Assessment of water quality in Trichy City, Tamil Nadu, India · attributed to the overexploitation...

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 1, No 7, 2011

© 2011 Muthukumar.S et al., licensee IPA- Open access - Distributed under Creative Commons Attribution License 2.0

Research article ISSN 0976 – 4402

Received on April 2011 Published on July 2011 1849

Assessment of water quality in Trichy City, Tamil Nadu, India Muthukumar.S, Lakshumanan.C, Santhiya.G, Krishnakumar. P, Viveganandann.S

Center for Remote Sensing, Bharathidasan University, Thiruchirappalli

[email protected]

doi:10.6088/ijessi.00107020041

ABSTRACT

During the last several decades, human economic activities, especially input of anthropogenic

pressure have a trend of changes in the Earth and Ecosystem consuming ever increasing

amounts of fresh water. Its availability at a spot is largely predetermined by the climatic and

geological conditions. This study has made a systematic approach to get an idea about

hydrogeochemistry of the groundwater present in the area. The region is denser with

agricultural activities and industrial impact. The waters of this region is comparatively

unpolluted except in few locations and weathering of minerals present in rocks were

determined to be the chief factor in controlling the water chemistry of the region. An

estimate on the available sources of water and need was done determine the sustainable

management of water. Declining quality and quantity of water supply of the area can be

attributed to the overexploitation of water and improper management of the existing resource,

which needs immediate intervention. The hydrogeochemical studies of the region points out

that, the present status is well within the considerable limits except for few samples.

Key Words: Anthropogenic pressure, Hydro geochemistry and Overexploitation

1. Introduction

Groundwater is a precious and the most widely distributed resource of the earth and unlike

any other mineral resource, it gets its annual replenishment from the meteoritic precipitation.

Groundwater is the largest source of fresh water on the planet excluding

the polar icecaps and glaciers. The amount of groundwater within 800m from the

ground surface is over 30 times the amount in all fresh water lakes and reservoirs, and about

3,000 times the amount in stream channels at any one time.

At present nearly one fifth of all the water used in the world is obtained from groundwater

resources. Ground water is used for agriculture, industries and domestic supply in most parts

of the world as it is a replenish able resource and has inherent advantages over surface water.

Agriculture is the greatest user of water accounting for 80% of all consumption. It takes,

roughly speaking 1000 tons of water to grow one ton of grain and 2000 tons to grow one ton

of rice. Animal husbandry and fisheries all required abundant water. Some 15% of world’s

cropland is irrigated. The present irrigated area in India is 60 million hectares of which about

40% is from groundwater there has been a tremendous increase in the demand for fresh water

due to growth in population, advanced in practices and industrial usages. Rapid growth of

urban areas has affected the groundwater quality, due to over exploitation of recourse and

improper waste disposal. A person normally requires about 3 quarts (3l) of portable water per

day to maintain the essential fluids of the body. Hence, there is a tendency to think of

groundwater as (being) the primary water source in arid regions and of the surface water in

humid regions. Hence the production and management of groundwater quality is emerging as

a great public concern in India and other countries of the world. However, the quality of

Assessment of water quality in Trichy City, Tamil Nadu, India

Muthukumar S, Lakshumanan C, Santhiya G, Krishnakumar P, Viveganandann S

International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 1 No.7, 2011 1850

groundwater available in an area is important as the quantity of resources.

Groundwater quality studies are becoming more important in nowadays due to man made

activities like domestic, industrial and agricultural activities. In urban area, the groundwater

contamination occurs mainly due to domestic and industrial activities such as disposal of

sewage water, septic tanks and industrial wastes. Groundwater quality studies are not critical

when alternative sources are available. However, in many parts of the world, alternative

supplies sufficient for the whole population particularly in urban areas, are not available. This

is true in many parts of India in particular in the Tiruchirapalli District where, although the

majority of the population of hut-dwellers have no option but to use shallow wells as their

only source of water. The water has become a scarce commodity in the region with

ephemeral rivers and vagaries in monsoon. The study area is one on such, so, it is essential to

have an idea about the quality of the existing water resource, which will help in the insatiable

usage is future. Hence, an attempt has been made to study the hydrogeochemistry of the

groundwater of Tiruchirapalli District.

2. Aim and Objective

The aim and objectives of the paper is to review the Water quality of ground water in Trichy

city for domestic, Industrial and Agricultural activities.

2.1 Study Area

Tiruchirappalli city is located in the part of Tamil Nadu state between 10º 38’ and 11º 38’ N

latitude and 78º28’ and 79º01’E longitude with an area of 51.95 km² with population of

866,354 ( As per 2001 Survey).

Figure 1: Image showing the study area map




The city is located on the Southern bank of river Cauvery. In the top edge of the city, the

river splits into two branches towards north and south direction. Kollidam is the name of the

northern branch and south gets the name Cauvery. Tiruchirappalli city is located at the head

of Cauvery delta and its altitude is low with 78.8 mts above the mean sea level and the city is

120 kms away from Bay of Bengal. It forms a part of a vast plain of fertile alluvia soil with a

gentle but gradual slope from the west. Geologically except alluvium and soils which are at

recent age, the rest of the rocks exposed in the area belong to the Archean, cretaceous and

tertiary formations of these rocks types. The Archaean rock occurs north and south of

cauvery alluvium.

3. Materials and Methods

The water samples were collected from open and boreholes in the study area. One liter of

water samples were collected polythene bottles from various wells during the month of

February and March 2008. Totally thirty six samples were collected from 36 locations, for

analysis various physio-chemical parameters, pH were measured by portable pH meter, EC

were measured Electrode, then TDS were done by calculation method, With respect to cation,

Calcium, Magnesium was analyzed volumetric method. Sodium, potassium were analyzed by

flame photometry, with respect to anions chloride, Bicarbonate were done by volumetric

method, Nitrate, Sulphate were estimated turbidity method. Analyzing method followed (A

APHA, 1998)..

Figure 2: Groundwater sample location

The quality of groundwater is affected by the pumpage and natural discharge. The water is

also heterogeneous in nature due to recharge from precipitation and contact with different

types of rocks. Hence in the case of groundwater, the fixation of suitable sampling sites is not

so easy as compared to surface water because the elements influencing water quality are not

easy known. Some general suggestions can be made for the selection of sampling sites. In

case, where the investigation does not take into account the changes in groundwater quality,




the sky constituents determined in a large number of samples collected over the entire area is

utilized to determine the water quality of the study area. From this, sites for selection of

samples for comprehensive analysis can be fixed. If the constituents are not known at the

beginning, the water quality pattern is arrived at, by first making a comprehensive analysis

and thus partial analysis at other site

4. Result and Discussion

The chemical concentration of different ions present in the groundwater of the study area is

given in Table 5.1. The analytical precision for the measurement of major ions is about 6%

to 9%. The total cations (TZ+) and total anions (TZ-) balance (Allan Freeze and Cherry

1979) shows the charge balance error (E %) percentage. The error percentage is between 2%

to 10%. The correlation coefficient between TZ+ and TZ– is generally occurring around 0.6

to 0.9. TDS/EC ratio ranges from 0.5 to 0.8. The role played by the other ions than those

studied here for the cation and anion charge balance is lesser. Hence the composition and the

range values of the ions are analyzed and discussed in detail. The groundwater in the study

area is colorless and odorless in most of the places. The average temperature at the time of

sampling varies from 25C to 28C.

pH in the study area varies from 6.66 to 8.36 (Table 5.2 ). The pH average concentration in

the region is 7.59. EC is the ability of a substance to conduct electric current. The measure of

conductivity is directly proportional to the strength of the water. The EC for purest water is

0.05 s/cm2 (Hem, 1991). In the study area EC varies from 369.37 s/cm2 to 4109.10

s/cm2. On an average 1522.04 s/cm2 is observed in the region.

Table 1: Chemical concentration of the sample collected in the study area (All values in

mgl-1

except EC and pH)

Sno pH Ec Ca Mg Na K Cl Co3 Hco3 So4 Po4 H4SiO4

1 7.37 2966 168 84 390.8 7.7 992.6 0 427 6 0.15 114

2 7.53 1196 28 4.8 114.94 136.6 106.35 0 444 1.75 0.5 94

3 7.41 1137 48 33.6 114.94 67.3 248.15 0 280.6 3 0.1 34

4 7.74 840 16 7.2 114.94 78.22 159.52 0 207.4 4.25 0.65 66

5 7.78 882 28 0 114.94 78.22 124.08 0 268.4 3 0.62 64

6 7.8 737 24 2.4 97.8 58.4 124.08 0 207.4 1.75 0.05 112

7 7.46 1750 16 26.4 298.85 50.8 230.42 0 597.8 4.75 0 116

8 7.34 3355 188 69.6 620.69 19.55 1293.9 0 146.4 10.5 0 100

9 7.67 3302 44 26.4 643.68 136.9 744.45 0 707.6 8.12 0.17 80

10 7.23 369 28 4.8 20.5 31.29 35.45 0 134.2 4.32 0 35

11 7.46 623 24 9.6 73 43.02 88.62 0 195.2 3 0 26

12 7.22 881 56 7.2 104.3 35.2 106.35 0 305 2.25 0.35 71

13 7.81 1416 72 2.4 160.92 80.4 248.15 0 427 0.5 0.17 40

14 8.15 565 8 26.4 51.6 39.11 70.9 0 195.2 4.32 0 76

15 7.5 717 44 16.8 75.7 27.38 106.35 0 207.4 24 0.1 39

16 7.25 1232 64 26.4 160.92 39.11 265.88 0 305 1 0.1 108

17 7.67 3343 224 115.2 367.82 58.66 1311.6 12 244 6.5 0 62

18 7.73 1228 68 19.2 183.91 31.29 301.33 0 231.8 24 0.05 32

19 8.35 555 16 7.2 34.48 82.2 53.18 0 195.2 0.37 0.05 35




20 7.18 1313 96 55.2 117.24 27.4 319.05 0 292.8 11.3 0 44

21 7.17 1155 132 31.2 203.3 20.8 124.08 0 292.8 4 0 33

22 7.78 1123 72 36 37.5 61.6 212.7 0 366 0.37 0 48

23 7.88 4109 140 158.4 458.6 57.3 1914.3 0 146.4 1.37 0 2

24 7.08 940 68 16.8 101.5 60.5 265.88 0 134.2 11 0 6.5

25 8.21 965 24 12 123.8 47.7 124.08 6 319.6 18 0 92

26 7.25 1038 72 19.2 71.9 87.5 265.88 0 207.4 3 0 4

27 7.64 1629 76 21.6 229.89 109.5 443.13 0 256.2 4.12 0.17 34

28 7.66 1828 88 31.2 288.5 11.5 638.1 0 219.6 2.5 0 30

29 7.42 1455 48 38.4 229.89 39.11 354.5 0 305 3.75 0 132

30 7.27 3140 268 43.2 402.3 31.29 1240.8 0 207.4 4.8 0 138

31 8.36 1372 16 2.4 275.86 39.11 212.7 18 390.4 6 0 110

32 6.66 1372 80 16.8 195.4 47.8 496.3 0 122 2 0 94

33 7.65 2884 48 55.2 666.67 10.4 1081.2 18 134.2 5 0 60

34 7.93 1099 48 40.8 160.92 39.11 336.78 54 85.4 4.25 0 81

36 8.02 756 44 14.4 103.45 19.55 159.52 12 170.8 5.5 0 122

Table 2: Maximum, minimum and average concentration of different ions present in

groundwater of the study area in mg/l (Except EC in μS/cm and pH)

Ions Minimum Maximum Average

EC 369.37 4109.10 1522.0

pH 6.66 8.36 7.59

Ca 8.00 268.0 70.97

Mg 0 158.40 30.93

Na 20.50 666.67 211.76

K 7.70 136.38 51.76

Cl 35.45 1914.30 422.87

So4 0.37 24.02 5.72

Hco3 85.40 707.60 267.91

Co3 0.00 53.95 3.43

TDS 258.56 2876.37 1065.42

Scholler (1965) proposed an index to base Exchange (Chlor-alkaline indices i.e. CA11 and

CA12 etc) that throw more light on the Base Exchange (Table 5.3) in the water and the rock

type. All the ions are expressed in epm values. The indices show that most of the values are

negative. The substances, which exchange ions, are called as permutolites (eg) clay minerals

(Kaolinite, Illite, Chlorite etc., with low exchange capacity of ions, where as in

Montmorillonite and vermiculite the exchange capacity of ions is higher), where CAI1 and

CAI2 dominate equally. Further, in Scholler (1967) classification all the groundwaters fall in

type I (Table 5.3). The table indicates that there is an exchange of Na and K in rock to that of

Ca and Mg in ground water.




Table 3: Schollers indicates and classification of groundwater in the study area

S.No CAI 1 CAI 2 Well Type

1 0.386 1.517 Type-1

2 -1.831 -0.751 Type-1

3 0.04 0.06 Type-1

4 -0.556 -0.717 Type-1

5 -1 -0.784 Type-1

6 -0.642 -0.654 Type-1

7 -1.2 -0.788 Type-1

8 0.247 3.438 Type-1

9 -0.5 -0.892 Type-1

10 -0.692 -0.302 Type-1

11 -0.71 -0.544 Type-1

12 -0.812 -0.483 Type-1

13 -0.294 -0.293 Type-1

14 -0.622 -0.378 Type-1

15 -0.331 -0.255 Type-1

16 -0.067 -0.1 Type-1

17 0.527 4.716 Type-1

18 -0.035 -0.07 Type-1

19 -1.401 -0.655 Type-1

20 0.356 0.636 Type-1

21 -1.678 -1.203 Type-1

22 0.466 0.465 Type-1

23 0.603 13.422 Type-1

24 0.205 0.633 Type-1

25 -0.887 -0.553 Type-1

26 0.285 0.617 Type-1

27 -0.024 -0.07 Type-1

28 0.286 1.412 Type-1

29 -0.1 -0.197 Type-1

30 0.477 4.773 Type-1

31 -1.167 -1.073 Type-1

32 0.306 2.096 Type-1

33 0.041 0.536 Type-1

34 0.158 1.008 Type-1

35 -0.111 -0.172 Type-1

The ratios of different ions indicate the geochemical nature of the water

(Table 5.4). The Na/(Ca+Mg) values are generally less than 1 indicating the dominance of

alkaline earth over the alkalies. This may be due to the differential weathering of minerals.

Table 4: The ratios of different ions indicates the geochemical nature of the water

S. No.

Na

Mg'/Mg

Na/Cl Na/Ca

Cl/HC

O3 Cl/SO4 Ca/Mg

(Ca+Mg

)

1 1.551 2.213 0.394 2.326 2.325 165.43 2

2 3.504 4.539 1.081 4.105 0.24 60.771 5.833




3 1.409 1.867 0.463 2.395 0.884 82.717 1.429

4 4.954 2.348 0.721 7.184 0.769 37.534 2.222

5 4.09 170.852 0.926 4.105 0.462 41.36 280

6 3.705 7.066 0.788 4.075 0.598 70.903 10

7 7.048 1.368 1.297 18.678 0.385 48.509 0.606

8 2.41 2.639 0.48 3.302 8.838 123.23 2.701

9 9.143 2.011 0.865 14.629 1.052 91.681 1.667

10 0.625 4.539 0.578 0.732 0.264 8.2 5.833

11 2.173 2.517 0.824 3.042 0.454 29.5 2.5

12 1.65 5.718 0.981 1.863 0.349 47.26 7.778

13 2.163 19.198 0.648 2.235 0.581 496 30

14 1.5 1.184 0.728 6.45 0.363 16.41 0.303

15 1.245 2.589 0.712 1.72 0.513 4.42 2.619

16 1.78 2.471 0.605 2.514 0.872 265.8 2.424

17 1.084 2.18 0.28 1.642 5.375 201.78 1.944

18 2.109 3.148 0.61 2.705 1.3 12.54 3.542

19 1.486 2.348 0.648 2.155 0.272 143.7 2.222

20 0.775 2.055 0.367 1.221 1.09 28.3 1.739

21 1.246 3.566 1.638 1.54 0.424 31 4.231

22 0.347 2.213 0.176 0.521 0.581 574.8 2

23 1.537 1.536 0.24 3.276 13.076 1397.2 0.884

24 1.197 3.455 0.382 1.493 1.981 24.17 4.048

25 3.439 2.213 0.998 5.158 0.388 6.89 2

26 0.788 3.275 0.27 0.999 1.282 88.62 3.75

27 2.355 3.134 0.519 3.025 1.73 107.55 3.519

28 2.42 2.711 0.452 3.278 2.906 255.2 2.821

29 2.661 1.758 0.648 4.789 1.162 94.53 1.25

30 1.293 4.763 0.324 1.501 5.982 258.4 6.204

31 14.992 5.044 1.297 17.241 0.545 35.4 6.667

32 2.019 3.889 0.394 2.442 4.068 248.1 4.762

33 6.46 1.527 0.617 13.889 8.057 216.24 0.87

34 1.812 1.714 0.478 3.352 3.944 79.24 1.176

35 1.771 2.854 0.649 2.351 0.934 29 3.056

Water quality is important criteria for determining in use for human consumption various

water quality standards are available, with respect to WHO standards Table 5.5. The drinking

water standards are based on two criteria 1) presence of the objectionable taste, odors, or




colors 2) the presence of the substance with adverse physiological effects. It is controlled by

health, size, age and eating habit is of the individuals.

Table 5: International Standards

Parameter

WHO Standards 1977 Study area

Highest

desirable

Maximum

permissible

Range Polluted samples

(W.No.) Min Max

pH 7.0 – 8.5 6.5 –9.2 6.66 8.36 -

TDS - - 2876.37 258.56 -

Calcium 75 200 8.00 268.0 17&30

Magnesium 30 150 0 158.40 23

Chlorine 200 600 35.45 1914.30 1,8,9,17,23,28,30,33

Sulphate 200 400 0.37 24.02 -

Sodium - - 20.50 666.67 -

Potassium - - 7.70 136.88 -

SAR values ranges from excellent to good category. According to Wilcox classification

(1955) the water is classified based on the Na% with respect to the other cations present in

water. Na% for water falls in permissible to unsuitable region (Table 5.6). In Na% Eaton

(1950) classification of groundwater for irrigation purposes. Majority of samples fall in

unsafe zone with minor representation in safe zone.

Table 6: Summary of the geochemical characters of the ground water

Category Grade

Samples

Category Grade

Samples

Category

Samples

n=35 n=35 n=35

Na% Wilcox (1955) USGS Hardness

TDS

Classification(USSL,1954)

Excellent 0-20 0 Soft <75 5 <200 0

Good 20-40 2 Slightly Hard 75-150 6 200-500 4

Permissible 40-60 14

Moderately

Hard 150-300 14 500-1500 24

Doubtful 60-80 11 VeryHard >300 10 1500-3000 7

Unsuitable >80 8 IBE Schoeller (1965) Cation Facies

Na% Eaton (1950) (Na+k)rock->Ca/Mg g.w. 21 Ca-Mg Facies 0

Safe <60 16 (Na+k)g.w.->Ca/Mg rock 14 Ca-Na Facies 35

Unsafe >60 19 Schoeller Classification (1967) Na-Ca Facies 0

S.A.R. Richards (1954) Type I 35 Na Facies 0

Excellent 0-10 31 Type II 0 Anion facies

Good 10 18 3 Type III 0 HCO3 Facies 0




Fair 18-26 1 Type IV 0

HCO3-Cl-SO4

Facies 0

Poor >26 0 Corrosivity Ratio (1990)

Cl-SO4-HCO3

Facies 27

R.S.C. Richards(1954) Safe <1 20 Cl- Facies 8

Good <1.25 24 Unsafe >1 15 Hardness Classification

(Handa,1964)

Medium 1.25-2.5 4 Chloride Classification

(Stuyfzand,1989) Permanent Hardness (NCH)

Bad >2.5 7

Extremely

fresh <0.14 0 A1 0

EC Wilcox (1955) Very fresh

0.14-

0.84 0 A2 3

Excellent <250 0 Fresh

0.84-

4.23 11 A3 17

Good 250-750 6 FreshBrackish

4.23-

8.46 10 Temprorary Hardness (CH)

Permissible

750-

2250 22 Brackish

8.46-

28.21 9 B1 1

Doubtful

2250-

5000 7 Brackish-salt

28.21-

282.1 5 B2 9

Unsuitable >5000 0 Salt

282.1-

564.1 0 B3 4

Hyperhaline >564.3 0

Correlation analysis for the groundwater samples are presented in Table 5.7. Good correlation

is obtained between Ca – Cl, Mg and Na, Cl - Mg and Na, K - PO4 and Mg - Na. Poor

correlation exhibits between HCO3 and CO3 with other ions. Major ion contributing

chemistry of groundwater in the study area is Cl, Ca, Mg and Na due to the positive

correlation in the groundwater.

Table 7: Correlation analysis

Factor analysis was carried out and the results (Table 5.8) reflect the complexity in chemistry.

Five factors were extracted with 80% of Total Data Variability (TDV). Factor 1 represented




with 28% of TDV by Ca, Cl, Mg and Na indicating leaching of secondary salts. Factor 2

represented with 17% of TDV by HCO3, K and PO4 indicating weathering and anthropogenic

impact. Factor 3 represented with 13% of TDV by CO3 and pH due to ion exchange. Factor 4

represented with H4SiO4 and HCO3 indicates dissolution of silicate minerals and factor 5

represented with 9% of TDV by SO4 indicates anthropogenic impact from nearby industries.

Table 8: Factor analysis

1 2 3 4 5

CA 0.77 -0.25 -0.34 0.05 -0.04

CL 0.98 -0.09 0.00 -0.02 -0.05

CO3 0.05 -0.37 0.75 0.14 -0.16

HCO3 0.04 0.72 -0.06 0.46 0.23

K -0.09 0.85 0.08 -0.21 -0.17

MG 0.89 -0.17 0.05 -0.17 -0.03

NA 0.83 0.10 0.08 0.29 0.12

PH -0.09 0.19 0.86 -0.03 0.12

PO4 -0.23 0.64 -0.08 0.01 -0.22

SI 0.03 -0.04 0.07 0.94 -0.09

SO4 -0.02 -0.17 0.01 -0.06 0.93

Total 3.12 1.96 1.43 1.29 1.06

% of Variance 28.33 17.85 13.00 11.71 9.66

Cumulative % 28.33 46.17 59.17 70.88 80.54

Figure 2: Piper Trilinear plot




Figure 3: Spatial distribution of EC

Figure 4: USSL diagram

Fig 5.7. Doneen Plot

Fig 5.7. Doneen Plot




Figure 5: Doneen Plot

Figure 6: Thermodynamic stability for K-system

Fig 5.9. Thermodynamic stability for Mg-System




Figure 7: Results obtained from the experiements

6. Conclusions

The Electrical conductivity of the study area shows that it varies from 369 to 4109 μs/cm.

But, most of the groundwater samples have EC higher than 1000 μs/cm. Sodium is the

dominant cation and Chloride is the dominant anion in the study area. Based on hardness, the

groundwater samples are moderately hard to very hard in nature. Based on the water quality

standards, all the ions are present within the permissible limits except in EC and calcium.

The quality of the groundwater is verified with WHO standards, which shows most of the

groundwater samples are well within the suitable drinking purposes. The groundwater nature

is explained by the Piper Trilinear diagram, which indicates that most of the groundwater

samples come under Na-Cl type. Geochemical processes of the study area is explained by




Gibbs plot and identified rock water interaction, which is the major process controlling the

groundwater chemistry of the study area. The quality of the water for irrigation was estimated

by USSL classification and Na%, indicates that all the samples range from good to

permissible levels.

In Doneen plot, most of the samples fall in class I indicates water is fit for irrigation purpose.

The spatial distribution of EC shows that higher concentration was observed in the northern

part of the study area indicates leaching of secondary salts. The corrosivity ratio indicates

majority of samples fall in safe category.In thermodynamic stability diagram, most of the

groundwater samples stable with Kaolinite field with minor representation in Montmorllinite

field indicates excess supply of silica and cations.The statistical analysis of the

hydrogeochemical data shows good correlation between Ca – Cl, Mg and Na, Cl - Mg and Na,

K - PO4 and Mg - Na. Factor analysis has identified five major factors responsible for water

chemistry of the region. This reveals secondary leaching and anthropogenic impacts are the

major controlling factors in the study area.Saturation index of different form of carbonate is

in the following order Aragonite > Calcite > Dolomite > Magnasite.The saturation index of

groundwater with respect different form of silica reveals that cristobalite > chalcedony >

amorphous.

7. References

1. Anandhan. P, Ramanathan , Chidambaram S, Manivannan R, Ganesh N,

Srinivasamoorthy K, (2000), A study on the seasonal variation in the geochemistry

of the groundwaters in and around Neyveli region, Tamilnadu. In: Proceedings of

International seminar on applied hydro geochemistry, Annamalai University, pp 86

- 105.

2. CGWB, (1993), Report of the working group on the estimation of ground resources

and irrigation potential of Periyar district, Tamil Nadu (Unpublished Report) .

3. Doneen LD., (1948), The quality of irrigation water, California Agriculture Dept,

4(11), pp 6 - 14

4. Gibbs RJ, (1970), Mechanisms controlling World’s water chemistry, Science 170,

pp 1088- 1099.

5. Hegde SN, Puranik SCA., (1997), Nitrate pollution in groundwater, Hubli City,

Karnataka, India. Workshop on Water-Pollution-Assessment and Management,

Hyderabad, India, pp 98 - 101

6. Johnson JH, (1975), Hydrochemistry in groundwater exploration-Groundwater

Symposisium Bulawayo.

7. Lakshmanan AR, Krishna Rao T, Viswanathan S, (1986), Nitrate and fluoride level

in drinking waters of Hyderabad, Indian Journal of Environmental Health, 28(1),

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8. Lawrence, JF, Balasubramanian, A, (1994), Groundwater conditions and

disposition of salt-fresh water interface in the Rameswaram island, Tamil nadu.




Regional workshop on Environ Aspects of Groundwater dev. Oct 17 – 19 1994,

Kuruhshetra, India, pp 21-25.

9. Moody DW, (1990), Groundwater contamination in the united state. J soil and

water conservation 41, pp 243 – 248

10. Srinivasamoorthy, K., Chidambaram, S., Anandhan, P. and

Vasudevan, (2005), Application of statistical analysis of the

hydrogeochemical study of groundwater in hard rock terrain, Salem District,

Tamilnadu, Journal of geochemistry, 20, pp.181-190.

11. USSL,(1954), Diagnosis and improvement of Saline and Alkali soils, USDA

Handbook 60:147

12. Walton, KC., (1970), Groundwater resource evaluation. McGraw-Hill New York.

13. WHO, (1971), International standards for drinking water 3rd

edition Geneva, 70p

14. WILCOX LV, (1955), Classification and use of irrigation water. U.S. Geological

Department Agricultural Circle 969, pp 19-20.

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