chicago Press.\par\pard\qj \li3004\ri3527\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 tional diferences in work-related \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 values. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Beverly Hills: Sage. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw9140\paperh13680{\bkmkstart Pg17}{\bkmkend Pg17}\par\pard\sect\sectd\sbknone\cols2\colno1\colw5004\colsr160\colno2\colw3836\colsr160\ql \li1742\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1742\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1742\sb127\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Attitudes and Culture\par\pard\ql \li1881\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li1881\sb174\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Levitin, Teresa\par\pard\qj \li1900\ri102\sb4\sl-177\slmult0\tx2356 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 1973 'Values' in \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Measures of social psy-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 chological attitudes. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 J.P. Robinson\par\pard\qj \li2361\ri102\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116 and P.R. Shaver \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (eds.), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 489-502. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 Ann Arbor, Ml: Survey Research \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Center, !SR.\par\pard\qj \li1881\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1881\ri102\sb6\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Litwin, George H.. and Robert A. Stringer. \line \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 Jr.\par\pard\qj \li1905\ri98\sb10\sl-177\slmult0\tx2366 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 1968 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Motivation and organizational cli-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 mate. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Boston: Division of Research,\par\pard\qj \li2361\ri98\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex132 Graduate School of Business \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Administration, Harvard University.\par\pard\qj \li1891\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1891\ri92\sb10\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 Moran, E. Thomas. and J. Fredericks \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Volkwein\par\pard\qj \li1905\ri98\sb5\sl-177\slmult0\tx2371 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex116

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1992 'The cultural approach to the for-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex112 mation of organizational climate'.\par\pard\ql \li2366\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Human Relations \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 45: 19-47.\par\pard\ql \li1891\sb177\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Morgan, Gareth\par\pard\qj \li1910\ri97\sb0\sl-186\slmult0\tx2376 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex119 1986 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Images of organization. Beverly \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Hills: Sage.\par\pard\ql \li1891\ri92\sb172\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Ouchi, William G.,and Alan L. Wilkins \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 1988 'Organizational culture' in \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture\par\pard\qj \li2366\ri93\sb0\sl-180\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 and power in educational organiza-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 tions. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 A. Westoby \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (ed.). \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 223-252. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 Milton Keynes: Open University \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Press.\par\pard\qj \li1891\ri97\sb180\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex138 Peters, Thomas J.. and Robert H. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Waterman, Jr.\par\pard\qj \li1915\ri92\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx2361 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 1982 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 In search of excellence: lessonsfrom \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 America's hest-run companies. New\par\pard\ql \li2376\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 York: Harper & Row.\par\pard\ql \li1891\sb177\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Poole. Marshall Scott\par\pard\qj \li1915\ri92\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx2366 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 1985 'Communication and organizational \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 climates: review, critique, and a new\par\pard\qj \li2371\ri92\sb2\sl-180\slmult0\fi4 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 perspective' \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 in Organizational com-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 munication. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 R.D. McPhee and P.K. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 Tompkins (eds.), \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 79-108. Beverly \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Hills: Sage.\par\pard\qj \li1891\sb0\sl-177\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li1891\ri97\sb1\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex127 Roberts, Karlene H., and Nakiye A. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Boyacigiller\par\pard\qj \li1915\ri92\sb6\sl-182\slmult0\tx2371 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex115 1984 'Cross-national organizational re-\line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 search: the grasp of the blind men'\par\pard\qj \li2371\ri87\sb0\sl-178\slmult0\fi4\tx2692 \up0 \expndtw-4\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 in\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 Research in organizational \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex127 behavior. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 B.M. Staw and L.1.\par\pard\qj \li2371\ri97\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx3455\tx4218 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Cummings\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 (eds.).\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 423-475. \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Greenwich. CT: JAI.\par\pard\column \ql \li7800\sb0\sl-230\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li2656\sb212\sl-230\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 \ul0\nosupersub\cf4\f5\fs20 493\par\pard\ql \li5164\sb0\sl-184\slmult0 \par\pard\ql \li20\sb171\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 Rolteach, Milton\par\pard\qj \li40\ri809\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx505 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 1972 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Beliefs, attitudes, and values. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 San \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Francisco: Jossey-Bass.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb182\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 Schneider, Benjamin\par\pard\qj \li40\ri809\sb4\sl-177\slmult0\tx505 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 1975 'Organizational climates: an essay'. \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Personnel Psychology \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 28: 447-479.\par\pard\qj \li5164\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \par\pard\qj \li20\ri800\sb2\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 Schneider. Benjamin, and Robert A. Snyder \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex118 1975 'Some relationships between job\par\pard\ql \li505\sb1\sl-177\slmult0\tx1532 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 satisfaction\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 and organizational\par\pard\qj \li496\ri790\sb0\sl-177\slmult0\tx1331 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 climate'.\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex137 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Journal of Applied \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Psychology \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 60: 318-328.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb183\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 Smith, Peter B.,

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and Michael Harris Bond\par\pard\qj \li40\ri804\sb4\sl-177\slmult0\tx501 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 1993 Social psychology across cultures: \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex120 Analysis and perspectives. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 New\par\pard\ql \li505\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.\par\pard\ql \li25\sb182\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Soeters, Joseph L.\par\pard\qj \li44\ri805\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx515 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex125 1986 'Excellent companies as social \line \tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 movements'. \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Journal of Manage-\par\pard\ql \li500\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 ment Studies \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 23: 299-312.\par\pard\ql \li25\sb177\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Sorge. Amdt\par\pard\qj \li44\ri800\sb1\sl-182\slmult0\tx510 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 1983 Book Review of Hofstede: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Culture's \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 consequences. Administrative Science\par\pard\ql \li510\sb0\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex106 Quarterly \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 28: 625-629.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb182\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 The Chinese Culture Connection (a team of\par\pard\qj \li25\ri810\sb1\sl-182\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 24 researchers coordinated by Michael H. \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex100 Bond)\par\pard\qj \li49\ri791\sb0\sl-180\slmult0\tx515 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 1987 'Chinese values and the search for \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex108 culture-free dimensions of culture'.\par\pard\qj \li496\ri805\sb5\sl-177\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex122 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Journal of Cross-Cultural Psy-\line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex104 chology \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 18: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex103 143-164.\par\pard\ql \li20\sb178\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Triandis, Harry C.\par\pard\qj \li49\ri795\sb5\sl-182\slmult0\tx520 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex109 1982 Book Review of Hofstede: \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Cultue's \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex102 Consequences. Human Organization\par\pard\ql \li500\sb0\sl-172\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw-1\charscalex100 \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 41: \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex107 86-90.\par\pard\ql \li30\sb179\sl-184\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex105 Vroom. Victor H.\par\pard\qj \li49\ri810\sb5\sl-177\slmult0\tx515 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 1964 \ul0\nosupersub\cf1\f2\fs16 Work and motivation. \ul0\nosupersub\cf2\f3\fs16 New York: \line\tab \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex101 Wiley. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24\paperw12240\paperh15840{\bkmkstart Pg18}{\bkmkend Pg18}\par\pard\ql \li1142\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1142\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1142\sb0\sl-299\slmult0 \par\pard\ql\li1142\sb35\sl-299\slmult0 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex111 \ul0\nosupersub\cf8\f9\fs26 Copyright of Organization Studies (Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG.) is the \par\pard\ql \li1128\ri608\sb0\sl-320\slmult0\fi14 \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 property of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG.. The copyright in an individual article \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex114 may be maintained by the author in certain cases. Content may not be copied or \line \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex113 emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listsery without the copyright holder's express \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual \up0 \expndtw0\charscalex110 use. \par\pard\sect\sectd\fs24}