UNIVERSITAS INDONESIA

Assignment 1PRELIMINARY DESIGN OFCOCOA BUTTER SUBSTITUTE (CBS) PRODUCTIONFROM PALM OIL

GROUP 1Priscilla Deni (1006686686)Nurul Aisyah S.(1006775943)Eka N. Sharfina Irianto(1006661235)Muhammad Saefuddin(1006761055)Adi Surya Kusuma(1006686345)

FACULTY OF ENGINEERINGCHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENTBIOPROCESS ENGINEERINGDEPOK201344

Universitas IndonesiaTABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTSiiTABLE OF FIGURESivLIST OF TABLESviCHAPTER I INTRODUCTION11.1Background11.2Objective41.3Theory41.3.1Cocoa Butter Substitute41.3.2Lipids61.3.3Enzymatic Interesterification81.4Analysis91.4.1Market and Capacity Analysis91.4.2Raw Material Analysis171.4.3Plant Location Analysis21CHAPTER II PROCESS SELECTION262.1Alternative Process262.1.1Pre-Treatment: Crude Palm Oil (CPO) Refining Process262.1.2Pre-Treatment: Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) Extraction Process292.1.3Modification of Oil and Fat312.1.4CBS Purification362.2Process Selection372.2.1CPO Refining Process371.2.2PKO Extraction Process422.2.3Modification of Oil and Fat432.3Selected Process Description502.3.1CPO Refining Process: Physical Method502.3.2PKO Extraction: Mechanical Extraction582.3.3Homogenization612.3.4Enzymatic Interesterification612.3.5Distillation642.3.6Solidification and Packaging66CHAPTER III MASS & ENERGY BALANCE693.1Mass Balance693.2Energy Balance73

26Universitas IndonesiaTABLE OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1 Statistic of Palm Oil Plantation in Indonesia2Fig. 1.2 Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and Palm Kernel Oil (PKO)3Fig. 1.3 Mass Composition of Fresh Fruit Bunch4Fig. 1.4 SFAs, MUFAs cis, and MUFAs trans7Fig. 1.5 1-palmitoyl 2-oleoyl 3-linolenoyl glycerol7Fig. 1.6 Phosphotidate8Fig. 1.7 Enzymatic interesterification8Fig. 1.8 SUS Enzymatic Interesterification9Fig. 1.9 Distribution of Oil Palm in Indonesia19Fig. 1.10 Plant Location in Cikande23Fig. 1.11 Location of PTPN VIII Kertajaya25Fig. 2.1 Chemical and Physical Refining Routes27Fig. 2.2 Mechanical Extraction of Palm Kernel Oil31Fig. 2.3 Modification of Oils and Fat32Fig. 2.4 Hydrogenation Process34Fig. 2.5 Interesterification of Triacylglycerol Molecules35Fig. 2.6 Flow Diagram of Dry-Degumming Process39Fig. 2.7 Flow Diagram of Acid-Degumming Process40Fig. 2.8 Flow Diagram of EDTA-Degumming Process41Fig. 2.9 Simplified Flowsheet of Physical Refining51Fig. 2.10 Chemical structure of most common phosphatides51Fig. 2.11 Degumming Reaction52Fig. 2.12 Effect of Phosphoric Acid Dosage on Peroxide Value & FFA53Fig. 2.13 Effect of Bleaching Period and Temperature54Fig. 2.14 Adsorption Isotherms55Fig. 2.15 Bleaching Effect of an Oil Dependent on Different Processing Parameters56Fig. 2.16 Niagara Filter57Fig. 2.17 Hammer Mill59Fig. 2.18 Screw Press60Fig. 2.19 Clarifier61Fig. 2.20 Interesterification Reactor64Fig. 2.21 Steam Distillation Process66Fig. 2.22 Solid CBS67Fig. 2.23 BFD of CBS Production67Fig. 2.24 PFD of CBS Production68

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Cocoa Butter Alternative1Table 1.2 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (ton)3Table 1.3 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (Ha)3Table 1.4 FA Composition of CPO and PKO5Table 1.5 Quality Parameter for RBDPO5Table 1.6 SUS Component of CBS and CB6Table 1.7 Melting Point based on RBDPO : PKO6Table 1.8. Cocoa Butter Substitute Demand in Indonesia (ICCO, 2012)12Table 1.9 Projected demand of CBS until 204612Table 1.10 Market Analysis of CBS15Table 1.11 Calculation of Production Capacity (1)16Table 1.12 Calculation of Production Capacity (2)16Table 1.13 Average Analysis of Palm Kernel Oil18Table 1.14 Plantation Production by Plant Type in Indonesia (Tons)**19Table 1.15 Analysis of Plant Location23Table 1.16 Chocolate Factories in Banten24Table 1.17 Chocolate Factories in West Java24Table 2.1 Comparison of Chemical and Physical Method for CPO Refining38Table 2.2 Comparison of Alternative Degumming Process41Table 2.4 Comparison of Method for PKO Extraction42Table 2.5 Oil and Fat Modification Method Comparison43Table 2.6 Interestrification Method Comparison47Table 2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Enzyme Immobilization48Table 2.8 CBS Purificaton Method Comparison50Table 2.9 Type of Lipases62Table 3.1 CPO Input69Table 3.2 Mass Balance of Degumming Process69Table 3.3 Mass Balance of Bleaching Process69Table 3.4 Mass Balance of Filtration Process70Table 3.5 Mass Balance of Deodorization Process70Table 3.6 Palm Kernel Composition70Table 3.7 Milling Process of Palm Kernel70Table 3.8 Grinding Process of Palm Kernel71Table 3.9 Steam Conditioning Process71Table 3.10 Screw Pressing Process71Table 3.11 Clarification Process71Table 3.12 Mixing of RBDPO and PKO Process71Table 3.13 Mass Balance of Interesterification Process72Table 3.14 Mass Balance of Distillation Process72Table 3.15 Mass Balance of Solidification and Packaging72Table 3.16 Packaging Calculation72Table 3.17 Cocoa Butter Substitute Composition73

CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION

1.1 BackgroundChocolate is a confectionery product made from cocoa beans and other additives. Chocolate with unique taste, variant price, has nutrition and function to improving mood cause this product are very popular with children and teenagers. Based on database from Kementrian Perindustrian RI, in Indonesia can be found 105 chocolate industry to supplying of chocolate demands throughout Indonesia. Large demands cause requires a lot of raw material for production. The largest composition for manufacturing chocolate is cocoa that contain cocoa butter.Therefore, cocoa butter influence percentage of chocolate price. Chocolate industry needs a alternative material to decrease production cost. Alternative material that can replace cocoa butter must be suitable from chemical structure side or physical properties of cocoa butter. There are have 3 types of cocoa butter alternative including Cocoa Butter Substitute (CBS), Cocoa Butter Replace (CBR), Cocoa butter Equivalent (CBE).Table 1.1 Cocoa Butter AlternativeCOCOA BUTTER ALTERNATIVE

Lauric FatsNon Lauric Fats

Cocoa Butter Substitute(CBS)Cocoa Butter Replacer(CBR)Cocoa Butter Equivalent(CBE)

from vegetable oilfrom vegetable oilfrom vegetable oil

lauric acidelaidic acidsimilar triglyceride with CBA

fully compatible with CBA

source: Hernandez, Edgar. 2005. Smart Blend in Confectionery Fats. Sandiego: Alainza TeamCocoa butter alternative must contain triglyceride or solid in room temperature and melting in body temperature. Cocoa butter substitute can production form vegetable or plantation. It has 54 % lauric acid that can affects characteristic of chocolate. Likewise cocoa butter replace that has 50% elaidic acid. The other is cocoa butter equivalent it has similar triglyceride like cocoa butter and fully compatible to be cocoa butter alternative, but it has highest price than CBS or CBR.Cocoa butter substitute can be derived from vegetable oil. For examples are coconut oil, shea oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil. Indonesia as an agricultural country has a large palm oil plantation. This quantity continues to increase from 2008 to 2012 in productivity ton mass or hectare plantation area.

Fig. 1.1 Statistic of Palm Oil Plantation in Indonesiasource: ekonomi.kompasiana.comSumatra is the largest island that production a palm oil in Indonesia about 17.317.295 tons / years with 5.913.585 Ha area plantation. Other islands are Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Papua. Several palm oil plantation in Indonesia belong to Raja Garuda Mas, Wilmar, Sinar Mas Group, Astra Agro Lestari, London Sumatra Group, Bakrie Group, Guthrie, Socfindo Group, Cilandra Perkasa Group and Kurnia Group with their affiliations. Then, only 27% Palm Oil Plantation belongs to government.

Table 1.2 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (ton)

Source: Direktorat Jendral Perkebunan

Table 1.3 Palm Oil Production in Indonesia (Ha)

Source: Direktorat Jendral PerkebunanThe amount of palm oil production caused Indonesia to be the largest exporter palm oil in the world around 18 million tons years. This condition not supported by development of processing palm oil to be a product that more benefit and profitable than export it. There is only 98 industries in Indonesia that can produce oil and his derivate from palm oil. Several of derivate palm oil production are crude palm oil (CPO), palm kernel oil (PKO) and oleochemical palm oil (OPO). They have some byproduct such as for margarine, cream, ice creams, confectionary, bakery fats, noodle, soap, detergent, shampoo, and cosmetic productions.

Fig. 1.2 Crude Palm Oil (CPO) and Palm Kernel Oil (PKO)source: Hernandez, Edgar. 2005. Smart Blend in Confectionery Fats. Sandiego: Alainza TeamSome of that products are still produced in outer Indonesia. So, we must develop production of palm oil byproduct in Indonesia to get more income than export it. Researcher note that CPO and PKO are vegetable oil that can be used as CBS. More over quantity plantation, chemical and physical characteristic, and lower price of palm oil than cocoa butter can be some reason for using palm oil as cocoa butter substitute (CBS).1.2 ObjectiveObjective of this CBS plant design is:1. Fulfill demand of cocoa butter alternatives for chocolate production in Indonesia2. To increase of benefit and profit from palm oil production3. Supply good production CBS from palm oil1.3 Theory1.3.1 Cocoa Butter Substitute

Fig. 1.3 Mass Composition of Fresh Fruit BunchPardamean, Maruli. 2008. Panduan Lengkap Pengelolaan Kebun dan Pabrik Kelapa Sawit. Jakarta: Agroedia PustakaPortion of palm oil tree that very valuable is palm fruit bunch (PFB). PFB contains of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) and condensate water. FFB can produce crude palm oil (CPO), palm kernel oil (PKO), and empty fruit bunch (EFB). They are have fatty acids that could be the same type or different. The different type of fatty acid that combine to form of different triglyceride. The short chain fatty acids are of lower melting point and are more soluble in water. Whereas, the longer chain fatty acids have higher melting points. The melting point is also dependent on degree of non-saturation. Unsaturated acids will have a lower melting point compared to saturated fatty acids of similar chain length.Table 1.4 FA Composition of CPO and PKOFA CompositionCPOPKO

C06:00.3 %

C08:04.4 %

C10:03.7 %

C12:0Lauric Acid0.2 %48.3 %

C14:0Myristic Acid1.1 %15.6 %

C16:0Palmitic Acid44.0 %7.8 %

C18:0Stearic Acid4.5 %2.0 %

C18:1Oleic Acid39.2 %15.1 %

C18:2Linoleic Acid10.1 %2.7 %

C18:3Linolenic Acid0.2 %

Others0.9 %

Source: Yusoff, Suria Affandi. Food Application of Palm Oil. Sime Darby PlantationOil has largest percentage in CPO and PKO components. Oil component such as triglyceride, diglyceride, monoglyceride, and FFA. They are has function to modify melting point of CBS by interesterification reaction. Specifically, saturated-unsaturated-saturated (SUS) triglyceride is most important substance to produce CBS. There are three triglyceride in CBS such as POP, POS, and SOS (P = palmitic; O = oleic; S = stearic). CPO need to be bleached and deodorized, so it can be used as CBS. CPO is already bleached and deodorized can be called RBDPO (Refinined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil).Table 1.5 Quality Parameter for RBDPO

Source: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaTable 1.6 SUS Component of CBS and CBCompositionCBSCB

SUS80 %70 %

POP10 %13 19 %

POS25 45 %36 42 %

SOS45 70 %23 29 %

Other Component20 %30 %

Source: Kao Corporation. 1986. Cacao Butter Substitute Composition. European Patent ApplicationBesides that, RBDPO must be combined with Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) from palm kernel. Almost the same as CPO, PKO has triglyceride as largest component. Combination of RBDPO and PKO can produce good melting point. Although difference comparison of RBDO : PKO can make difference in melting point. Table 1.7 Melting Point based on RBDPO : PKORBDPO : PKOMelting Point

0:126 oC

3:733 oC

4:633 oC

6:434 oC

7:335 oC

1:050 oC

Source: BR. Tarigan, Juliati. 2005. Pembuatan CBS Melalui Reaksi Interesterifikasi antara RBDPO dan PKO dengan Menggunkan Katalis Natrium Hidroksida. Medan: Universitas Sumatera Utara1.3.2 LipidsFatty acids (FA) consist of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen arranged as a carbon chain skeleton with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end. These are three type of fatty acid such as saturated fatty acid (SFAs), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). They are distinguished by total their double bound. Double bounds are to prevent rotation of the carbon atoms along the bond axis. This give isomers configuration (cis or trans) that can only be changed by breaking the bonds with hydrolysis.

Fig. 1.4 SFAs, MUFAs cis, and MUFAs transSource: Norris, Sonya. 2007. Trans Fats: The Health Burden. Canada

Glycerol is a three hydric alcohol that contai three hydroxyl gorups (-OH) that can combine with fatty acids to form monoacylglycerol (MAG), diacylglycerol (DAG), and triacylglycerol (TAG). Triglycerides are the main constituents of vegetable oils and animal fat. They may be solid or liquid at normal room temperatures. They are called fats or butters when solid, and called oils when liquid form. A triglyceride also called traicylglycerol (TAG), is a formed from one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids (FA). MAG, DAG, and TAG ate classified as esters which are compouds created by the reaction between acids and alcohols that release water (H2O) as by-product. Fig. 1.5 1-palmitoyl 2-oleoyl 3-linolenoyl glycerolSource: Lipids. www.lipid.org

Phosphoglycerides (phospholipids) are polar lipid. It has the glycerol backbone, 2 fatty acids, and a phosphoryl ester group (phosphoric acid). They are amphipathic due to the presence of a polar (head) and a nonpolar (tail). The simplest phosphoglyceride is phosphatidate. It is rare in nature.

Fig. 1.6 PhosphotidateSource: Lipids. www.chem.latech.edu1.3.3 Enzymatic InteresterificationInteresterification is one of the process used to modify the physico-chemical characteristic fats. It is an acyl-rearrangement reaction on the glycerol molecule. This method as alternatives to hydrogenation can be used for health conscious people. Enzymatical interesterification uses lipase as catalyst.In a simple way, enzymatic interesterification reaction is discribe as a follow,

Fig. 1.7 Enzymatic interesterificationSource: De Greyt, Wim. 2004. Chemical vs Enzymatic Interesterification. Belgium

Enzymatic interesterification reaction of saturated-unsaturated-saturated (SUS) polyacyltriglyceride has difference with simple enzymatic interesterification. Unsaturated fatty acid will be usually in Sn2. Although both saturated fatty acids in Sn1 and Sn3. That is will make four kind tryacylglyceride.

Fig. 1.8 SUS Enzymatic InteresterificationSource: De Greyt, Wim. 2004. Chemical vs Enzymatic Interesterification. BelgiumLipase Enzyme need to be immobilized to avoid enzyme in finished product. Another function of immobilization is enable re-use of enzyme for better process economy and stabilizes enzyme kinetic. Except that, enzyme has critical temperature in 70oC. This method usually be used in continuous process with plug flow reactor.1.4 Analysis1.4.1 Market and Capacity AnalysisCocoa Butter Substitute (CBS) is vegetable oil-derived product that is used to substitute cocoa bean-derived cocoa butter fatty acid. CBS contains several fatty acids that have sufficiently identical taste and characteristics to substitute genuine cocoa butter. In the design planning, we will use palm oil as the main ingredient to produce CBS.CBS is used as ingredient for various chocolate products be it food or beverage. Palm oil-derived CBS has several advantages over genuine cocoa butter. Palm oil is significantly cheaper that cocoa bean which implies the lower production cost of palm oil-derived CBS. In fact, palm oil is the cheapest and most widely available source of vegetable oil available on market surpassing other sources such as coconut or maize oil. This can create a cheaper product with similar performance that can surpass and outperform other cocoa product. CBS has different fatty acid contents from genuine cocoa butter which cause several distinct physical characteristic, one of them is the higher melting point. This creates an opportunity to improve the resilience of chocolate products sold in Indonesia. Cocoa butter based chocolate products are vulnerable to high temperature typical in tropical countries. The lower melting point of genuine cocoa butter makes it unsuitable for the products to be sold and transported without proper refrigeration or climate control. The adoption of CBS as ingredients for chocolate products will remove this major hindrance. The purpose of the development of the CBS industry is to make good use of potential market Indonesia has to offer. Indonesia as other typical developing nations has a low consumption of chocolate per capita relative to more developed nations. As the progressing trends show, Indonesian population has growing appetite for chocolate which mean growing demand for chocolate. This presents a great opportunity for CBS market. The increasing volume is reflected from the Ministry of Industry which stated that Indonesian demand for chocolate products will be growing at a rate of approximately 3% per annum. This trend will continue or possibly accelerate considering that with the growing wealth and disposable income of the general populations, people tend to spend more of their calories intake in better not more calories. Thus it is safe to assume that more luxurious calories intake such as chocolate is gaining market in growing economy like Indonesia.Analysis on competitor show that CBS market is mostly filled with coconut oil based CBS. Coconut oil as source of vegetable oil has proved to be a difficult source due to the low volume and availability. The production of coconut oil has been steadily declining as more vegetable oil based product turn to palm oil as a source. Even without the stagnating growth of coconut oil based CBS, the palm oil based CBS has already decisive advantage in term of cost and availability. Coconut oil has the average price twice of palm oil and we expect the gap to widen taking account on the increasing volume of palm oil production. Thus we are confident that our palm oil based CBS will be able to gain foothold in the cocoa butter market, either filling the gap of the growing cocoa butter demand or substituting current coconut oil based CBS.The growing market for our proposed CBS is not simply confined to domestic market but also export market. It is estimated that Indonesia export more than 60.000 tons of genuine cocoa butter according to International Cocoa Organization (ICCO). The demand has been fluctuating in traditional export market, Malaysia and Singapore but has been steadily risen by over 5% annually in China, India and several emerging markets. Demand for CBS has been growing steadily in these parts of the world due to changing pattern in food habits and also the better suitability of the CBS to regions with hot climate. India for example had demand for 30,000 tons of cocoa butter but only produced 16,000 tons on their own, importing the rest of them especially from Indonesia, this despite tough import tariff.We also need to include China into calculation for potential export market. China has one of the greatest rise in demand for cocoa butter in the world and China has no indigenous cocoa plantation on their own thus has to import all of their cocoa butter. Indonesias cocoa butter export to China amounted to 14,000 tons per year in 2012 and is projected to grow about 6% annually according to data compiled by Ministry of Industry. This presents an market opportunity for our CBS with volume at least 15,000 tons assuming that our palm oil based CBS can substitute existing competitor using other source of vegetable oil. We make the assumption on the basis that the cheaper palm oil CBS will be able to outcompete other more expensive CBS.In our assessment of our targeted production capacity, we need to assess both the potential volume of CBS that can be sold. First, we have to calculate the domestic market supply and demand of CBS. From the data published by Ministry of Industry, Indonesia has a maximum potency of 600.000 tons of chocolate food product per year. However, only 450.000 tons was realized in 2012 due to lack of cocoa supply in any form. Ministry of Industry predict that 500.000 tons could be realized by 2013.. This number imply that there are at least 50.000 tons of CBS demand that has not been fulfilled yet in the market. Data published by ICCO and FAO have both listed similar number of demand for CBS. We put the rate of 3,5% growth for CBS demand year to year based on past data and projection from FAO. We also assume that the number could probably higher due to the fact that palm oil CBS can compete well on existing genuine cocoa butter and coconut oil CBS. This assumption is made due to significant differences of the cost (palm oil based CBS being significantly less expensive than any other source of cocoa butter/CBS). Thus we set our target capacity production at 50.000 tons per year. We planned our factory to have operation life of at least 30 years based on statement on ocoa butter substitute plant patent (EP19810300525 by Unilever Plc.) and our observation on existing vegetable oil processing industries. Assuming that our plant designs construction will begin immediately at the beginning of 2014 we take account that production could begin in early 2016 based on assumption that plant construction will take 3 years to complete. By the time the plant has been finished (2016), we assume market demand will have been about 56,000 tons based on 2013 market demand and projected growth not including export market. Thus our 50,000 tons per year capacity will take at most 91% of available domestic market gap for CBS excluding export market which imply lower share in the market. This share calculation also does not take into account the possibility of our product discharging more expensive competing product. With projected growth in CBS demand up to 30 years of our plan life, we calculated that approximately 150,000 tons will be needed by market by 2046. Then our market share will be at most 33%, which we set at that number due to various factors such as uncertainty over our competitors capability to expand. Thus at proposed target capacity, we are confident that our production capacity will not exceed potential demand, reducing the difficulty of selling our product.Table 1.8. Cocoa Butter Substitute Demand in Indonesia (ICCO, 2012)YearDemand of CBS (ton/years)

200538254

200640166,7

200742697,2

200845387,1

200946476,42

201046941,2

201147786,1

201248837,4

*201350351,4

*ProjectionTable 1.9 Projected demand of CBS until 2046 (based on estimated 3,5% growth rate)YearProjected demand (ton/year)

*201350351,4

201452113,7

201553937,7

201655825,5

201757779,4

201859801,6

201961894,7

202064061

202166303,2

202268623,8

202371025,6

202473511,5

202576084,4

202678747,3

202781503,5

202884356,1

202987308,6

203090364,4

203193527,1

203296800,6

2033100188,6

2034103695,2

2035107324,5

2036111080,9

2037114968,7

2038118992,6

2039123157,4

2040127467,9

2041131929,3

2042136546,8

2043141325,9

2044146272,3

2045151391,9

2046156690,6

Up to the making of this market reports, there are no CBS producer specifically using palm oil as their only source for vegetable oil. Almost all CBS producers in Indonesia use coconut oil as the source for vegetable oil. Therefore, even with possibility of theses CBS producers expanding their capacity, we assume that we still have the edge on the price differences that will keep us on market. We have no concrete plan yet to enter export market in our planning design due to the lack of knowledge over exact figure of potential market country. We are also still considering any increasing cost from the shipment, tariff or any related fee that may be deducted from our projected margin. Due to the lack of knowledge from potential export market, we decide not to give yet exact figure for the appropriated share of our product capacity for export market and even the possibility of entering the export market itself. In our research, we find several potential buyers for our planned product. These companies are chocolate factories which we assume that will need CBS and will not be strictly adhered to genuine cocoa butter. These are :1. PT. Cargill Indonesia Gresik, Jawa TimurCargill is a multinational company that sells and manufacture food products mostly related to chocolate and sweets. Being one of the largest chocolate related company in Indonesia, the company has capitalized on Indonesian growing economy and growing appetite on chocolate products and sweets. In recent years, Cargill has been expanding aggressively in Indonesian market and been actively looking for new source of cocoa butter.2. PT. Ceres Bandung, Jawa BaratCeres is one of the oldest and largest producer of chocolate food products in the Indonesia. Ceres is owned by Petra Food, Ltd that is based on Singapore and among other companies that are listed on Singaporean Stock Exchange. Ceres owns over 27 brands of food products and has firm market foothold in Southeast Asia. 3. PT. Orang Tua Group JakartaOrang Tua Group is one of the largest manufacturer of consumer goods in Indonesia. Their products varies from food, beverages, toiletries, hygiene, etc. We designate them as potential buyers of our CBS products as a basic ingredients for their food products that ranges from chocolate, biscuits, wafers, sweets and other cocoa related food products that they make. 4. PT Food Specialities Indonesia JakartaPT Food Specialities Indonesia or better known as Nestle Indonesia is one of the largest food company in the world. Nestle food products has many varieties and brands, mostly of milk based products. However they also produces some varieties of chocolate based products that are prominent in the market such as Kit Kat, Milo, Coco Crunch, several types of chocolate flavored milk, and many more. Table 1.10 Market Analysis of CBSParameterKuantitasSatuanSumber

Kebutuhan CBS Indonesia tahun 2013~50000Ton/tahunKalkulasi data dari BPS, ICCO, dan Kementrian Perindustrian

Pertumbuhan kebutuhan CBS3,5%Food and Agriculture Organization dan ICCO

Prediksi kebutuhan CBS tahun 2046156690,6Ton/tahunKalkulasi

Target pangsa pasar pada 2046~33%Kalkulasi

Kapasitas produksi pabrik~50400Ton/tahunKalkulasi (dengan pembulatan)

Kapasitas produksi pabrik per hari140Ton/hariKalkulasi dengan asumsi 360 hari kerja per tahun

Supply and demand analysis is made to get estimation about the number of production capacity will be based on market analysis. Along with that, we will use four way of consideration to determine the production capacity: the number of export value, import value, consumption in Indonesia, and the number of production. Table 1.11 Calculation of Production Capacity (1)YearExport (kg)Import (kg)Production (kg)Consumption (kg)

200863983.5915.7976120000009111164

200945090.986.468180000009225308

201046414.399.702360000009339096

201159697.8445.9816480000009453252

201261142.5330.347856800000009566972

201362622.220.029241000000009685402

Table 1.12 Calculation of Production Capacity (2)DemandSupply

9111179.79812063983.59

9225314.46818045090.98

9339105.70236046414.39

9453297.98248059697.84

9567002.34880061142.53

9685421.685100062622.2

Source: Badan Pusat Statistik, 2010The number of supply is obtained by summing value of export and production. Moreover, demand is obtained by summing import and consumption. Demand for cocoa butter substitute in Indonesia relatively small compared to supply value. In Indonesia, Cocoa butter substitute needs have been fulfilled by producers in Indonesia. However, due to the need to be more and more in the future then it will be even greater production capacity. However, cocoa butter substitute product is an alternative replacement for cocoa butter which has properties similar with cocoa butter and has a cheaper price. In addition, cocoa butter substitute is processed from palm oil which has a higher selling price compared to only process into palm oil. Because CBS has a cheaper price, this makes the opportunity for the CBS product to reach the cocoa butter market. No.FactoryCapacity (Ton)

1PT. General Food Industry100000

2PT. Bumitangerang Mesindotama120000

3PT. Cocoa Ventures Indonesia14000

4PT. Teja Sekawan24500

5PT. Kakao Mas Gemilang450

6PT. Gandum Mas Kencana15000

7PT. Freyabadi Indotama25000

8PT. Sekawan Karsa Mulia7000

9PT. Nestle65000

10PT. Poleco Industry6000

11PT. Budidaya Kakao Lestari8000

12PT Mas Ganda10000

13PT. Asia Cocoa Indonesia120000

Total514950

Above data shows demand of production capacity from several factories. We decided to take 9,7% of total capacity. So, 49950,15 ton/year (50.000 ton/year) will produces from our plant.Moreover, cocoa butter substitute market will export to other countries like Malaysia, India, and China because these countries still needs import of cocoa butter.1.4.2 Raw Material AnalysisMain raw material for cocoa butter substitute plant is palm oil and palm kernel. We know that Indonesia is biggest exporter of palm oil for plantation commodity. In Indonesia, totals area of oil palm is 54.069.000 ha.A. Characteristic of Palm Oil and Palm KernelPalm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of the oil palms, primarily the African oil palmElaeis guineensis and to a lesser extent from the American oil palmElaeis oleiferaand the maripa palmAttalea maripa. It is naturally reddish in color because of a highbeta-carotene content. Palm oil, along with coconut oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats. It is semi-solid atroom temperaturesand contains several saturated and unsaturated fats. Like all vegetable oils, palm oil does not containcholesterol,although saturated fat intake increases bothLDL andHDL cholesterol. Palm oil is GMO-free,i.e., it is not derived fromgenetically modified organisms. CPO will be processed into Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil (RBDPO) and react with Palm Kernel Oil.Palm kernel is a by-product of processing fresh fruit bunch (FFB) into CPO. In this plant, we will process the kernel into palm kernel oil or commonly called PKO. If the kernel has been changed to the PKO will be able to react with RBDPO through interesterification process to form CBS.Table 1.13 Average Analysis of Palm Kernel OilDensity (40 oC)0,898 0,914

Refractive index (40 oC)1,448 - 1,452

Acid Valuemax. 0,5

Iodine Value13 23

Saponification Value230 254

Melting point25 30 oC

Solidification Point20 24 oC

Applications: a. Used in the industry, particularly in the margarine production and bakery productions.b. It is also valued by the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry because of its short-chained fatty acids, its high stability and its high melting point.B. Reasons to Choose Oil Palm as The Raw Material1. Availability of Oil Palm in IndonesiaIndonesia has many plantations of oil palm which distributed from Sumatera, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua. Biggest production of oil palm is Sumatera Island and Kalimantan for the second place. Now, results in the production of palm oil exports to foreign countries that generate revenue for the country and farmers. For the development of palm oil export commodities, shows that the average rate of growth of oil palm totals area during 2007 - 2012 of 6.96%, while the palm oil production increased by an average 6.02% per year. Increase in the area due to the relatively stable price of CPO in the international market and provide revenue producers, especially farmers, are quite profitable. Target development of palm oil in the year 2013 is estimated to reach 9.15 million ha with a production of 24.43 million tons.

Fig. 1.9 Distribution of Oil Palm in IndonesiaSource: regionalinvestment.bkpm.go.idOil palm produce palm fruits are collected in one bunch called fresh fruit bunches (FFB). Palm trees can generate fresh fruit bunches weighing between 15-30 kg / bunch. Bunch then transported to the plant for further processing produce palm oil. In producing palm oil, each tonne of fresh fruit bunches processed can produce 140-200 kg CPO.Table 1.14 Plantation Production by Plant Type in Indonesia (Tons)**YearDry rubberPalm OilPalm KernelChocolate

19953412,476,400605,346,4

1996334,62,569,500626,646,8

1997330,54,165,685838,70865,889

1998332,574,585,846917,16960,925

1999293,6634,907,779981,55658,914

2000375,8195,094,8551,018,97157,725

2001397,725,598,4401,117,75957,86

2002403,7126,195,6051,209,72348,245

2003396,1046,923,5101,529,24956,632

2004403,88,479,2621,861,96554,921

2005432,22110,119,0612,139,65255,127

2006554,63410,961,7562,363,14767,2

2007578,48611,437,9862,593,19868,6

2008586,08112,477,7522,829,20162,913

2009522,31213,872,6023,145,54967,602

2010541,49114,038,1483,183,06665,147

2011*602,40414,632,4063,317,81344,821

2012**612,1214,788,2703,352,85166,39

Noted: *temporary; ** Very temporaryFrom the above data indicate that the availability of raw materials in Indonesia is very large, so that it will facilitate the production of CBS.2. Production Price of Palm Oil is Cheaper than Coconut OilAfter the development of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), coconut prestige as vegetable oil began to downs. Because crude palm oil (CPO = Crude Palm Oil) are vegetable fats which can be produced with the lowest cost in the world. Due to the processing of palm oil is the lowest cost, then the selling price of CPO will cheaper than coconut oil. In the market, the selling price of CPO less than 10000 rupiahs while the coconut oil more than 10000 rupiahs.As we know, coconut oil processing can be made from two ways: the traditional processing and use simple machines. If the processed by traditionally, will requires a lot of energy, both kerosene / diesel or firewood as a heating for coconut milk.However, when using the machine this Agro-industry model is also less developed because the engine has high prices for oil-producing farmers (above Rp 100.000.000, -). Because of the high price of the machine due to the volume of production that only one or two, not a mass product.3. Reach the Melting Point Like Cocoa ButterCocoa butter has a melting point which is a good 32-35 oC. If we use a mixture of palm oil (converted into RBDPO) that reacted with PKO with a certain composition ratio will reach the desired melting point.4. Palm Oil has Triglyceride Content like Cocoa ButterThe main content in cocoa butter is palmitic-oleic-palmitic, palmitic-oleic-stearic, and stearic-oleic-stearic. By looking at the composition of RBDPO and PKO mixture, CBS that formed will be in accordance with cocoa butter. 5. Increase The Added Value of Palm OilTotal production of palm oil in Indonesia, 80% will be exported to foreign countries, while 200% is used to fulfilled national needs. As we know that the value of CPO will increase if CPO is processed. CPO from Indonesia changed into another product by another country and then exported back to Indonesia with a more expensive price. So, Indonesia must create CPO product individually that can increase the added value of palm oil by developing the use of palm oil in the market today. So, do the processing of palm oil as raw material for the manufacture of chocolate (Cocoa butter). Availability of this is due to declining world cocoa butter due to low production. Therefore, it is necessary fats like cocoa butter alternatives.6.Suitable with Tropical CountryCocoa butter, which is made from palm oil and palm kernel oil will generally melt relatively long compared to cocoa butter so that it fits tropical countryhe main content in cocoa butter is palmitic-oleic-palmitic-oleic-stearic palmitic, and stearic-oleic-stearic. By looking at the composition of RBDPO and PKO, CBS that formed will be in accordance with cocoa butter. 1.4.3 Plant Location AnalysisPlant location is very important in the design of a plant, because it relates directly to the economic value of the plant to be established. Selection of the most ideal location of the plant is located in a place that is able to provide a low total cost of production and maximum profit. The best location of a plant is the location where the unit cost of production and distribution process will be low, while the price and volume of sales of products will be able to generate maximum profits for the company. Plant site selection is one of the main factors that determine the success and survival of a plant. Determining the location of the plant must meet one of the two main principles in determining the location of the plant, which is close to the raw material (raw material oriented), and / or close to the market (market oriented) or both. In addition, the availability of utilities in the area also became an important aspect to consider.The following considerations should be analyzed in order to determine plant location.A. Primary Factor Distance from Source MaterialPlant location should be close to the source of raw material. This contributes to effective and efficient process, especially in terms of time and operating costs. When the source of raw materials to be away from the plant location takes more time in the production process as well as the cost to transport raw materials are more expensive due to longer distance. Distance from MarketThis is an important aspect in determining the location of the plant. Cocoa Butter Substitute (CBS) plant is categorized as new in Indonesia since there are only few manufacturers of CBS in Indonesia. Therefore, response and feedback are important. By choosing a location close to the marketing target, then the constraint on the product at the time of release can be minimized or reduced. TransportationAdequate transportation facilities greatly assist the process of marketing products of glucosamine and transport of raw materials from the source. In addition, the presence of adequate transportation facilities both transportation by land, sea, and air will be easier to meet the needs of the domestic industries. Availability of UtilitiesThe utility of a plant is also an important factor in selecting the location of a plant. The main things here are the power generation, water, and communication. Selected plant location should have at least the above utilities so that the production process can run optimally. B. Secunder Factor Government Policies Policies government that makes Tangerang, Jakarta, Bekasi, Cilegon and surrounding areas as the industrial area will facilitate the licensing and development of plant. Soil and Climate The determination of an industrial area certainly related to land issues, which are not prone to the danger of landslides, earthquakes, and floods. Therefore, the selection of plant location of in Cikande industrial area is right. Climatic conditions such as climate Cikande in Indonesia in general and the climate conditions do not bring great impact on the course of the process production.

Table 1.15 Analysis of Plant LocationCriteriaCilegonTangerangCikande

Source of raw materialRaw Material (CPO & Kernel)PTPN VIII KertajayaPTPN VIII KertajayaPTPN VIII Kertajaya

Distance111 km103 km67,3 km

Natural ConditionsIndustrial areayesyesYes

Market-industrial area of tangerang, banten, and west javaindustrial area of tangerang, banten, and west java

Availability of AreayesyesYes

Pricemiddlethe most expensivecheaper than tangerang and cilegon

Competitor-Bumitangerang-

InfrastucturegoodgoodGood

UtilitygoodgoodGood

From data above, we choose Cikande area for Cocoa Butter Sustitue plant. This location was chosen because it is close to the raw materials as well as easy and close to distribution. Moreover, due to an industrial area then Cikande utility supply will be easier. Utilities include water, electricity, and etc. Transportation needed to support the operation of a plant, especially for supply of raw materials, transport of the product, and marketing. In addition, for the region as a regional industry Cikande had been equipped with a communications network to support facilities for the production and marketing activities.

Fig. 1.10 Plant Location in CikandeSource: wikimapia.orgAs we know, CBS will be produced which will be reserved for the chocolate factory. According to data from the BPS department of industry, cocoa processing company located in Banten and West Java. So that the distribution process will be easier and could open a new supplier to the confectionary plant that uses CBS. Moreover, in Banten there is a biggest chocolate factory in Asia named Uniflora Prima.Table 1.16 Chocolate Factories in BantenFactoryproduction

Bumitangerang MesindotamaChocolate

Dolphin Super Ice Cream ManufactureChocolate

Pt. Davomas Abadi TbkChocolate

Uniflora PrimaChocolate

Table 1.17 Chocolate Factories in West JavaFactoryProduction

Freyabadi IndotamaChocolate

Gajahmada Buana PerkasaChocolate

Garudafood Putra Putri JayaChocolate

Lotte IndonesiaChocolate

Pilarmas KencanaChocolate

Pt. Gajahmada Buana PerkasaChocolate

Pt. Pilarmas KencanaChocolate

Ultra Prima AbadiChocolate

Moreover, in Banten there is PTPN VIII Kertajaya that produces oil palm, cocoa, tea, etc. PTPN VIII Kertajaya has an area of 12.810,35 ha that produces oil palm. In addition to planting the commodity on its own area + core, PTPN VIII also manages Plasma area farmers has an area of 6033.28 ha. Additionally, PTPN VIII Kertajaya also has its own processing unit for producing palm oil and kernels. PTPN VIII Kertajaya produced Fresh Fruit Bunch between 800 to 1,200 tons/day, with the average CPO production reached 900 tons per day.

Fig. 1.11 Location of PTPN VIII KertajayaSource: wikimapia.orgCPO of PTPN VIII Kertajaya supply only to fulfill national food needs and is not to be exported abroad. Moreover, CPO of PTPN VIII Kertajaya production has high quality compared to other regions. For increase the production of CPO, PTPN VIII Kertajaya working with 7000 farmers in Lebak, Banten. Government plan will be the expansion of oil palm plantations in an effort to increase the production capacity of Banten.

1.5

CHAPTER IIPROCESS SELECTION

2.1 Alternative Process 2.1.1 Pre-Treatment: Crude Palm Oil (CPO) Refining Process Refining process is a necessary step for the production of edible oils and fats products. In industry perspective, the main aim of refining is to convert the crude oil to a quality edible oil by removing objectionable impurities to the desired levels in the most efficient manner. This also means that, where possible, losses in the desirable components are kept minimal and cost effective.CPO that extracted from FFB (Fresh Fruit Bunch), though in small quantity, will be consist of some unwanted impurities, such as insoluble compounds, mesocarp fiber, free fatty acid (FFA), phospholipids, trace metals, oxidation products, odor compounds, etc. Thus, CPO needs refining process before being used in the next process (Basiron, 2005).Refining process is done to convert the crude oil into a desired product by removing the non-triglyceride components in the oil with the least possible damage to triglycerides and minimal loss of desirable constituents. Refining process will remove some compounds including phospholipids, free acids, mono- and di-acylglycerol, colour, trace metals, oxidation products and enviromental contaminants (OBrien, 2009).Refining CPO can be done in 2 methods, physical method and chemical method. The differences between these 2 types are basically based on the type of chemicals used and mode of removing the FFA. The processing routes for chemical and physical refining are as per illustrated in figure below.

Fig. 2.1 Chemical and Physical Refining RoutesSource: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaA. Chemical RefiningChemical refining is preferred for oils that contains high phospholipid levels that conveniently removed by alkali treatment. Its normally involves:Gum Conditioning and NeutralizationIn this process stage, the phosphatide portion of oil is either removed or conditioned during this stage by addition of some additives/agents under specific condition. The most common additives for this purpose are phosphoric acid and citric acid. A specified quantity of that agents is mixed in the oil charge for a specific period and process parameters. This causes a separation of phosphatides from oil and they are removed after certain settling time. Sometimes these separated gums are not directly removed but with soap stock formed during neutralisation. The reaction involves alkali solutions combine with free fatty acids present to form soaps (saponification), while the phosphatides and gums absorb alkali and are coagulated through hydration or degradation which lead to color degradation as a result of absorption by gums or made water soluble by the alkali and the insoluble matter is entrained with other coagulable material. This soap stock is removed from oil mass by gravity separation method. For removal of alkali traces, oil is washed with hot water. The chemical reaction involved in this operation is as follows: R-COOH + NaOH RCOONa + H2OWith heat and time, the excess caustic soda will bring the saponification of a portion of the neutral oil. So, some considerations regarding the NaOH used should be carefully chosen to obtain an effective chemical refining process. There are several type of chemical refining process including short mix caustic, miscella, batch caustic (dry and wet method batch refining) and silica refining (OBrien, 2009).Bleaching and FiltrationThe neutralised washed oil is then taken to the second step in refining, which is bleaching. In this operation, the moisture from oil is thus evaporated and oil becomes dry. The dried oil is treated with bleaching earth (fuller's earth) and carbon. These bleaching agents will adsorb most of the residual colour of the remaining oil after neutralisation. The mixture of oil and bleaching agent is filtered through a standard plate and frame press for separation. The clear oil obtained is bleached oil and is very much lighter in colour than the neutralised oil. The oil charge is dehydrated under vacuum to avoid any further deterioration due to oxygen. In this operation, the coloured pigments in oil are adsorbed by certain bleaching agents under specific conditions. DeodorisationThe oil after bleaching is practically pure, but contains minute quantities of original odoriferous matter and also the chemicals used during neutralisation process. This bleached oil are then sent to a cylindrical vessel called `Deodoriser'.Deodorizing mechanism is follows distillation process, the volatile materials are evaporated off with some carrier (commonly direct steam). This oil is then cooled and clarified through a filter press to get sparkling oil. The purpose of deodorisation is to make oil blend and tasteless. In this process, the peroxide value of oil is brought down as minimum as possible.B. Physical RefiningPalm oil which contain high free fatty acids and low gum contents usually uses physical refining to remove free fatty acids content. The steps involve pretreatment including degumming and earth bleaching step to remove non-volatile impurities by filtration (OBrien, 2009). Physical refining is a modern alternative for processing CPO where the removal of free fatty acid is by distillation at higher temperature and low vacuum. This replaces chemical reaction mode using an alkali in chemical refining. Physical refining is also known as deacidification (deodorisation) by steam distillation in which free fatty acids and other volatile components are distilled off from the oil using effective stripping agent, which is usually steam, under suitable processing conditions. (Meirelles and Ceriani, 2005). 2.1.2 Pre-Treatment: Palm Kernel Oil (PKO) Extraction ProcessIt is generally believed that no part of the oil palm tree is useless. After the processing of the fresh fruit bunch to yield palm oil, the product that is left is the shelled palm nut which can be cracked to yield the palm kernel nut and the shell. While the shells can be used as fuels and road construction, though the market is not well developed in the country, the palm kernel nut can be crushed and processed to yield palm kernel oil and cake (Ikechukwu, et al; 2012).At present, there are three major types of extraction methods used in the extraction of palm kernel oil from palm kernels, these methods are: (a) Traditional extraction method, (b) Direct solvent extraction, (c) Mechanical extraction using high pressure screw pressing.A. Traditional method of palm kernel extractionThe traditional method of palm oil processing starts with the shelling of the palm nut. The shelling is performed by using two stones to crack each nut and separating the kernel and shell simultaneously. This manual operation has been largely superseded by the use of nut cracking stations. The mechanical nut crackers deliver a mixture of kernel and shell that must be separated. The kernel/shell separation is usually performed in a clay bath which is a concentrated viscous mixture of clay and water. The density of the clay is such that the shells sink while the lighter kernels float to the top of the mixture. The floating kernel are scooped in the basket, washed with clean water and dried. Periodically the shell are scooped out from the bath and discarded.The traditional oil extraction method is to fry palm kernels or simply heat the dried kernel. The fried kernels are pounded or ground to a paste in a motorized grinder. The paste is mixed with a small quantity of water and heated to release palm kernel oil. The released oil is periodically skimmed from the top (Ikechukwu, et al; 2012). B. Solvent extractionA solvent extraction plant is designed to extract the oil either from oil seed or from the pre-pressed expeller cake. This solvent extraction method can be divided into three main unit processes thus; kernel pre treatment, oil extraction and solvent recovery from the oil and mill. For the purposes of small scale operations, it is sufficient to mention that the solvent extraction is an alternative for high capacity mills. Solvent extraction method gives a high yield of palm kernel oil when compared with the mechanical extraction method. However the process is not recommended for small enterprises. C. Mechanical ExtractionThe mechanical extraction method uses screw press as the principal means of extracting vegetable oil. However, use of the screw press for full extraction has been increased over the years in the less developed countries. Today even larger and more efficient machines are being developed for full extraction and pre-pressing of palm kernel oil. Mechanical extraction processes are suitable for both small and large scale operations. The three basic steps in this process are (a) kernel pre-treatment, (b) screw-pressing, and (c) oil clarification.

Fig. 2.2 Mechanical Extraction of Palm Kernel OilLine (A) is for direct screw-pressing without kernel pre-treatment; Line (B) is for partial kernel pre-treatment followed by screw-pressing; and Line C is for complete pre-treatment followed by screw-pressing.Source: www.fao.org/ 2.1.3 Modification of Oil and FatMost native oils and fats have limited applications in their unmodified forms, imposed by their triacylglycerol (TAG) and fatty acid (FA) compositions. It is widely known that the physical and chemical properties of oils are a strong function of the TAG and FA composition. By changing the natural physical and chemical characteristics of a fat or oil, it offers greater functionality for a large number of product formulations. Fats and oils applications can be widened by modifying them through blending, fractionation, interesterification, hydrogenation, or combinations of these processes (Petrauskaite et al., 1998). Cocoa butter substitutes also as widened application of oils and fats can be produced through modification of fats and oils.

Fig. 2.3 Modification of Oils and FatA. BlendingBlending is a method of modifying oils or fats which is easy and economically friendly because it can be done only by physical mixing of two or more kinds of oils. The objective of blending is to increase melting point of oil obtained from this process in meeting the melting point which is required. This can be done by adding high melting point oil to the oil mixture. Change on the value of the melting point caused by blending happens because the fatty acid content from oil which is blend with has fatty acid composition with higher melting point (Willis, et. Al., 1998).The characteristic of fat obtained from this blending process is varied, based on the ratio of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid. Blending is done to avoid formation of fatty acid trans, because trans fatty acid can cause coronary heart disease. This process does not required heating as required in hydrogenation and trans esterification process so the transition from cis fatty acid to trans fatty acid can be avoided. With high speed stirring, dispersion phase can be mixed well and to sustain this condition, emulsifier such as lecithin can be added. (Hauman, 1994). Though, blending usually takes longer time compared to other pathways (O Brien, 1998).B. FractionationFractionation is a technology whereby a fat is separated into different parts or fractions. Parts are separated off on the basis of different melting points of the different fractions, to produce products that have the desired functional properties or the desired fatty acid composition. Fractionation is usually used in order to separate the high melting point solid phase and the low melting point liquid phase of a basic raw material from each other. In this process an oil is cooled until crystals are formed. These crystals, that consist of triglycerides that will no longer dissolve in the rest of the oil, can then be removed from the oil using a filter. In this way two product fractions will always be formed, namely the high melting crystal phase, called the stearin, and the low melting oil phase, the olein.Fractionation is often used with palm oil in order to produce palm olein (liquid) and palm stearin (solid). Palm olein contains a relatively large amount of unsaturated fatty acids and is used a great deal for frying. Palm stearin is used a great deal in margarines to give them the right consistency (spread ability).The fractionation process consists on the removal of solids by controlled crystallization and separation techniques involving the use of solvents or dry processing. Dry fractionation encompasses both winterization and pressing techniques and is the most widely practiced form of fractionation. It relies upon the differences in melting points and triglyceride solubility to separate the oil fractions.Pressing is a fractionation process sometimes used to separate liquid oils from solid fat. This process presses the liquid oil from the solid fraction by hydraulic pressure or vacuum filtration. This process is used commercially to produce hard butters and specialty fats from oils such as palm and palm kernel.Solvent fractionation is the term used to describe a process for the crystallization of a desired fraction from a mixture of triglycerides dissolved in a suitable solvent. Fractions may be selectively crystallized at different temperatures after which the fractions are separated and the solvent removed. Solvent fractionation is practiced commercially to produce hard butters.C. HydrogenationHydrogenation is a process to saturate the double bond of fatty acid carbon chain in oils or fats (Ketaren, 1986). Hydrogenation can reduce double bond into single bond in order to increase the melting point of fats. This reaction uses chemical catalyst such as Ni, Pt, or Cu, though the commonly used catalyst is Ni (Silalahi, 1999). Number of double bonds in oils and fats aects physical property such as melting point, crystallinity. Generally, double bonds reduce the oils melting point. Therefore, oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids are liquid, while ones with small amount of unsaturated fatty acids are solid or semi-solid.Hydrogenation is a process to add hydrogen atoms into double bonds of unsaturated fatty acids. As the result of hydrogenation, liquid oil becomes solid or semi-solid. A typical example of hydrogenation is in the process of margarine and shortening production. Vegetable oil is hydrogenated with gaseous H2 in the presence of a metal catalyst (usually nickel catalyst). If the hydrogenation is completely performed, all the double bounds are converted to the saturated ones with the same carbon number.

Fig. 2.4 Hydrogenation ProcessVegetable oil is too soft for margarine or shortening because it is liquid. Saturated fat obtained by complete hydrogenation is too hard. Margarine requires something in the middle, i.e. not too hard but not too soft. Margarine and shortening makers partially hydrogenate their product. They only add hydrogen atoms until the oil is at the desired consistency. During the hydrogenation process, hydrogen atoms are inserted in no particular order. When they stop the incomplete hydrogenation process, unsaturated fatty acids are in varying stages of hydrogenation. Some molecules are mostly hydrogenated, while others are not. And the double bonds have often shifted to unnatural positions, resulting in the generation of trans fatty acids or trans fat, which is thought to increase risk of coronary heart disease. In 2003, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in USA issued a regulation requiring manufacturers to list trans fat, on the Nutrition Facts panel of foods and some dietary supplements. D. InteresterificationInter esterification is a reaction where triglyceride ester or fatty acid ester is transformed into other kind of ester by reaction with alcohol (alcoholysis), fatty acid (acidolysis) and trans esterification (Rozal and Naf, 1996). Inter esterification include rearrangement or randomization native residue in trialcylglycerol and obtain oil and fat with new characteristic (Belitz and Grosch, 1987).

Fig. 2.5 Interesterification of Triacylglycerol MoleculesInteresterification (IE) is the process of re-arranging the fatty esters within and between triglycerides resulting in most cases, a change in the physical properties of the oil/fat. It is a useful modification method to give the oil/fat the functionality required for a finished product. Erhan and Asadauskas (2000) reported that modification (interesterification) route can be applied to improve the pour point of vegetable oils. Interesterification is the intra and intermolecular exchange of fatty acids on the glycerol backbone of triacyglycerols, although the term is used loosely to include acidolysis and other ester exchange reactions. It is applied to either an individual oil or blend of oils, to produce triacylglycerol with different properties. The molecular species of natural triacylglcerols is not a random mixture of all possible isomers, but it shows greater or lesser selectively in the distribution of fatty acids (Gunstone, 1999). This as well as the overall fatty acid cis mixture, determines many of the technically important properties of the oil or fat, for example, solid fat content and the melting point. Once subjected to interesterification with a chemical catalyst, the triacyglycerol become a random mixture of molecular species (Scrimgeour, 2005).Inter esterification reaction is exchange reaction of alkyl group between ester. This method is an alternative process that can be used to avoid formation of trans isomer (Petrauskaite, 1998). With triglyceride, inter esterification can be done through two processes, intra molecular exchange and inter molecular exchange. Different position of fatty acid in the same molecule of triglyceride is called intra esterification. Random transfer and exchange of fatty acid between triglyceride molecules until achieving equilibrium with every possible combination is called inter esterification (Silalahi, 2000). Inter esterification can be done with chemical catalyst (chemical inter esterification) or enzyme biocatalyst (enzymatic inter esterification).As well as achieving suitable melting properties, interesterification also optimises crystallisation behaviour to generate more stable crystalline forms. Saturated triacylglycerols can exist in more than one crystalline form (polymorphs), which results in different patterns of molecular packing in the crystals and multiple melting points. The three basic polymorphs are referred to as, and. Theaform is the least stable with the lowest melting point, andbthe most stable with the highest melting point. For example, the melting point of the, andpolymorphic forms of the species stearic/oleic/stearic (SOS) are 22.4, 36.5 and 41.7 C, respectively. During interesterification, the form is commonly generated, thus improving the stability and granularity of the fat. For example, the proportion of solid fat at body temperature (37 C) in the native cocoa butter and randomly interesterified cocoa butter is 1 and 37% respectively (Berry SEE, Nutr Res Rev. 2009, 22,3).2.1.4 CBS PurificationA. Solvent ExtractionLiquidliquid extractionalso known assolvent extractionandpartitioning, is a method to separate compounds based on their relativesolubilitiesin two differentimmiscibleliquids, usually water and anorganic solvent. It is an extraction of a substance from one liquid into another liquid phase. The termpartitioningis commonly used to refer to the underlying chemical and physical processes involved inliquidliquid extractionbut may be fully synonymous. The termsolvent extractioncan also refer to the separation of a substance from a mixture by preferentially dissolving that substance in a suitable solvent. In that case, a soluble compound is separated from an insoluble compound or a complex matrix.Solvent extraction is used innuclear reprocessing, ore processing, the production of fineorganic compounds, the processing ofperfumes, the production ofvegetable oilsandbiodiesel, and other industries.Selective liquid-liquid extraction has become a widely accepted means of separating chemicals and should be adaptable to mono-, di-, and triglyceride mixtures which differ in molecular weight and number of polar groups. Selective extraction of monoglycerides by ethanol-hexane mixtures and fractional crystallization from mixed solvents have been done.B. Steam DistillationSteam distillation enables a compound or mixture of compounds to be distilled (and subsequently recovered) at a temperature substantially below that of the boiling point(s) of the individual constituent(s). Steam distillation is a special type of distillation for temperature sensitive materials . Manyorganic compoundstend todecomposeat high sustained temperatures. Separation by normal distillation would then not be an option, so water or steamis introduced into the distillation apparatus. By adding water or steam, theboiling pointsof the compounds are depressed, allowing them to evaporate at lower temperatures, preferably below the temperatures at which the deterioration of the material becomes appreciable. If the substances to be distilled are very sensitive to heat, steam distillation can also be combined withvacuum distillation. After distillation the vapors are condensed as usual, usually yielding a two-phase systemof water and the organic compounds, allowing fordecantation. 2.2 Process Selection2.2.1 CPO Refining ProcessFrom the brief explaination above, we can make a comparison between refining methods.

Table 2.1 Comparison of Chemical and Physical Method for CPO RefiningParameterPhysical methodPointChemical methodPoint

Technical factorsThe operation is more simple and easy handling4The operation is more complex3

Needs more energy for processing2Needs less energy for processing3

Produce higher yield, purity, and stability of the oil5Produce lower yield , purity and stability of the oil3

WasteProduce less waste4Produce more waste3

Released waste is more safe5Released waste is less safe (chemical compound)3

Equipmentsless equipments required5more equipment required due to chemical treatment4

Costsmore economic due to less equipments and chemical compound needed5more expensive due to equipments and chemical compound needed4

Total Score:3021

So, by the table above, physical refining method is preferred due to the economical process that require less chemicals, produce less waste and give highter oil yields. The advantages are particularly apparent with oils such as palm oil that have high levels of free acid and low level of phospholipids.Fats and oils contain complex organo-phosphorus compounds referred to as phospholipids (phosphatides) or more usually, as gums. Phospholipids should be removed because of their strong emulsifying action and if they are not removed, the oil will went through undue darkening during deodorization at high temperature (Kim et al.,2002). In physical refining method, the phospholipids (phosphatides) are removed during processing by a variety of treatments collectively referred to as degumming. The treatment usually involves hydration with water,orthophosphoric acid, and polybasic organic acids either singly or in combination, followed by centrifuging the precipitated material or by its adsorption on bleaching earth or filter. Degumming process is crucial for physical refining that consists of treatment of crude oils with water, salt solutions, enzymes, caustic soda, dilute acids such as phosphoric, citric or maleic to remove phosphatides, waxes, prooxidants and other impurities. There are 6 types of degumming process in vegetable oil industry. The differences between all these types are based on methods of processing, chemicals used and the content of phosphatides in the crude vegetable oil. For processing palm oil, alternative degumming process that can be used are:1. Dry Acid DegummingDry degumming process involved removal of gums through precipitation by acid conditioning and via filtration during the bleaching process, not via centrifugal separation. This process is used for low-phosphatides oil such as palm oil, lauric oils, edible tallow and suitable to be used for preparing oils for subsequent physical refining. This type of process eliminates bleaching, as separate processing step thus, it is cost-advantage and it is a well-proven process. Figure below shows the flow diagram of dry-degumming process.

Fig. 2.6 Flow Diagram of Dry-Degumming ProcessSource: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

2. Wet Acid degummingIn organic refining process, dilute organic (citric) acid is normally used and the removal of residual phosphatides is by bleaching using silica hydrogel. Initially oils with higher gum contents (e.g. corn oil) are similarly processed as in dry acid degumming. However, to achieve gum hydration water is added following acid apportioning. The gums are removed by a separator prior to bleaching. This process is beneficial as centrifuges enable easy separation of gums in oil types with higher non-hydratable gums contents (e.g. rape oil and soybean oil). Gums are precipitated by some form of acid conditioning process and subsequently removed by centrifugal separation. In this process method, the gums can be hydrated at temperature higher than 40oC and the process may lead to some dewaxing which usually associated with processing of sunflower and rice bran oils.

Fig. 2.7 Flow Diagram of Acid-Degumming Process Source: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia3. Enzymatic degummingEnzymatic degumming is a special degumming that enhanced by using some food-grade enzymes. Types of oil that uses this process method are soybean oil and rapeseed oil. The enzyme solution (Aqueous solution of citric acid, caustic soda and enzymes) is dispersed into filtered oil at mild temperature, a high speed rotating mixer used for effective mixing of enzyme and oil. The conversion of non-hydratable phospholipids (NHPs) into hydratable phospholipase (HPs) is attained by the effect of enzyme, the enzyme treated oil is sent to mechanical separation and the degummed oil received is dried under vacuum and suitable for further process. The advantage of enzymatic degumming is no soapstock is produced so no oil losses due to soapstock separation.4. EDTA- degummingEDTA degumming is a physico-chemical degumming process. It involves a complete elimination of phospholipids by a chelating agent, Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA), in the presence of an emulsifying additive.

Fig. 2.8 Flow Diagram of EDTA-Degumming Process Source: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaTable 2.2 Comparison of Alternative Degumming ProcessParameterDry Acid DegummingPointsWet Acid DegummingPointsEnzymatic DegummingPointsEDTA DegummingPoints

Technical factorsparticularly suitable for processing oils with low gum contents (e.g. palm oil, coconut oil, palm kernel oil or animal fats)5particularly suitable for processing oils with higher non-hydratable gums contents (e.g. rape oil and soybean oil)2has complex process3has a simple process4

Higher energy consumption3Efficiency as a result of low energy consumption5Efficiency as a result of low energy consumption5Efficiency as a result of low energy consumption4

long service life (the components are acid proof)5long service life (the components are acid proof)5short service life (the components are not acid proof)3long service life (the components are acid proof)5

HSEenvironmental-friendly as no waste water or soap stock occur5waste water occur4environmental-friendly as no waste water or soap stock occur5chemical waste occur3

Costslow investment cost and also operation and maintenance costs (sturdy and reliable control system)5the consumption of bleaching earth is reduced because the oil has already been extensively degummed4high operation and maintenance costs (for enzyme treatment)2high operation and maintenance costs (for EDTA)3

Total Score:23201819

Based on table above we choose dry acid degumming process which has been widely used as palm oil degumming process.The next process is to remove colour producing substances or further refining process called bleaching. Bleaching principle is adsorption of the colour producing substances on an adsorbent material. There a lot of adsorbent materials are being used in vegetable oil industry for examples; acid activated bleaching earth, natural bleaching earth, activated carbon and synthetic silicates.1.2.2 PKO Extraction ProcessFrom the brief explaination above, we can make a comparison between PKO extraction methodTable 2.4 Comparison of Method for PKO ExtractionParameterTraditional methodPointsSolvent extractionPointsMechanical extractionPoints

Technical factorsThe most simple process4Has complex process2Has easy-handling process4

Needs more labour2Needs less labour5Needs less labour5

Need less energy4Needs less energy5Needs more energy for process equipments3

Produce lower purity and yield of products2Produce lower purity of products3Produce higher purity and yield of products4

HSEProduce less waste4Produce more waste (include chemical waste)3Produce less waste4

Released waste is safe5Released waste is less safe (chemical compound)3Released waste is safe5

EquipmentsLess equipments required5More equipments are required for solvent treatment2Less equipments required4

CostsLowest cost for equipments but high cost in labours4High cost in solvent, low cost in labours3Low cost both in equipments, material, and labours5

Total score:302634

Based on table above we choose mechanical extraction method which has been widely used as extraction method for PKO at plant scale.

2.2.3 Modification of Oil and FatBased on the previous part, cocoa butter substitute as widened applications of fats and oils can be produced by modification through blending, fractionation, interesterification, hydrogenation, or combinations of these processes palm oil degumming process (Petrauskaite et al., 1998). The comparison between modification techniques can be seen below.Table 2.5 Oil and Fat Modification Method ComparisonParameterBlendingFractionationInteresterificationHydrogenation

ExplanationScoreExplanationScoreExplanationScoreExplanationScore

Technical FactorsDoes not need catalyst5Does not need catalyst5Need catalyst2Need Catalyst2

Does not need high temperature5Does not need high temperature5Need high temperature for chemical method, but there is possibility to be performed in mild condition by enzymatic method4Need high temperature1

HSEAvoid formation of trans fatty acid2Possibility to form trans fatty acid1Avoid formation of trans fatty acid; maintain taste, texture and flavor5Possibility to form trans fatty acid1

EquipmentBlending tanks, mechanical agitators, heating coils4Membrane Press Filter or Centrifuge3Reactor Tank with Mechanical Agitators5Reactor Tank with Mechanical Agitators and heating coils4

CostCheap5Average4Expensive2Expensive3

Time FactorTakes longer time1Takes longer time1Takes shorter time5Takes shorter time5

Total22192316

Based on the Table above, interesterification is more preferable technique to modify oil compared to other techniques. Like blending technique, interesterification which perform in lower temperature than hydrogenation can avoid the formation of trans fatty acid which can lead to coronary heart disease. The formation of trans fatty acid has attract the attention of consumers for healthier product that only contain less trans fatty acid. Besides, there will be needed stricter labeling and legalization for our product, if our product contain high concentration of trans fatty acid. Unlike blending technique, interesterification technique can perform faster with the help from catalyst though this technique needs more cost than blending technique. This technique also can maintain the taste, texture and flavor of products because there is a chance that inter esterification can be done in mild condition if we use biocatalyst.Inter esterification can be done with chemical catalyst (chemical inter esterification) or enzyme biocatalyst (enzymatic inter esterification). A chemical, such as sodium methoxide, is used as a catalyst in chemical interesterification which produces complete positional randomization of the acyl groups in the triacylglycerols. On the other hand, enzymatic interesterification uses microbial lipases as the catalyst. Each type of interesterification has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages of chemicalinteresterification over the enzymatic reaction include cost recovery and low initial investment as the catalysts are much cheaper than lipases. The process has been around for a long time, with the industrial procedures and equipment available. Enzymatic interesterification is more specific, requires less severe reaction conditions and produces less waste than chemical interesterification. The comparison between enzymatic and chemical inter esterification can be shown below.1. Chemical Inter EsterificationChemical inter esterification results in randomization of alkyl groups in triglyceride. Inter esterification can be done without catalyst, though, this process needs high temperature and long time to achieve equilibrium condition. Triglyceride will decompose and polymerize results in free fatty acids (Silalahi, 1999).According to Sreenivasan (1978), temperature needed to do inter esterification without catalyst is 300 0C even higher. To decrease the temperature needed for reaction, catalyst is used. There are several catalysts can be used to perform inter esterification and the commonly is 0.1%. If it is used in excess concentration, it will lost neutral lipid that can form methyl ester which gives soap flavor.Interesterification effect on oils and fats depends strongly on composition and distribution of fatty acid. Several vegetable oils such as peanut oil, cottonseed oil and cocoa butter have equal distribution of fatty acid which results in differences between their glyceride molecules. High melting point of fat depend on glyceride tri saturated content which result in random rearrangement that affect melting point. A mixture of fat with high saturated fatty acid content and liquid oils through random rearrangement because of fatty acids from saturated fatty acid can be distribute broadly (Silalahi, 1999).Chemical inter esterification is mainly applied to produce margarine and spread without hydrogenation process to avoid formation of trans fatty acid. The objectives is to increase specific fatty acid proportion on specific position in glycerol chain to repair bioavability. Randomization of fatty acid and butter shows reduce of serum trialcylglycerol and reduce collision between saturated fatty acid in cholesterol concentration. Chemical inter esterification is also used to randomize fatty acids between trialcylglycerol from various source to change nutritional characteristics (Willis, et. al., 1998).

2. Enzymatic InteresterificationLipase is an enzyme that can catalyze inter esterification reaction. This enzyme, mainly produced by bacteria, yeast and fungus, catalyze hydrolysis trialcylglycerol, dialcylglycerol and free fatty acid. Lipase, or triacylglycerol (TAG) acylhydrolases (E.C. 3.1.1.3) is a kind of carboxy esterase. Under physiological conditions, this enzyme catalyzes hydrolysis of oils and fats, so the biological role of lipase is metabolism of lipids. Hydrolysis product accumulation continues until an equilibrium condition is achieved (Willis et al., 1998). In addition of lipase, several variation of reactions are used including acid esterification with alcohol, this reaction is always used in synthesis to produce ester on sugar or amide fat.Characteristic of enzyme can work effectively if procedure and reaction condition are kept well. Based on specific characteristic, lipase can be classified to: lipase which is selective to substrate, lipase which is selective to position, lipase which is unselective, lipase which is un selective to fatty acid. The advantages of utilization of lipase compared to chemical catalyst: enzyme can decompose naturally so it is environmentally friendly, enzyme can function in mild condition so it can avoid occurrence of side reaction, reaction is efficient and can be easily controlled, and specificity of lipase on its substrate.EIE involves three key steps: pretreatment of oil, introduction of the reaction catalyst and deodorization of the oils. The EIE process can be executed in two methods: batch or continuous (single bed or fixed bed). In the batch process, the enzyme activity decreases over time, so flow must be carefully monitored and adjusted over time to maintain conversion. This process cannot be operated continuously because of the frequent need to remove and replace the enzyme. In fixed bed continuous production, the enzyme levels vary in each reactor. The first reactor has the lowest enzyme activity and absorbs most of the impurities and harmful compounds. This sequencing protects the most active enzymes, which are in the lastreactors.A fixed bed system is the most common commercial process used for enzymatic interesterification. In a fixed bed process, the blended liquid oil and solid (hard fat) oil flow through a system consisting of an oil purification bed and an enzyme bed. The oil purification bed removes impurities from the oil blend so that the enzyme activity can be maintained at its highest performance. The enzyme bed allows for the enzymatic interesterification of the oil blend as the blend passes through the bed.Table 2.6 Interestrification Method ComparisonParameterChemical interesterificationEnzymatic Interesterification

ExplanationScoreExplanationScore

Technical FactorsFully proven5New and still rather unknown3

Less specific2High Specificity5

HSEProduce dangerous waste2Produce less dangerous waste5

Risky operation2Less severe reaction5

EquipmentNeeds reactor with mechanical agitators and heating equipments2Needs reactor with mechanical agitators3

CostLess operating cost5More operating cost3

More investment cost3Less investment cost5

Time FactorShorter time5Longer time3

Total2632

Based on comparison above, we choose enzymatic inter esterification technique because of lots of its advantages. The major advantage is enzymatic inter esterification technique leads to much safer and environmentally friendly process, which has been a focus nowadays. First, the lipase-catalyzed reactions can proceed under milder conditions than the chemical reactions. In one aspect, this is advantageous, because undesired side reactions such as heat degradation of the substrates can be avoided. But in another aspect, it may be a drawback because lipases can work only under mild conditions, i.e. lipase is much weaker than the chemical catalysts. Second, (and more importantly), the lipase-catalyzed reactions are specic (or selective) for particular acyl groups, particular positions of the substrates, or particular stereoisomers. This specicity enables the modication of oils and fats in more sophisticated way.Lipase enzyme that is used can be immobilized or use freely in solution. The choice whether we will use immobilized enzyme or free enzyme in solution will affect the type of reactor we shall use for interesterification reaction. These are the advantages and disadvantages of enzyme immobilization.Table 2.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Enzyme ImmobilizationAdvantagesDisadvantages

1. Increasing stability1. Higher investment cost

2. Enzyme can be reused2. Less active as they do not mixed freely with the substrate

3. Avoid product contamination

4. Easy separation of enzyme from the product

5. Reduces effluent disposal problem

6. Possibility of conducting continuous reaction

Based on the Table above, we can see that enzyme immobilization has more advantages than disadvantages. The major advantages are enzyme can be reused which can decrease our operational cost and it also can increase the purity of our product because the ease of separation process. Based on the production capacity calculation, our plant should be perform continuous mode of operation, which can be possibly obtained by immobilization of enzyme.There are several methods for lipase immobilization. The most simple method for immobilization is the precipitation of the lipases with acetone. An enzyme solution is added to the support material and acetone is added slowly. Afterwards the precipitate is recovered by filtration and residual water is removed by the addition of acetone. The particles obtained are dried under vacuum and reactivation of the enzymes is initiated by the addition of water. Since usually only the inner core of the enzyme is hydrophobic, the surface hydrophobicity of the molecule has to increase for immobilization to a hydrophobic support material. Recently such a method of immobilization has been introduced by Basri et al. The lipase from Candida rugosa was modified by introduction of different hydrophobic groups, such as monomethoxypolyethylene glycol, acetaldehyde, and methyl-4-phenylbutyrimidate. Afterwards, the modified lipases were attached to the polymer beads. The hydrolysis and esterification reactions were carried out in solvents. The immobilized enzymes showed higher activity compared to purified lipase.Entrapment of lipases involves the capture of the enzyme in a matrix of crosslinkable resins or photo-cross-linkable prepolymers. In the latter process, resin prepolymers are mixed with photosensitizers, melted and mixed with the lipase solution. Gel formation is initiated by exposure to ultraviolet radiation. To maintain good reaction activities, the resins need to be hydrophobic. The major disadvantage is the reduction in mass transfer due to the gel formed around the enzymes.Another method is microencapsulation. The microcapsules obtained by this method correspond to a dispersed solid phase in an oil phase. An example of such a process is silicone dioxide and a binder solution of ethylene maleic copolymer, which are dissolved together with the lipase in a solution of ethanol and acetone. This solution is atomized in hot air and particles of 10 to 20 m are formed. The major disadvantage of this immobilization method is that the lipase cannot attack large substrates because of limited permeability of the capsule wall. For covalent attachment of lipases to an insoluble support, the carrier needs to be derivatized in order to be able to react with the functional groups of the lipases. Recently, magnetic beads have also been used which facilitates the recovery of the lipases. A last method involves immobilization of cell-associated lipases by simple drying of mycelia. The advatage of such a method is the elimination of the isolation step in the recovery of the enzymes. A drying procedure can be the storage of the cell culture suspension in a vacuum chamber at room temperature. To obtain a good activation of the enzyme as well as to stimulate the desired enzymatic reaction (hydrolysis versus esterification or interesterification), the appropriate amount of water added to the immobilized enzymes is decisive. Fully dried catalyst particles will show a low activity for interesterification. Small amounts of water (up to 10% of the mass of the particles) are required to reach an acceptable rate of interesterification.

2.2.2 CBS PurificationThe other process that needs to be selected is the purification or separation step of cocoa butter substitute. Interesterification reaction in the previous step does not perform completely. This results in free fatty acids, monoglycerides and diglycerides beside triglycerides. We should remove free fatty acids, monoglycerides and diglycerides that gives bad odour for cocoa butter substitutes. There are two steps to remove those compounds, which are distillation and extraction.Table 2.8 CBS Purificaton Method ComparisonParameterPhysical Refining (Steam Distillation)Chemical Refining (Extraction)

ExplanationScoreExplanationScore

Technical FactorsFully Proven5New and still rather unknown3

Less oil losses5High oil losses2

HSELess waste3Produce more waste (solvent)4

Deteroriate product quality5Maintain product quality2

EquipmentComplex equipment (Distillation column, boiler, condenser)3Simple equipment (extraction column)5

CostDo not need expense for waste treatment and disposal5Need expense for waste treatment and disposal3

Time FactorShorter time5Longer time3

Total3122

2.3 Selected Process Description2.3.1 CPO Refining Process: Physical Method To be suitable as material used for cocoa butter substitute (table 1.5), CPO need to be refine to RBDPO. Based on assessment above, we choose physical method to refine our CPO. Fig. 2.8 shows the simplified flowsheet of physical refining which consists of pre-treatment stage (degumming and bleaching) and deodorization stage. Fig. 2.9 Simplified Flowsheet of Physical RefiningSource: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaA. DegummingThe main objective of this degumming is to remove the unwanted gums, which will interfere the stability of the oil products in later stage. The main component of contained in the gums, which has to be removed, is phosphatide. It is vital to remove the phosphatides content in the crude oil because the presence of this component will impart undesirable flavor and color, and shorten the shelf life of oil. The phosphatides emulsifying action is the main culprit that causes the oxidative instability of the crude palm oil (CPO). Fig. 2.10 Chemical structure of most common phosphatidesSource: Rohani, et al. 2006. Process Design in Degumming and Bleaching of Palm Oil. Research Vote No: 74198. Universiti Teknologi MalaysiaThe objective is achieved by treating the crude pa