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Atlas of high altitude wind power

Cristina L. ArcherKen Caldeira

Department of Global EcologyCarnegie Institute for Science

260 Panama StreetStanford, CA 94305

16 June 2008

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Contents

1 Wind power density distributions by level 31.1 Annual percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 DJF percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201.3 MAM percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371.4 JJA percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541.5 SON percentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2 Optimal wind power density and optimal height distributions 88

3 Dealing with intermittency 94

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Chapter 1Wind power density distributions bylevel

1.1 Annual percentiles

This section contains selected percentiles of wind power density at all levels between80 and 12,000 m above ground level calculated for the years 1979-2006 from the 6-hourlyNCEP/DOE reanalyses. The seasonal percentiles are available in the next sections.

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Figure 1.1: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 80 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.2: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 500 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.3: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 750 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.4: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.5: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1500 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.6: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 2000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.7: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 3000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.8: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 4000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.9: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 5000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.10: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 6000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.11: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 7000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.12: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 8000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.13: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 9000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.14: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 10,000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.15: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 11,000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.16: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 12,000 m during years in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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1.2 DJF percentiles

This section contains selected percentiles of wind power density at all levels between80 and 12,000 m above ground level, calculated for December-january-February (DJF) in1979-2006 from the 6-hourly NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.18: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 500 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE re-analyses. 22

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Figure 1.19: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 750 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE re-analyses. 23

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Figure 1.20: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 24

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Figure 1.21: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1500 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 25

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Figure 1.22: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 2000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 26

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Figure 1.23: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 3000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 27

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Figure 1.24: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 4000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 28

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Figure 1.25: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 5000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 29

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Figure 1.26: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 6000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 30

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Figure 1.27: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 7000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 31

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Figure 1.28: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 8000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 32

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Figure 1.29: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 9000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 33

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Figure 1.30: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 10,000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 34

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Figure 1.31: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 11,000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 35

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Figure 1.32: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 12,000 m during December-January-February in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 36

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1.3 MAM percentiles

This section contains selected percentiles of wind power density at all levels between 80and 12,000 m above ground level, calculated for March-April-May (MAM) in 1979-2006 fromthe 6-hourly NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.33: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 80 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.34: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 500 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.35: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 750 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.37: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1500 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.38: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 2000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.39: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 3000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.40: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 4000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.41: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 5000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.42: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 6000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.43: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 7000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.44: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 8000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.45: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 9000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.46: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 10,000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.47: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 11,000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.48: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 12,000 m during March-April-May in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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1.4 JJA percentiles

This section contains selected percentiles of wind power density at all levels between 80and 12,000 m above ground level, calculated for June-July-August (JJA) in 1979-2006 fromthe 6-hourly NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.49: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 80 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.50: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 500 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.51: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 750 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.52: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1000 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.53: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1500 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.54: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 2000 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.56: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 4000 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.58: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 6000 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.60: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 8000 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.61: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 9000 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.63: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 11,000 m during June-July-August in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 1.65: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 80 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 72

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Figure 1.66: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 500 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 73

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Figure 1.67: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 750 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 74

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Figure 1.68: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 75

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Figure 1.69: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 1500 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 76

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Figure 1.70: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 2000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 77

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Figure 1.72: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 4000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 79

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Figure 1.73: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 5000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 80

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Figure 1.74: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 6000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 81

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Figure 1.75: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 7000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 82

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Figure 1.76: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 8000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 83

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Figure 1.77: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 9000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 84

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Figure 1.78: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 10,000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 85

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Figure 1.79: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 11,000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 86

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Figure 1.80: Wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of thetimes at 12,000 m during September-October-November in 1979-2006 from the NCEP/DOEreanalyses. 87

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Figure 2.1: Optimal wind power density (kW/m 2 , left panels) and optimal height (km, rightpanels) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of the times during years in 1979-2006 fromthe NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 2.4: Optimal wind power density (kW/m 2 , left panels) and optimal height (km, rightpanels) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of the times during JJA in 1979-2006 fromthe NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 2.5: Optimal wind power density (kW/m 2 , left panels) and optimal height (km, rightpanels) that was exceeded 50%, 68%, and 95% of the times during SON in 1979-2006 fromthe NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Chapter 3Dealing with intermittency

This section addresses the issue of intermittency of high altitude wind power. Threepossible solutions are analyzed: increasing the area swept by the blades of the high altitudedevice (by either making larger devices or by adding more and more of them); utilizingstorage devices, such as batteries or hydroelectric reservoirs, to store the excess energyand use it when needed; interconnecting several devices that are geographically farther andfarther away. All solutions are addressed with the following plots, which show contours of wind power per square meter of area swept by the blades (i.e., wind power density) at differentreliabilities (50% through 99.9%) that can be supplied by a combination of battery storageand increasingly larger transmission networks (as circular areas of given radius around agiven city). The ve largest cities in the world are shown, i.e., Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City,New York, and Sao Paulo. Data were obtained from the optimal wind power density in theprevious section.

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Figure 3.1: Contours of wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that can be provided in Tokyo fromoptimal winds with 50% (a), 68% (b), and 90% (c) as a function of battery size (kWh/m 2 )and transmission distance (km), from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 3.2: Contours of wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that can be provided in Tokyo fromoptimal winds with 95% (a), 99% (b), and 99.9% (c) as a function of battery size (kWh/m 2 )and transmission distance (km), from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 3.3: Contours of wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that can be provided in Seoul fromoptimal winds with 50% (a), 68% (b), and 90% (c) as a function of battery size (kWh/m 2 )and transmission distance (km), from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 3.4: Contours of wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that can be provided in Seoul fromoptimal winds with 95% (a), 99% (b), and 99.9% (c) as a function of battery size (kWh/m 2 )and transmission distance (km), from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 3.6: Contours of wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that can be provided in Mexico Cityfrom optimal winds with 95% (a), 99% (b), and 99.9% (c) as a function of battery size(kWh/m 2 ) and transmission distance (km), from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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Figure 3.9: Contours of wind power density (kW/m 2 ) that can be provided in Sao Paulo fromoptimal winds with 50% (a), 68% (b), and 90% (c) as a function of battery size (kWh/m 2 )and transmission distance (km), from the NCEP/DOE reanalyses.

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