Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One:...

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Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

Transcript of Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One:...

Page 1: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

Organizational Behavior

Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

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• Outcomes: Attitudes and Behaviors– Organizational Citizenship Behavior – Effort ≠ Performance– Job Satisfaction– Absenteeism– Turnover

• Managed by understanding and using– Motivation– Reward Systems– Job Design– Interpersonal skills– Group Dynamics

Organizational Behavior

– Stress– Commitment– Creativity– Safety and Accidents

– Individual Differences• Perceptions• Attributions• Attitude change• Values• Personality

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Employment as a social relation

• Attributions– Cognitive Dissonance– Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation

• Social Comparisons: similarity (personal and situational)

• In-group biases– In-group versus Out-group distinctions– In-group distinctions

• Justice– Distributive Justice– Procedural Justice

• Reciprocity and Gift Exchange

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Values and Values-based Management

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Managing through values

“A company’s universal commitment on how to interact with all stakeholders of its organization.”

Jerry HeneyAuthor of “Making Culture Pay”

“Values describe how we want to operate, on a day-to-day basis, as we peruse our vision.”

Peter SengeAuthor of “The Fifth Discipline”

Adapted from PricewaterhouseCoopers (Brown, 2002) presentation

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Managing through values

• Values are a beacon for the company’s decision-making process

• Values determine how a company behaves in uncertain times

• Every organization has values, whether purposefully selected, nurtured and developed or allowed to develop through unintended neglect

Adapted from PricewaterhouseCoopers (Brown, 2002) presentation

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Contributions of values-based cultures

• Attract and retain star performers• Guide and inspire employee decisions• Provide fixed points of reference and stability during

periods of great change and crisis• Align employees with diverse interests and backgrounds• Provides an “emotional contract” beyond the written

employee/employer contract• Export what the organization stands for to customers and

potential employees

Most effective when aligned with a powerful strategy

(Rosenthal & Masarech, 2003)

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Attraction-Selection-Attrition

Selection

Attrition

Attraction

OrganizationalDifferences

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Theory of Reasoned Action(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)

Values Attitudes Behaviors

ContextualConstraints

Beliefs

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Values

• Basic convictions that “a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.”

• A judgmental element in that they carry the individual’s idea of what is right, good, or desirable.

• Value System -- a hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity.

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Types of values

• Terminal Values (“end states of existence”) – values that reflect a desirable end-state in life. Goals a person would like to achieve in life.

• Instrumental Values (“modes of conduct”) – values that reflect a mode of behavior or means to achieve terminal values.

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Terminal and instrumental values

• A comfortable life • An exciting life • A world at peace • A world of beauty and the arts • Equality (equal opportunity for all) • Family security • Freedom • Happiness • Inner harmony • Mature love • Salvation • Self-respect • Social recognition • True friendship • Wisdom

• Ambitious• Cheerful • Courageous • Forgiving • Helpful • Honest • Imaginative • Independent • Logical • Loving • Obedient • Polite • Responsible • Self-controlled

Terminal Values Instrumental Values

Rokeach Value Survey

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Theory of Reasoned Action(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)

Values Attitudes Behaviors

ContextualConstraints

Beliefs

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“Yo soy yo y mis circumstancias”José Ortega y Gasset

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•Physical Attributes– Gender– Race– Ethnic Origin– Age– Hair color – Height– Visual acuity– Color vision

•Intelligence– General “IQ”– Emotional “EQ”– Multiple intelligences

People Differ

•Skills and Abilities

– Computer skills

– Reading comprehension

– Typing

– Lifting

– Finger dexterity

•Personality– Conscientiousness

– Emotional Stability

– Agreeableness

– Extraversion

– Openness to Experience

•Nationality– Dutch

– Japanese

– Spanish

– Turkish

– Moroccan

•Religious Beliefs– Catholic

– Protestant

– Muslim

– Jewish

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Where do individual differences come from?

Nature(genes)

Nurture(learning)

• Swimming• Driving• Calculus

• Eye color• Gender

Where do these come from?

• Height• Math• Music• Sports

• Intelligence• Personality• Emotional Intelligence

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Hofstede's cultural dimensions

• Individualism/collectivism is

– the strength of the relation between an individual and other individuals in the society

– the degree to which people act as individuals rather than as members of a group

• Power distance

– the degree of power inequality among people that is considered to be normal

• Uncertainty avoidance

– how cultures seek to deal with the fact that the future is not perfectly predictable the degree to which people in a culture prefer structured over unstructured situations.

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Hofstede's cultural dimensions

• Masculinity-femininity

– the tendency of a culture to value characteristics that are traditionally defined as masculine or feminine

– Feminine cultures promote values that have traditionally been regarded as feminine, such as valuing relationships, helping, nurturing, and caring for the environment.

• Long-term/short-term orientation

– tendency of a culture to focus on long-term benefit or short-term outcomes

– example: Many Far Eastern countries with very long histories have a long-term orientation. The United States has a short term orientation, in which planning looks at the near future— in business, for instance, on a quarterly or yearly basis.

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Competencies: Definition

“An underlying characteristic of an individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced effective and/or superior performance in a job or situation”

Lyle Spencer and Signe Spencer (1993) “Competence at Work”

Other definitions use words like “attitude” and “behaviors” or “pattern of behaviors” to describe competencies.

Competencies focus on characteristics or behaviors that are identifiable as related to success on the job.

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Competencies: Where do they come from?

Competencies are used to discover those characteristics of a person that led to superior performance for specific jobs

Question being asked: Why, if all current employees had “passed”the selection tests, where some employees performing at an obviously superior performance level than others.

Not replacing the practice of using cognitive and job specific information; instead determining what additional personal characteristics led to superior job performance

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Competencies List

Table 1: Summary of the McBer Competency Dictionary (Spencer & Spencer, 1993)Achievement and Action Managerial • Achievement orientation • Developing others • Concern for order, quality and

accuracy • Directiveness: Assertiveness and use of

positional power • Initiative • Teamwork and cooperation • Information seeking • Team leadership Helping and Human Service Cognitive • Interpersonal understanding • Analytical thinking • Customer service orientation • Conceptual thinking • Technical/Professional/Managerial expertise Impact and Influence • Impact and influence Personal Effectiveness • Organizational awareness • Self-control • Relationship building • Self-confidence • Flexibility • Organizational commitment

Clusters in bold

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Personality at work...

“I can train a person to disassemble a phone; I can’t train her not

to get a bad attitude when she discovers that she’s expected to

come to work everyday when the rest of us are there. I can train a

worker to properly handle a PC board; I can’t train him to show

up for work sober or to respect authority.”

Richard L. Barclay, Barclay Enterprises, Inc.

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Big 5 dimensions and occupations

Sales Customer Service

Managers

Conscientiousness

Emotional Stability

Agreeableness

Extraversion

Openness to Experience

Skilled and Semi-skilled

.18

.09

.03

.10

.03

.17

.08

.11

.07

.10

.11

.08

-.03

.08

-.02

.10

.06

.06

.00

-.01

Correlations with Job Performance

(Hurtz & Donovan, 2000)

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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

• Extroversion – Introversion– Where you get your energy

• Judging – Perceiving– How you orientate to the world – Planning/order vs. spontaneous/keep options open

• Sensing – Intuition– How you prefer to take in information – Facts/reality vs. possibilities

• Thinking – Feeling – How you prefer to make decisions – Logical consequences vs. personal/empathetic

Results in 16 possible personality “types”

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“All companies would benefit from hiring smarter people, and IQ matters

in all jobs, including sweeping up the place after the programmers go

home.”Daniel Seligam, Fortune editor

Studies done over the last 85 years indicate that tests of intelligence

consistently predict job performance well... The average correlation

coefficients obtained was .47 which is substantially higher than other

human characteristics.

Orlando Behling, Academy of Management Executive 1998

Intelligence at work...

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“But when I calculated the ratio of technical skills, IQ, and

emotional intelligence as ingredients of excellent

performance, emotional intelligence proved to be twice as

important as the other of jobs at all levels.”

Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”

The importance of Emotional Intelligence

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“When I compared star performers with average ones in

senior leadership positions, nearly 90% of the difference in

their profiles was attributable to emotional intelligence

factors rather than cognitive abilities.”

Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”

The importance of Emotional Intelligence

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Recognition

Regulation

SelfPersonal Competence

Self-Awareness• Emotional self-awareness• Accurate self-awareness• Self-confidence

Self-Management• Self-control• Trustworthiness• Conscientiousness• Adaptability• Achievement drive• Initative

OtherSocial Competence

Social Awareness• Empathy• Service Orientation• Organizational Awareness

Relationship Management• Developing others• Influence• Communication• Conflict management• Leadership• Change catalyst• Building bonds• Teamwork & collaboration

A Framework of Emotional Competencies

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“It would be foolish to assert that good-old-fashioned IQ and

technical ability are not important ingredients in strong

leadership. But the recipe would not be complete without

emotional intelligence. It was once thought that the

components of emotional intelligence were ‘nice to have’ in

business leaders. But now we know that , for the sake of

performance, these are ingredients that leaders ‘need to

have.’”

Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”

The importance of Emotional Intelligence

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Can Emotional Intelligence be learned?

“To enhance emotional intelligence, organizations must

refocus on their training to include the limbic system.

They must help people break old behavioral habits and

establish new ones. That not only takes much more time

than conventional training programs, it also requires an

individualized approach.”

Daniel Goleman, “What Makes a Good Leader”

The BIG EQ Question...

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Organizational Behavior

Session Two: Perceptions, Attributions and Communications

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

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Attitudes

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Theory of Reasoned Action(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)

Values Attitudes Behaviors

ContextualConstraints

Beliefs

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Theory of Planned Behavior

BehavioralBeliefs

Attitude toward the

Behavior

NormativeBeliefs

ControlBeliefs

SubjectiveNorm

Perceived Behavioral

Control

Intention to Behave Behavior

ActualBehavioral

Control

(Ajzen, 2002)

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Components of an attitude

• Cognitive Component– Thoughts and knowledge

• Affective Component– Moods, emotions, feelings felt

• Behavioral Component– How you react or behave

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Attitude formation

• Attitudes are formed from…– Direct experience

– Exposure to objects (people, places, things, ideas)

– Instrumental Conditioning

– Social Learning

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Attitude strength - “Non-attitudes”

• Responses to an item on an attitude survey even though the attitude does not really exist – prior

• Direct and behavioral experience increases “strength” of attitude

– more accessible from memory– more likely to influence later behavior– more resistance to change

• The attitude of two people who respond the same to an attitude survey may differ in their strength (likelihood of influencing behavior)

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Attitude strength - Accessibility

• Selective processing– Accessibility of any attitude (or evaluation) that is recalled

from memory upon encountering a target temporarily affects subsequent processing (or interpretations –immediate perceptions congruent with the attitude)

• Guides behavior– Accessibility also affects subsequent behavior towards the

object (e.g., product purchase studies)

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Attitude: Pros and cons

• Managers (or others) for whom decision-making is relatively automated, as a result of holding strong attitudes, are able to devote more cognitive energy to more serious and appropriate stressors.

• Is this always wise?

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Job Satisfaction

• A pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience

• Does it relate to better job performance?

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CORE JOB CHARACTERISTICS

CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICLALSTATES

MOTIVATING POTENTIALSCORE

• High Internal Motivation

• High “Growth” Satisfaction

• High General Job Satisfaction

• High Work Effectiveness

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Experienced Meaningfulness

AutonomyExperienced

Responsibility for Outcomes

Feedback from Job

Knowledge of the Actual

Results

Moderators1. Knowledge & Skill2. Growth Need Strength3. “Context” Satisfaction

(Hackman & Oldman, 1980)Job Characteristics Model and Job Diagnostic Survey

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Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCBs)

• “…discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promote the effective functioning of the organization” (Organ, 1988)

– Altruism -- the helping of an individual coworker on a task– Courtesy -- alerting others in the organization about changes that

may affect their work– Conscientiousness -- carrying out one’s duties beyond the

minimum requirements– Sportsmanship -- refraining from complaining about trivial

matters, and – Civic virtue -- participating in the governance of the organization

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Theory of Planned Behavior

BehavioralBeliefs

Attitude toward the

Behavior

NormativeBeliefs

ControlBeliefs

SubjectiveNorm

Perceived Behavioral

Control

Intention to Behave OCBs

ActualBehavioral

Control

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Organizational Commitment

• Individuals act instinctively to benefit the organization

• Increases the willingness to help (OCBs)

• Increases the organization’s ability to adapt to unforeseeable occurrences

• Employees less likely to be absent from work

• Employees have longer job tenure

• Employees tend to work harder and perform better

(Dressler, 1999)

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3 Types of Commitment

• Continuance Commitment– I stay because I have no alternative– Functional Value (What does the organization do for me)

• Normative Commitment– I stay because I think I ought to stay– Emotional Value (How does the organization make me feel)

• Affective Commitment– I stay because I want to stay– Emotional Value (How does the organization make me feel)

– Self-expression Value (What does this organization say about me)

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Three ways employees can value their jobs

• Functional Value (What does the organization do for me)

– Nature of the job, organizational structure, conditions of the job– Compensation and benefits

• Emotional Value (How does the organization make me feel)

– Alignment of personal values and the organizations– Pride of participating in a good cause– Social Strategy– Self-development

• Self-expression Value (What does this organization say about me)

– The organization helps me project a self-image that I desire

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Identity Theory

• Impression management is “market research”– People seek to define and understand themselves through

interaction

– Test out their values, goals, etc. as compared to the situation (e.g., others, organizations, etc.)

• “Reference others” effect the way people behave and identify themselves – Membership

– For example, religion, clubs, occupation

Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review

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• Attractiveness of the organization identity– contributes to self-esteem, self-consistency and self-

distinctiveness

– extent of contact with the organization and the visibility of membership

• Self-concept is enhanced if the organization image is “legitimate”– culturally shared definitions, norms, values, etc. of the

embedding culture

Identifying with an Organization

Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review

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• Salience– the extent to which a schema is active in working memory

• Accessibility– the ease to which a schema is brought into working memory by

external cues

• Salience and Accessibility are independent of Attraction

Identifying with an Organization

Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review

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• Salience– Providing many opportunities for the organization to be “on their

mind”

• Accessibility– Store new information in Long Term Memory (LTM)

– Categorized and connected to other information stored in LTM

– More accessible when stored with and connected to “well learned” & easily accessible information

Identifying with an Organization

Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review

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1. Organizational identity cueing– Organization images in communications

• Ads, promotions, newsletters

• Adding people information and green information in annual reports

– Can make different messages salient• Exemplars - we are the best

- Southwest Airlines: THE Low Cost Airlines

• Values - here is what we stand for- Saturn is built on teamwork- Ben & Jerry’s focused on social and environmental responsibility

Increasing Salience & Accessibility

Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review

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2. Increase visibility of employee organizational affiliations

– Showing and using employees in commercials– A person’s self-concept can be enhanced or damaged by others’

awareness of his/her affiliation with the organization

3. Increased interactions with organization in sponsored groups or settings

– Simple interaction effects attractiveness & identity – Builds and reinforces common interests – Increases the expectation of future interactions

Increasing Salience & Accessibility

Scott & Lane (2000), A Stakeholder Approach to Organizational Identity, Academy of Mgt. Review

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Identifying with an Organization

• What results– Moves from Exchange Relationship to Internalization (or

community) Relationship

– Increases the mutual investment of employees

– Increases trust, support of goals and want to continued relationship

– Attribution Theory: In-group versus Out-group

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Theory of Planned Behavior

BehavioralBeliefs

Attitude toward the

Behavior

NormativeBeliefs

ControlBeliefs

SubjectiveNorm

Perceived Behavioral

Control

Intention to Behave OCBs

ActualBehavioral

Control

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Perceptions, Attributions, and Communication

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Factors in the Perceiver•Attitudes•Motives•Interests•Experience•Expectations

Factors in the situation•Time•Work setting•Social setting

Factors in the target•Novelty•Motion•Sounds•Size•Background•Proximity

Perception

Factors that influence perceptions

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Prentice Hall, 2001

Attribution of Cause

InterpretationObservation

Attribution Attribution Theory andTheory andIndividualIndividualBehaviorBehavior

ExternalExternal

ExternalExternal

InternalInternal

InternalInternal

InternalInternal

ExternalExternal

DistinctivenessDistinctiveness

ConsensusConsensus

ConsistencyConsistencyHighHigh

LowLow

HighHigh

LowLow

HighHigh

LowLow

Attributions

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Biases

• Fundamental Attribution Error– Internal attributions of others

• Self-serving bias– Internal attributions of one’s own success

– External attributions of failure

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Frequently Used Shortcuts to Judge Others

• Halo effect

• Selective perception

• Projection

• Stereotyping

• Contrast effect

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• “Clever Hans” the wonderhorse.

• Related to “Hawthorne Effect” identified by Elton Mayo

• Key Principles– We form certain expectations of people or events

– We communicate those expectations with various cues.

– People tend to respond to these cues by adjusting their behavior to match them.

– The result is that the original expectation becomes true.

– This creates a circle of self-fulfilling prophecies

Self-fulfilling prophecy: The Pygmalion effect

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• Employment interview– Hiring managers become “responsible”

• Performance expectations

• Performance evaluation– Promotions

• Employee effort– Positive and supportive feedback

– Risk-taking supported

• Employee loyalty– Project assignments

Self in Organizations

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Organizational Behavior

Session Three: Motivation

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

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• Under optimal conditions, effort can often be increased and sustained

• Delegation without constant supervision

• Employees can become self-motivated

• Motivated employees can provide competitive advantage by offering suggestions & working to satisfy customers

Why is motivation important

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I. Need-Motive-Value theories

- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

- Alderfer’s ERG Theory

- Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

- McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

III. Reinforcement theory (Operant Conditioning)

II. Cognitive approaches:- Expectancy Theory

- Equity Theory/ Social Comparison

- Goal Setting Theory

Major Theories of Motivation

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological Needs

Safety Needs

Belongingness Needs

Esteem Needs

Self-actualization Needs

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Self-actualization involves hard work

“The trouble with most… is that it seems they have in the back of their heads some notion of self-actualization as a kind of lightening stroke

which will hit them on the head suddenly without their doing anything about it. They all seem to want to wait passively for it to happen without any effort on their part. Furthermore, I think that practically all of them

have tended unconsciously to define self-actualization in terms of the getting rid of all inhibitions and controls in favor of complete spontaneity

and impulsivity. My impatience has been largely because of this… that they have no stubbornness, no persistence, no frustration tolerance, etc.”

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Existence Needs

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Relatedness Needs

Growth Needs

Nee

dPr

ogre

ssio

n

Nee

dRe

gres

sion

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Herzberg’s two-factor theory

• Job satisfaction is equivalent to being motivated and assumptionthat the happy worker is a productive worker

• Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate concepts with unique determinants

– Motivators

– Hygiene

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• Determinants of Job Dissatisfaction are Hygiene Factors (Job Environment Factors)

– Pay, fringe benefits

– Working conditions

– Quality of supervision

– Interpersonal relations

• Determinants of Job Satisfaction are Motivator Factors (Job Content Factors)

– Work itself, responsibility

– Advancement

– Recognition

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

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Contributions• First to argue that job

content/job design was important

• Job enrichment as a motivational strategy

• Model appealing, easy to understand

Criticisms• Some individual

differences, like desire for pay, rejected as a motivator

• Assumes satisfaction = motivation

• May be “method-bound” by self-serving bias

Assessment of Herzberg’s two-factor theory

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Maslow’s Alderfer’s ERG Herzberg’s 2-factor Hierarchy Theory Theory

Self-Actualization Growth

Motivator Esteem

Belonging Relatedness

Security Hygiene

Physiological Existence

Overview of need theories

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INDIVIDUAL NEED WORK PREFERENCES JOB EXAMPLE

High need for achievement

High need for affiliation

High need for power

- Individual responsibility

- Challenging but achievable goals

- Feedback on performance

- Interpersonal relationships

- Opportunities to communicate

- Control over other persons

- Attention

- Recognition

Field sales person with challenging quota and opportunity to earn individual bonus

Customer service representative; member of work unit subject to group wage bonus plan

Formal position of supervisory responsibility; appointment as head of special task force or committee

McClelland’s theory of social motives

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Need-motive-value theories

• Common Assumptions

– Motivation originates from “within”

– We seek out situations that can satisfy our needs

– To motivate others, we must provide opportunities to satisfy their needs

• Differences

– Number and nature of basic needs

– Origin of needs

– Sequencing and timing of activation

– Consequences of fulfillment

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Implications of need theories

• Employees will be motivated to satisfy their needs. Therefore…

– If needs are assumed to differ:

• Match employees to situations

• For example, select leaders with high nPower

– If needs are assumed to be common:

• Design jobs to satisfy basic needs

• For example, job enrichment

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Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldman, 1980)

CORE JOB CHARACTERISTICS

CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICLALSTATES

MOTIVATING POTENTIALSCORE

• High Internal

Motivation

• High “Growth”

Satisfaction

• High General Job

Satisfaction

• High Work

Effectiveness

Experienced Meaningfulness

Experienced Responsibility for

Outcomes

Knowledge of the Actual Results

1. Knowledge & Skill2. Growth Need Strength3. “Context” Satisfaction

Feedback from Job

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Moderators

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Reinforcement theory (Operant conditioning)

• B. F. Skinner

• Principles of reinforcement

– Behavior is a function of its consequences

– Behavior that leads toward rewards tends to be repeated

– Behavior that tends to lead toward no rewards or toward punishment tends to be avoided

– The type of reinforcer & the timing (schedule) of reinforcement are key

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Operant conditioning: Some key concepts

• Contingency

– Consequences must depend on the behavior

• Discriminative stimuli

– Cues that signal when the contingency is in effect

• Scheduling

– Fixed or variable schedules based on response frequency (ratio) or time (interval)

• Shaping

– Reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior

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• Motivation is a function of the environment

– Does not have to rely on needs, perceptions or cognitions.

– Managers can design work environment to provide “reinforcers” that strengthen desired behaviors & weaken undesired behaviors.

• Social learning theory

– Allows for cognitions in that people can observe rewards and punishments applied to others.

Reinforcement theory

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Reinforcement mechanisms

• To increase the frequency of a response, use:

– Contingent positive reinforcement

– Contingent negative reinforcement

• To decrease the frequency of a response, use:

– Extinction

– Punishment

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Number of behaviors

(ratio)

Passage of time

(interval)

Fixed RatioPiece rate

Variable RatioDoor to door sale

Fixed IntervalWeekly Paycheck

Variable IntervalOccasional praise by boss

Fixed Variable

Spacing or timing of Reinforcer

Bas

is f

or d

eter

min

ing

freq

uen

cy o

f re

info

rcer

Schedules of reinforcement

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• Based on passage of time– Fixed Interval - Reinforcer given after set period of time

Example: Weekly pay

– Variable Interval - Reinforcer given randomly in time Example: Surprise bonus based on time

• Based on behavior exhibited by the employee/team– Fixed Ratio - Reinforcers based on behaviors Example:

Piece rate

– Variable Ratio - Reinforcers randomly after behaviors. Example: A vacation to Hawaii for all employees after new contract landed.

Reinforcement schedules

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Common Criticisms

• Accurate but incomplete

– Does not explain what energizes behavior

– Does not account for individual differences (e.g., different responses to different reinforcers)

– Does not take the role of cognition into account

• Focuses on the use of extrinsic consequences

– Use of extrinsic rewards

– Pay can sometimes reduce intrinsic motivation

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Cognitive choice theories

• Expectancy theory (e.g., Vroom, 1964)

• Equity theory (e.g., Adams, 1965)

• Common assumptions

– People make conscious choices about how to behave

– To understand motivated behavior, we must understand how these choices are made

• the decision to expend effort

• the level of effort to exert

• how effort can be made to persist over time

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Vroom’s expectancy theory

• Basic Proposition

– Motivation is greatest when a person believes s/he has the ability to do something that has a high probability of leading to a desirable outcome

F = (E) x (ΣI x V)

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E PExpectancy

What is the probability that I can perform at the required

level if I try?

P OInstrumentality

What is the probability that my good performance will lead to outcomes?

ValenceWhat value do I place on the potential outcomes?

Effort Performance Outcomes

Vroom’s expectancy theory

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Relationship to reinforcement theory

• Similarity

– Behavior is a function of its consequences

• Key difference

– Perceived contingencies are more important than actual contingencies

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• Need to insure that if people are willing to put forth effort that you help them succeed

– Provide tools, information, support, remove barriers

• Need to make sure that you follow through with reward system that is tied to performance.

– Be aware of employee performance

– Differential rewards for performance

• Need to offer employees valued rewards

– High valences

– Individualized

Implications for managers

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Three relevant perceptions:

1. Perceptions of outcomes received from performing a task (e.g., pay)2. Perceptions of inputs required to perform a task.3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a reference person

If: Outcomes Self Outcomes Reference Person

= Inputs Self Inputs Reference Person

Then equity exists

Equity theory

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Equity theory

• Basic assumptions

– People are motivated to maintain equity in exchange relationships

– Equity is assessed by making social comparisons

• Equity Os/Is = Or/Ir

• Underpayment inequity Os/Is < Or/Ir

• Overpayment inequity Os/Is > Or/Ir

• Reactions to inequality

– Tension (anger or guilt) – strength varies as a function of degree of inequity

– Attempt to reduce inequity

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Goal-setting theory

• Basic findings

– People assigned difficult and specific goals outperform those assigned easy, no, or ambiguous goals

• Reasoning behind goal-setting

– Direction - specific goals direct your focus to relevant activities

– Effort - need to devote more intense levels of effort toward difficult goals - assumes people are goal driven

– Persistence - specific, difficult goals encourage you to persist longer at a task than would be the case without such goals

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Goal-setting

• Boundary conditions

– Acceptance of and/or commitment to the goal

• Setting difficult but realistic goals

• Allow participation in goal setting

– Feedback

– Incentives (intrinsic or extrinsic rewards)

• SMART goals

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“Finding a Fit”

People for organizations and organizations for people

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

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Purpose

• Provide some background and data on principle of Person and Organization Fit

• Discuss the importance of Person and Organization Fit to job applicants and recruiters

• Discuss the steps that job applicants and recruiters can take in order to reap the benefits of Person and Organization Fit

• Present a tool to assist job applicants in assessing their values, needs, interests and skills.

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Three Types of “Fit” (Cable & DeRue, 2002)

• Personal Values – Organizational Values Fit– When an employee’s values match the organization’s and

co-workers’ values

• Business Interests and Personal Needs –Opportunities & Rewards Fit– When an employee’s interests and needs match the rewards

and returns that the organization provides to the employee

• Business Abilities – Job Requirements Fit– When an employee’s abilities match the demands that the

work puts on them

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Three Types of Fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002)

• Personal Values – Organizational Values Fit– When an employee’s values match the organization’s values

and co-workers’ values

• Significant relationship with:– citizenship behavior

– turnover decisions

– perceived organizational support

– organizational identification

– job satisfaction

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Three Types of Fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002)

• Business Interests and Personal Needs –Opportunities & Rewards Fit– When an employee’s needs match the rewards and returns

that the organization provides to the employee

• Significant relationship with:– job satisfaction

– career satisfaction

– occupational commitment

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Three Types of Fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002)

• Business Abilities – Job Requirements Fit– When an employee’s abilities match the demands that the

work puts on them

• Significant relationship with:– perceived organizational support

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Recruiters

Encouraged to be open and honest about the requirements and opportunities for candidates - these first interactions are the primary anchors for “psychological contracts”

Realistic and valid information about job and organization:– blend of positive and negative information based on the true

nature of the focal position

– attempts to keep the applicants level of expectation about the job within reality

• reduces the chances of the applicants to be hit by “Reality Shock” - breaking of the psychological contract

• can lead to lower feelings of being deceived, lower absenteeism, lower turnover and increase satisfaction

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Organizational Behavior

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

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Leadership Pipeline

managing self

managing managers

business manager

enterprise manager

managing others

functional manager

group manager

passage one

passage three

passage five

passage two

passage four

passage six

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Passage One: From Managing Self to Managing Others

Individual Contributor• Skills

– Technical or Professional proficiency

– Team play

– Relationship building for personal benefits, personal results

– Using the company tools, processes and procedures

• Work Values

– Getting results through personal proficiency

– High quality technical or professional work

– Accept the company values

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Passage One: From Managing Self to Managing Others

First-line Manager• Skills

– Planning

– Job design

– Employee selection

– Delegation

– Performance monitoring

• Work Values

– Getting results through others

– Success of direct reports

– Managerial work and disciplines

– Success of unit

– Performance measurement

– Coaching and feedback

– Rewards and motivation

– Communication and climate setting

– Relationship building

– Acquisition of resources

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Passage Two: From Managing Others to Managing Managers

Managing Managers• What they should do

– Select and train first-line managers

– Holding first-line managers accountable for managerial work

– Deploying and redeploying resources among units

– Managing the boundaries that separate units

• Five signs of misplaced effort

– Difficulty delegating

– Poor performance management

– Failure to build strong team

– A single-minded focus on getting the work done

– Choosing clones over contributors

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Managing up

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Misreading the relationship

• The relationship needs cooperation, dependability, and honesty in both directions

– Many employees fail to recognize how much their boss depends on them

– Many employees fail to see how much they depend on their boss for success

• Managers play a critical role of linking an individuals performance to the rest of the organization

– Many employees assume that bosses understand the situation and have all the information necessary

Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR

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Managing a mutually dependent situation

• Have a good understanding of you and the other person

– Strengths & weaknesses

– Work styles

– Needs

• Use the information (above) to develop the relationship

– Compatible to both work styles

– Based on mutual expectations

– Meets the critical needs of both people

Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR

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Things you should try to know about your boss

• Understand and appreciate your boss’s goals and pressures

– What are your boss’s organizational and personal objectives?

– What are your boss’s pressures – especially from his/her boss or peers?

– What is your boss’s preferred working style?

– What is your boss’s preferred communication method?

– Does your boss like or dislike conflict?

Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR

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Knowing oneself

• Gaining self-awareness and acting upon it

– Reflecting on past experiences both positive and negative

– Determine your basic emotional response to different situations

– Become aware of the types of situations in which you are likely to act in a “negative” or ineffective manner

Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR

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Employee-Boss relationships

• The boss usually has more power (employee is more dependent on the boss)

– Boss’s decisions and action put more constraints on the employee than the other way around

– Employees can become frustrated or angry

– Employees can react with resentment and rebellious actions

Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR

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Compatible work styles

• How bosses like to receive information

– Listeners

• Hear ideas and thoughts in real-time

• Speak in order to do analysis

• Start in-person and and then follow-up with memo

– Readers

• Read and study information before making decisions

• Analysis first, speak later

• Start with a memo and then follow-up in-person

Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR

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Compatible work styles (continued)

• Amount and of type information

– Continuous updates versus infrequent updates

– Details versus big picture

– Every boss needs to hear the bad news as well as good news. However, not all bosses receive bad news equally as well

• Good use of bosses time and resources

– Be sure to be “reasonable” with bosses time and resources

• Basically, if you can make your boss’s job easier by doing your job, then your relationship is likely to be good

Gabarro & Kotter (1993). Managing your boss. HBR

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Organizational Behavior

Session Six: Influence, Conformity and Group Processes

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

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Conformity

• Definition

– A change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure

• Types of conformity

– Compliance

– Identification

– Internalization (or acceptance)

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Compliance

• Publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing.

• This term best describes the behavior of a person who is motivated to gain reward or avoid punishment.

• All organisms respond to rewards and punishments.

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Identification

• As with compliance, do not behave in a particular way because such behavior is intrinsically satisfying.

• Adopt a particular behavior because it puts us in a satisfying relationship to the person or persons with whom we are identifying.

• Come to believe in the opinions and values that are adopted, though not very strongly.

• Want to be like some particular person.

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Internalization

• Both acting and believing in accord with social pressure.

• This is the most permanent, deeply rooted response to social influence.

• Internalization is motivated by a desire to be right.

• If the person who provides the influence is perceived to be trustworthy and of good judgment, we accept the belief he or she advocates and we integrate it into our belief system.

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Comparison of the three

• Compliance is the least enduring and has the least effect on theindividual, because people comply merely to gain reward or to avoid punishment.

• Rewards and punishments are very important means to get people to learn and to perform specific activities but are limited as techniques of social influence because they must be ever present to be effective - unless the individual discovers some additional reason for continuing the behavior.

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Comparison of the three

• You will continue to hold beliefs similar to the significant other (SO) as long as s/he remains important to you and those beliefs are not challenged by counter-opinions that are more convincing.

• If the SO’s beliefs change or s/he becomes less important to you, your beliefs can change. They can also change if other people who are more important to you express different beliefs.

• The effect of identification can also be dissipated by a desire to be right.

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Comparison of the three

• Internalization is the most permanent response to social influence because your motivation to be right is a powerful and self-sustaining force that does not depend on constant surveillance (as does compliance), or on your continued esteem for another person or group (as does identification).

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Comparison of the three

• Compliance

– the important component is reward power -the power of the influencer to dole out rewards and punishments.

• Identification

– the crucial component is attractiveness - the attractiveness of the person with whom we identify.

• Internalization

– the crucial component is credibility - the credibility of the person who supplies the information

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Classic Studies – Sherif Studies

• Sherif's studies of Norm formation

– 1936

– People looked at stationary light - and then formed a group consensus as to how far the light moved.

– Illustrated power of suggestibility. Later showed a suggestion could continue through five or more generations of participants.

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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Classic Studies – Sherif Studies

012345678

Alone 1 2 3

Subject 1Subject 2Subject 3

Trails with other subjects

Esti

mat

ed o

f M

ovem

ent

(in

ches

)

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Classic Studies – Asch Studies

• Asch's studies of group pressure

– 1956

– Asch believed intelligent people would not conform when they could readily see the truth for themselves.

– Showed people lines - a third of the time subjects were willing to go against their better judgment and agree with the group.

– About 75% went with the group at least once.

http://www.nd.edu/~rwilliam/xsoc530/conformity.html -Adapted from The Social Animal; Meyers; Michener et al.; Vander Zanden

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standard

comparisons

1 2 3

Classic Studies – Asch Studies

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Classic Studies – Asch Studies

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Classic Studies – Asch Studies

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Classic Studies – Asch Studies

• Distortion of judgment– Most of the subjects that yielded concluded their own

perceptions were inaccurate. – Lacking confidence in their own observations, they reported

not what they saw but what they felt must be correct. • Distortion of action

– A number of subjects admitted that they had not reported what they had in fact seen.

– They said they had yielded so as not to appear different or stupid in the eyes of other group members.

• Distortion of perception– A number of subjects said they were not aware their estimates

had been distorted by the majority. – They came to see the rigged majority estimates as correct.

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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies

• Milgram's obedience experiments

– 1974

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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies

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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies

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Classic Studies – Milgram Studies

• Milgram's obedience experiments

– In Sherif and Asch studies, there was no explicit pressure to conform.

– Sixty-three percent went to the maximum shock level.

– These studies show compliance can take precedence over one's own moral senses.

– Fragmenting evil makes it even more effective.

– We tend to make the fundamental attribution error when looking at such things - but Milgram said, "The most fundamental lesson of our study is that ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process."

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remote

voice feedback

proximity

touch proximity

female participants

Bridgeport

N 40 40 40 40 40 40

Mean Maximum Voltage

405 367 312 268 370 315

Percentage Obedient Participants

65.0 62.5 40.0 30.0 65.0 47.5

Classic Studies – Milgram Studies

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Groups and Barriers to Independent Behavior

• Risk of disapproval from other group members• Lack of perceived alternatives• Fear of disrupting the group's operations

– People fear independence will hamper the attainment of group goals

• Absence of communication among group members– Lacking information that others might join in the

nonconforming action• No feeling of responsibility for group outcomes• A sense of powerlessness

– If a person feels that he cannot change the situation, he is unlikely to try anything new

– The apathy becomes self-fulfilling

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What Increases and Decreases Compliance

• Unanimity

• Group size

• Cohesiveness

• Status

• Self esteem

• Legitimacy of authority.

– When an "assistant" took over, compliance dropped to 20%

– Away from Yale, compliance dropped to 48%

• Closeness of authority.

– By telephone, compliance dropped to 25%

• Difficulty and ambiguity

• Guilt

• Culture• Publicity and surveillance• Prior commitment• Emotional distance of the victim

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Reactions to Deviance (non-conformity)

• The group can try to restore conformity

– How much does the deviant's behavior interfere

• The group can reject the deviant

– The member can be expelled

– The group may not invite the deviant back

– Psychological isolation

• The group can change its own position and move into line with the deviant's (minority influence)

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Minority Influence

• Consistency

– A consistent position is persuasive because it implies that the minority is clearheaded, confident, and purposive

• Self confidence

– Charismatic leaders tend to have an unshakable faith in their cause, utter confidence in their ability to succeed, and an ability to communicate this faith in clear and simple language.

• Defections from the majority

– Defectors are often more persuasive than those who have been with the minority position all along. Defections can often lead to a snowball effect.

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Social loafing

• Decreased motivation and effort when working in a group

– Particularly when task is additive (single group product)

– Realize own contributions cannot be identified

– As group size increases, responsibility decreases

– Culturally specific

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Reduce social loafing

• Increase identifiability of individual output

• Increasing commitment

• Increase importance of task

• Encourage persons that their contributions are unique

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Organizational Behavior

Session Eight: Power and Leadership

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)

• Coercive power

• Reward power

• Legitimate power

• Referent power

• Expert power

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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)

• Coercive power– The power to force someone to do something against their will– Often physical although other threats may be used– Demonstrations of harm are often used– The power of dictators, despots and bullies– Its principal goal is compliance– Coercion is also the ultimate power of all governments– Although it is often seen as negative, it is also used to keep the

peace

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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)

• Reward power – One of the main reasons we work is for the money– There are many more forms of reward -- anything we find

desirable can be a reward – Recall Reinforcement Theory and Expectancy Theory– The power to exchange what the power wants for what others

want– Rewards can also be used to punish when withheld

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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)

• Legitimate power – Power which is invested in a role

– Kings, policemen and managers all have legitimate power

– The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one with coercive power – the face of “raw power’?

– Common trap: people in such roles can forget that people are obeying the position, not them

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Sources of Power (French & Raven, 1960)

• Referent power – The power from another person liking you or wanting to be

like you – It is the power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all

celebrities (by definition) and local social leaders– Those with referent power can also use it for coercion --

social exclusion

• Expert power– Having knowledge and skill that someone else requires– The basis for a very large proportion of human collaboration,

including most companies under the principle of specialization

– Labor strikes and threatening to quit

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Power enhancers

• Scarcity– less available = more desirable

• Desirability– A negative form includes undesirable power, like punishment

• Skill– Some people have power but are not good at wielding it

• Impact– More impact = greater attention to it

• Acquisition cost– Sometimes power costs a great deal to acquire, such as expert power

• Burn rate– Power, when used, may be used up or it may retain its 'full strength'. – Threats of punishment and rewards; knowledge is power”

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LEADERSHIP

TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Great Man Theory

• Assumptions– Leaders are born and not made– Great leaders will arise when there is a great need

• Description– Based on the study of people who were already great leaders

- often from the aristocracy. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding.

– The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddah.

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Trait Theories

• Assumptions– People are born with inherited traits– Some traits are particularly suited to leadership– People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient)

combination of traits

• Description– Attention was on discovering these traits, often by studying

successful leaders– The underlying assumption that if other people could also be

found with these traits, then they, too, could also become greatleaders

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Trait Theory Example: Stogdill (1974)

Traits

• Assertive • Cooperative • Decisive • Dependable • Dominant • Energetic• Persistent • Self-confident • Tolerant of stress • Adaptable to situations • Alert to social environment • Ambitious/Achievement-orientated • Willing to assume responsibility

Skills

• Clever (intelligent) • Conceptually skilled • Creative • Diplomatic and tactful • Fluent in speaking • Knowledgeable about group task • Organized (administrative ability) • Persuasive • Socially skilled

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Behavioral Theories

• Assumptions– Leaders can be made, rather than are born

– Successful leadership is based in definable, learnable behavior

• Description– Behavioral theories of leadership do not seek inborn traits or

capabilities. Rather, they look at what leaders actually do

– If success can be defined in terms of describable actions, then it should be relatively easy for others to act in the same way

• Discussion– This opens the floodgates to leadership development

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Kurt Lewin's leadership styles (Lewin, 1939)

• Description: Three styles of leadership around decision-making

1. Autocratic– Takes decisions without consulting with others– Found that this caused the most level of discontent– When there is no need for input on the decision, where the

decision would not change as a result of input, and where the motivation of people to carry out subsequent actions would not be affected whether they were involved in the decision-making

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Kurt Lewin's leadership styles (Lewin, 1939)

2. Democratic– Involves others, although the final decision may vary from the

leader having the final say to facilitating consensus– Usually appreciated by the people, especially if they have been

used to autocratic decisions with which they disagreed– Problematic when there are a wide range of opinions and there is

no clear way of reaching an equitable final decision3. Laissez-Faire

– Minimize the leader's involvement in decision-making, allows people to make their own decisions, although they may still be responsible for the outcome

– Works best when people are capable and motivated in making their own decisions, and where there is no requirement for a central coordination

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Michigan Studies (1950s)

• Task-oriented behavior• Relationship-oriented behavior• Participative leadership

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Michigan Studies (continued)

• Task-oriented behavior– Planning and scheduling work, coordinating activities, providing

necessary resources, and spent time guiding subordinates in setting task goals that were both challenging and achievable

• Relationship-oriented behavior– Effective managers also concentrated on their relationship with

their subordinates– More considerate, helpful and supportive of subordinates,

including helping them with their career and personal problems – Recognized effort with intrinsic as well as extrinsic reward– A hands-off form of supervision rather than close control– Set goals, provided guidelines and gave plenty of leeway as to

how the goals would be achieved

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Michigan Studies (continued)

• Participative leadership– Managing at the group level as well as individually

– For example using team meetings to share ideas and involve the team in group decisions and problem-solving

– The manager is responsible for results and is not absolved of responsibility. May make final decisions that take recommendations from the team into account.

– The effect of participative leadership is to build a cohesive team which works together rather than a set of individuals.

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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The Managerial Grid

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The Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1961)

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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2/3/2005

TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)

• The Contingency Model recognizes that leaders have general behavioral tendencies and specifies situations where certain leaders (or behavioral dispositions) may be more effective than others

• Least Preferred Co-Worker – Think of a person with which you have worked and would

like least to work with again, and then to score the person on scales of positive factors (friendly, helpful, cheerful, etc.) and negative factors (unfriendly, unhelpful, gloomy, etc.).

– High LPC leader generally scores the other person as positive and a low LPC leader scores them as negative.

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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)

• Least Preferred Co-Worker – High LPC leaders tend to have close and positive

relationships and act in a supportive way, even prioritizing the relationship before the task

– Low LPC leaders put the task first and will turn to relationships only when they are satisfied with how the work is going

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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)

• Leader-Member Relations– the degree of mutual trust, respect and confidence between

the leader and the subordinates

• Task Structure– the degree to which the task at hand is low in multiplicity

and high in verifiability, specificity, and clarity

• Leader Position Power– the power inherent in the leader's position itself

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The Contingency Model (Fiedler, mid 1960s)

• When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a “favorable situation”

• Low LPC leaders (task-motivated leaders) are most successful in either very favorable or very unfavorable situations

• High LPC leaders (relationship-motivated leaders) are most successful in an intermediate favorable situations

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Situational Leadership (Hersey & Blanchard, late 1960s)

• There an optimum way for leaders to adjust their behavior with different followers and increase their likelihood of success

• Leaders should adapt their style to follower 'maturity', based on how ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks – Competence

– Motivation/Commitment

• There are four leadership styles that match the four combinations of high/low readiness and willingness.

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S3

S1S4

S2

Low Supportive and Low DirectiveBehavior

High Directive and Low SupportiveBehavior

High Directive and High SupportiveBehavior

High Supportive and Low DirectiveBehavior

DEVELOPMENT LEVEL OF FOLLOWER(S)

DEVELOPED DEVELOPING

HIGH LOWMODERATE

D4 D1D2D3

DIRECTIVE BEHAVIOR

(High)

(High)(Low)

SUPPORTIVE

BEHAVIOR

Situ

atio

n

L

ead

er B

ehav

ior

“Rea

din

es”

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Levels of Follower(s) Development

• D1 - “Enthusiastic Beginner”– Low Competence– High Commitment

• D2 - “Disillusioned Learner” – Some Competence– Low Commitment

• D3 - “Reluctant Contributor” – Moderate to High Competence– Variable Commitment

• D4 - “Peak Performer” – High Competence– High Commitment

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Another look

Task Oriented Relationship Oriented

Area of FreedomFor Subordinates

Area of AuthorityBy the Leader

leader makes & announces

decision

leader presents ideas, asks for

questions

leader presents problems, gets

suggestions, makes decision

leader permits subordinates to function

within limits set by leader

Leader-Dominant

Follower-Dominant

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

Page 177: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Normative Model (Vroom & Yetton, 1973)

• Time– Immediate decision vs. ample time available

• Decision quality – Often important when there are many

alternatives– Also when there are serious implications for

selecting the best alternative• Decision acceptance

– Degree to which a follower accepts a decision made by a leader

– Leaders focus more on decision acceptance when decision quality is less important than process/implementation

Page 178: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Normative Model (Vroom & Yetton, 1973)

Determining Quality versus Acceptance

1. Quality Requirement (QR): How important is the technical quality of the decision?

2. Commitment Requirement (CR): How important is subordinate commitment to the decision?

3. Leader's Information (LI): Do you (the leader) have sufficient information to make a high quality decision on your own?

4. Problem Structure (ST): Is the problem well structured (e.g., defined, clear, organized, lend itself to solution, time limited, etc.)?

5. Commitment Probability (CP): If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision?

6. Goal Congruence (GC): Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving the problem?

7. Subordinate conflict (CO): Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely?

8. Subordinate information (SI): Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?

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Normative Model (Vroom & Yetton, 1973)

Five decision procedures

• Two autocratic– AI: Leader takes known information, then decides alone

– AII: Leader gets information from followers, then decides alone

• Two consultative– CI: Leader shares problem with followers individually, listens to

ideas, then decides alone

– CII: Leader shares problems with followers as a group, listens to ideas, then decides alone

• One is group-based– GII: Leader shares problems with followers as a group, then

seeks and accepts consensus agreement

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Path-Goal Theory (House & Mitchell, 1974)

• The way that leaders encourage and support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making the path that they should take clear and easy– Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go– Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there– Increasing the rewards along the route

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E PExpectancy

What is the probability that I can perform at the required

level if I try?

P OInstrumentality

What is the probability that my good performance will lead to outcomes?

ValenceWhat value do I place on the potential outcomes?

Effort Performance Outcomes

Motivation: Vroom’s expectancy theory

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Path-Goal Theory (House & Mitchell, 1974)

Approach depends on the situation• Directive leadership

– Specific advice and ground rules established and/or given

• Supportive leadership– Good relations are promoted and sensitivity to subordinates'

needs is shown

• Participative leadership– Decision making is based on consultation and information-

sharing

• Achievement-oriented leadership– Challenging goals are set and high performance is

encouraged while confidence is shown in the groups' ability

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Path-Goal Theory (House & Mitchell, 1974)

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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2/3/2005

TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Role Theory

• Assumptions– People define roles for themselves & others – People form expectations about the roles that they & others play– People encourage others to act within the role expectations – People will act within the roles they adopt

• Description– We all have internal schemas about the role of leaders– We act as role senders, e.g., through the decisions we take upon

ourselves and the decisions we leave to the leader– In organizations, there is formal & informal information about

roles: ‘leadership values’, culture, training sessions, modeling by senior managers, etc.

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Roles

• Description– People rapidly begin to meet the expectations they have about

the roles they take– In groups these are shared expectations of behavior– A trap of roles is that the role can literally take you over and you

can forget your real values and beliefs

• Research– Stanley Milgram’s effects of electric shock on learning– Philip Zimbardo’s prison guards and prisoners.

• the ‘guards’ soon became aggressive and threatening• the ‘prisoners’ became passive and withdrawn

• Role conflict – people have differing expectations of their leaders– leaders ideas vs. the others’ expectations– differing situations

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

Other

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Charismatic Leadership

• Charismatic leaders, by force of their personal abilities, can have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers

• Characteristics of charismatic leaders include:– High need for power

– High feelings of self-efficacy

– Conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs

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Charismatic Leadership (continued)

• Charismatic behaviors include:– Role modeling

– Image building

– Articulating goals

– Emphasizing high expectations

– Showing confidence

– Arousing follower motives

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Charismatic Leadership (continued)

• Pros and cons of charismatic leadership– Cons

– Emphasizes personalized power

– Leaders focus on themselves

– Pros

– Emphasizes socialized power

– Leaders empower followers

Page 194: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Charismatic Leadership (continued)

• Conger and Kanungo’s three-stage charismatic leadership model.

– Stage 1: The leader critically evaluates the status quo

– Stage 2: The leaders formulates and articulates future

goals and a idealized future vision

– Stage 3: The leader shows how the goals and vision can

be achieved

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Transactional & Transformational Leadership

• Transactional Leadership– Involves leader-follower exchanges necessary for achieving

routine performance

– Leader-follower exchanges involve:

– Works through creating clear structures

– Social systems work best with a clear chain of command

– When things go wrong, the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding)

– Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place

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Transactional & Transformational Leadership

• Transactional Leadership– The main limitation is the assumption of 'rational man', a

person who is largely motivated by money and simple reward, and hence whose behavior is predictable

Page 198: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Transactional & Transformational Leadership

• Transformational leadership– Broaden and elevate their followers’ interests

– Generate awareness and acceptance of the group’s purposes and mission

– Stir their followers to look beyond their own self-interests to the good of others

– One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion and confidence can easily be mistaken for truth and reality

– When the organization does not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be frustrated

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Dimensions of Transformational Leadership

• Charisma– Provides vision and a sense of mission; and instills pride, respect,

and trust in followers

• Inspiration– Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts;

expresses important purposes in simple ways

• Intellectual stimulation– Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving

• Individualized consideration– Provides personal attention, treats each employee individually,

and coaches and advises

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TraitTheories

BehaviorTheories

SituationTheories

OtherIssues

Great Man

Trait ListsMichiganStudies

Leader Grid

ContingencyModel

Situational Model

Roles

CharismaticLeaders

Lewin’sLeader Styles

Normative Model

Path-goalTheory

TransformationalLeaders

Managers vs.Leaders

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Management versus Leadership

• Management promotes stability or enables the organization to run smoothly

• Leadership promotes adaptive or useful changes• Persons in managerial positions may be involved

with both management and leadership• Both management and leadership are needed for

organizational success

Page 202: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Management versus Leadership

• Managers– Have subordinates

– Authoritarian, transactional style

– Work focus

– Seek comfort

• Leaders– Have followers

– Charismatic, transformational style

– People focus

– Seek risk

Page 203: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

Change Management

Bill Collins, Ph.D.

Rotterdam School of Management

"If you want truly to understand something, try to change it."

- Kurt Lewin

Page 204: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

Leading Change: John Kotter

Page 205: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Management versus Leadership

Management Leadership

• Planning & Budgeting– Establishing steps– Timetables– Allocating resources

• Organizing & Staffing – Establishing structure– Staffing and delegating– Providing policy

• Controlling & Problem-solving– Monitoring results– Identifying deviations from plans

• Establishing Direction– Developing a vision for future– Developing strategies for achieving

the vision

• Aligning People – Communicating direction in words

and deeds– Influence the creation of

teams/coalitions that understand vision

• Motivating & Inspiring– Energizing people to overcome

major political, bureaucratic and resource barriers

Page 206: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Resulting in different outcomes

“Management produces a degree of predictability and order and has the potential to consistently produce the short-term results expected by various stakeholders.”

Leadership produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the potential to produce extremely useful change.”

Both are necessary during change periods. For example, acquisitions

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Kotter’s 8 stages for leading major change

1. Establishing a sense of urgency2. Creating the guiding coalition3. Developing a vision & strategy4. Communicating the change vision5. Empowering broad-based action6. Generating short-term wins7. Consolidating gains and producing more change8. Anchoring new approach in the culture

Page 208: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

Leading Change: Kurt Lewin

Page 209: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Kurt Lewin’s model of change

Unfreeze Change Re-freeze

Page 210: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Lewin (1930s) and Kotter (1990)

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Communicating the change vision

Empowering broad-based action

Generating short-term wins

Consolidating gains and producing more change

Change

Anchoring new approach in the culture

Re-freeze

Page 211: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Establishing a sense of urgency

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Change Re-freeze

Page 212: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Establishing a sense of urgency

• URGENCY - Implement a shared diagnosis– Don’t want to underestimate amount of needed

– Focus on present and future – what are the expected outcomes?

– Determine degree of change: Change readiness• Look at history of change within your organization

• Determine risks and gains

– Identify new knowledge, skills and competencies• Identify current skill and talent pool

• Identify gaps in current and future needs

• Identify methods of closing skill and talent gaps

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Urgency: Creating earthquakes

Change Perceived as Unnecessary

Change Acceptance

Zone

Change Perceived as Unattainable

High Inertia High Stress

Acc

epta

nce

of

Ch

ange

Size of Identity Gapnarrow wide

Low

Hig

h

Reger, Mullane, Gustafson and DeMarie (1994)

Page 214: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Creating the guiding coalition

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Change Re-freeze

Page 215: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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Creating the guiding coalition

• Guiding Coalition– Create a powerful cross-functional and cross-company team

– Right People• Strong position power, broad expertise and high credibility

• Know your champions and your barrier creators

• Leadership AND Management skills

– Tool for finding• Those things for you

• Those things against you

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Force Field Analysis

Equilibrium

AB

C DE

UV

ZYW X

Perf

orm

ance

-

+

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Change Readiness

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RSM competency survey

4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.43.2

3.0

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Com

mun

icat

ion

Per

suat

ion

Ethi

cal

Cus

tom

er/C

lient

Orie

ntat

ion

Stra

tegi

c & V

isio

nary

Thi

nkin

g

Res

pons

ibili

ty

Inte

rper

sona

l und

erst

andi

ng

Man

agin

g & D

evel

opin

g O

ther

s

Team

Lea

der

Res

ults

Orie

ntat

ion

Initi

ativ

e

Anal

ytic

al S

kills

/Pro

blem

Sol

ving

Team

wor

k & C

oope

ratio

n

Net

wor

king

Flex

ibili

ty &

Ada

ptab

ility

Self-

cont

rol

Sel

f-dev

elop

men

t

Man

agin

g Pro

ject

s an

d C

hang

e

Org

aniz

atio

nal K

now

ledg

e

Exte

rnal

Aw

aren

ess

Posi

tive

Sel

f-im

age

Man

agin

g Se

lf

Inno

vatio

n

Pos

ition

-Spe

cific

Exp

ertis

e

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RSM competency survey

4.3

3.93.7

3.5 3.4 3.33.1 3.1 3.0 3.0 2.9

2.82.7 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3

2.1 2.0

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Org

aniz

atio

nal K

now

ledg

e

Exte

rnal

Aw

aren

ess

Pos

ition

-Spe

cific

Exp

ertis

e

Sel

f-dev

elop

men

t

Cus

tom

er/C

lient

Orie

ntat

ion

Man

agin

g Pro

ject

s an

d C

hang

e

Res

ults

Orie

ntat

ion

Team

wor

k & C

oope

ratio

n

Com

mun

icat

ion

Man

agin

g & D

evel

opin

g O

ther

s

Net

wor

king

Man

agin

g Se

lf

Per

suat

ion

Res

pons

ibili

ty

Inte

rper

sona

l und

erst

andi

ng

Anal

ytic

al S

kills

/Pro

blem

Sol

ving

Initi

ativ

e

Team

Lea

der

Self-

cont

rol

Stra

tegi

c & V

isio

nary

Thi

nkin

g

Inno

vatio

n

Posi

tive

Sel

f-im

age

Flex

ibili

ty &

Ada

ptab

ility

Ethi

cal

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Developing a vision & strategy

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Change Re-freeze

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Developing a vision & strategy

• Effective VISION– Create a unified strategy, mission, expected results, timeline

• Implement a shared diagnosis

• Gather information (and participation) throughout Vopak and acquired company (from key players and others)

– Characteristics• Imaginable

• Desirable

• Feasible

• Focused

• Flexible

• Communicable

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Unfreeze: Climate and Culture

• “Employees’ values and beliefs (part of culture) influences their interpretations of organizational policies, practices and procedures (climate).”

• Top Management beliefs are a large part of the organizational culture– McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

• The nature of interpersonal relationships

• The nature of hierarchy

• The nature of work

• The focus of support and rewards

Schneider, Brief and Guzzo (1996)

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What are your assumptions about people?

• Do you believe that people are trustworthy?

• Do you believe that people seek responsibility and accountability?

• Do you believe that people seek meaning in their work?

• Do you believe that people naturally want to learn?

• Do you believe that people don’t resist change but they resist being changed?

• Do you believe that people prefer work to being idle?

(Maslow on Management)

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Communicating the change vision

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Communicating the change vision

Change Re-freeze

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Communicating the change vision

• COMMUNICATE– Determine key communication messages and methods

• Forest = Vision, strategy, mission, and expected outcomes

• Trees = e.g., Layoffs? - communicate fair treatment and business necessity

– Key elements• Simplicity

• Examples and stories

• Multiple forums

• Repetition

• Leadership by example

• Explanation of seeming inconsistencies

• Two-way communication

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Basic Time Orientation in Messages

• Past– Exists to show past glories and successes

• Present– Counts for immediacy

• Future– Vision and ideas

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Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate - we can not consecrate - we can not hallow - this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us - that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion - that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain - that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom - and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

Abraham Lincoln, November 19, 1863

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Empowering broad-based action

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Communicating the change vision

Empowering broad-based action

Change Re-freeze

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Empowering broad-based action

• EMPOWER others to act on vision (all levels)– Define roles & responsibilities to reach shared vision

– Set goals and measure performance: create accountability

– Develop methods for acquiring new knowledge, skills and competencies

– Align systems and structures with vision and strategy

– Provide training

– Manager roles• Managers remove obstacles

• Managers define and reinforce boundaries

• Managers support and champion new ideas and processes

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Generating short-term wins

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Communicating the change vision

Empowering broad-based action

Generating short-term wins

Change Re-freeze

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Generating short-term wins

• Planning and creating WINS– Set goals and measure performance: create accountability– Rewarding participation and successful change– Celebrate wins (matching the corporate culture)– Consolidating changes and continuing change

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Attitudes

Attitude

SubjectiveNorm

Intention to behave

Behavior

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Theory of Reasoned Action

Attitude toward a behavior =

evaluation of the desirability of the consequences

beliefs about the consequences of behaving

X

Attitude toward a behavior

Subjective Norms(what others will think)

Intention to act =

+

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Attitudes

Attitude

SubjectiveNorm

Intention to behave

Behavior

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Attitudes

Attitude

SubjectiveNorm

Intention to behave

Behavior

PerceivedBehavioral

Control

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Attitudes

Attitude

SubjectiveNorm

Intention to behave

Behavior

PerceivedBehavioral

ControlACCESSIBILITY

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Attitude Change: Cognitive Redefinition

• Semantic redefinition– Words can mean something different from what

we had assumed• Cognitive broadening

– A concept can be much more broadly interpreted than what we had assumed

• New standards of judgment or evaluation– The anchors we used for judgment and

comparison are not absolute, and if we use a different anchor our scale of judgment shifts

• Where does this new information come from?– Role models, champions, mentors– Trial and error

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Consolidating gains & producing more change

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Communicating the change vision

Empowering broad-based action

Generating short-term wins

Consolidating gains and producing more change

Change Re-freeze

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Consolidating gains & producing more change

• Producing CHANGE leads to more change– More change can be a sign of successful change

– Needing more help can be a sign of success

– LEADERSHIP from senior management

– Management & leadership from below

– Reduction of unnecessary interdependencies

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Anchoring new approach in the culture

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Communicating the change vision

Empowering broad-based action

Generating short-term wins

Consolidating gains and producing more change

Change

Anchoring new approach in the culture

Re-freeze

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Anchoring new approach in the culture

• ANCHORING and stabilizing– Refreeze Institutionalizing new approaches

• Reinforcing and enabling the new approaches through HR processes:

- selecting and training employees

- designing new jobs and roles

- measuring and rewarding performance

- pay, promotion and succession

• Eliminating “that’s not my job” or “just let me do my job”

• Depends on results - proof that it works and is rewarded

• May involve turnover

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Summary

Unfreeze

Establishing a sense of urgency

Creating the guiding coalition

Developing a vision & strategy

Communicating the change vision

Empowering broad-based action

Generating short-term wins

Consolidating gains and producing more change

Change

Anchoring new approach in the culture

Re-freeze

Page 243: Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual ... · Organizational Behavior Session One: Individual Differences, Attitudes and Values Bill Collins, Ph.D. Rotterdam School of Management

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SelectionAttitude/fit, not skills

Interviews: employees & customers

Reward SystemCompressed pay

Non-monetary rewards

TrainingCulture and skills

Very specific to Southwest

Ownership: profit-sharingLong-term and psychic ownershipPuts strong emphasis on growth

Information SharingOpenness

EgalitarianismPerformance/cost metrics

Flexible deploymentBroad jobs

Limited work rules

StrategySimplicity (e.g., in pricing)Superior and fun service

Clear target marketHigh productivity

Alignment Alignment

Consistency

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Example Link between HR and OB

Human Resources

“What you reward is what you get”

- Jack Welch

Organizational Behavior

“How we think determines what we measure.”

- Albert Einstein

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