ALGERIA

Assessment of Land Degradation Processes for Sustainable

Environmental Management of Natural Resources in the costal

AreasAlgeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Libya,

Syria, Tunisia, YemenPROPOSAL

2009

Table of Contents

Abstract.............................................................................................................6Executive Summary...........................................................................................8Introduction and literature review..................................................................12

Introduction.................................................................................................12Location.......................................................................................................15

Egypt....................................................................................................... 15Lebanon...................................................................................................16Lybia........................................................................................................16Syria........................................................................................................17Tunisia.....................................................................................................17Yemen......................................................................................................18

Morphology and climate.............................................................................19Egypt....................................................................................................... 19Lebanon...................................................................................................22Libya........................................................................................................23Syria........................................................................................................25Tunisia.....................................................................................................27Yemen......................................................................................................30

Soil information...........................................................................................33Egypt....................................................................................................... 33Lebanon...................................................................................................34Libya........................................................................................................35Syria........................................................................................................36Tunisia.....................................................................................................36Yemen......................................................................................................37A. Driving forces.....................................................................................38

1. Urban encroachment...............................................................................38Egypt....................................................................................................... 38Lebanon...................................................................................................39Syria........................................................................................................40Tunisia.....................................................................................................40Yemen......................................................................................................41

2. Land cover change..................................................................................42Egypt....................................................................................................... 42Lebanon...................................................................................................43

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Syria........................................................................................................44Tunisia.....................................................................................................45Yemen......................................................................................................46B. Pressure..............................................................................................47

1. Forest fires..............................................................................................47Lebanon...................................................................................................47Syria........................................................................................................47Tunisia.....................................................................................................48Yemen......................................................................................................48

2. Land pollution.........................................................................................50Egypt....................................................................................................... 50Lebanon...................................................................................................51Syria........................................................................................................52Tunisia.....................................................................................................53

3. Soil erosion..............................................................................................54Egypt....................................................................................................... 54Lebanon...................................................................................................55Syria........................................................................................................56Tunisia.....................................................................................................58C. Impact.................................................................................................591. Climate, water and droughts...............................................................59Egypt....................................................................................................... 59Lebanon...................................................................................................60Syria........................................................................................................61Tunisia.....................................................................................................622. Other stresses......................................................................................64Egypt....................................................................................................... 64Lebanon...................................................................................................65Syria........................................................................................................67Tunisia.....................................................................................................68Yemen......................................................................................................69

Justification and benefits.................................................................................71Objectives........................................................................................................73Scope...............................................................................................................76Methodology and work plan............................................................................77Methodologies in Work packages...................................................................81

WP 00: Project coordination and management..........................................81

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WP 01: Collection, evaluation and screening of existing data...................83WP 02: Investigate land degradation and start methodologies..................84WP 03: Assess chemical contamination......................................................87WP 04: Identification and monitoring of hot spots/bright spots and indicators.....................................................................................................90WP 05: Identify effective remedial measures.............................................92WP 06: Map, establish database and information System..........................95WP 07: Development management plan.....................................................99WP 08: Design and enhance participatory approach...............................101WP 09: Design and enhance capacity building, policies & institutions...102WP 10: Disseminate appropriate knowledge & proper exploitation........103

Expected outputs and applications................................................................105Project requirements.....................................................................................110Management and organization plan.............................................................116Budget and funding plan...............................................................................120References.....................................................................................................124Appendices....................................................................................................133

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Assessment of Land Degradation Processes for Sustainable Environmental Management of Natural Resources in the costal Areas,Algier, Egypt,

Lebanon, Libya, Syria, Tunisia, Yemen

AbstractDeterioration of natural resources, and their losses, are increasing the stresses felt by communities benefiting from them. Land degradation leading to direct loss of soil, and indirect impacts on plant cover, with resultant desertification, is the major concern of this proposal. It aims to define a proper framework for sustainable management of the soil cover against land degradation and mitigation of desertification on socio-economic aspects in the eastern Mediterranean, i.e. Lebanon and Syria.The work entails collection of existing data, and investigating the nature and extent of land degradation through field work and remote sensing. This will include physical deterioration and chemical contamination, leading to mapping and assessing remedial measures. Obviously, monitoring is an important component, especially with the use of standard indicators. Building upgraded-updated data information systems and maps will contribute to a well established management plan for proper protection.Natural resources are integrated entities, and the public plus other stakeholders have a significant contribution in their protection. Participatory approaches are emphasized with respect to remediation measures. This will be enhanced by capacity building for relevant institutions and training for human know-how. Working policies that link institutions and the stakeholders with a sustainable outlook, will strengthen protecting those natural resources. Exploitation plans and dissemination of knowledge will permeate the benefits and sustainability of the project.The cooperation of experienced interdisciplinary teams from relevant ministries in the two countries, led by the remote sensing agencies in both, will assure a fully integrated project. It is proposed for a duration of four years, covering the humid coastal zone, the mountains and the semi-arid inner plain to the slopes of the eastern mountain chain. A variable output will reflect the interdisciplinary nature of the proposal, including dissemination workshops, training materials, maps for decision-makers and the public, reports on status of land degradation, hot spots, workable indicators for monitoring, and a management plan containing remedial measures based on a

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land degradation data information system (LDDIS). The proposed budget is US$ 1,270,000 to be co-financed between the lead agencies of the two countries at 25% each and international organizations. There are several international programs relevant to land degradation and desertification, be it with GEF, UNCCD, FAO, the European Commission, and bilateral interests. These would ease up co-funding this proposal.

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Keywords: Eastern Mediterranean, land degradation, environmental hot-spots, regional mapping, monitoring indicators, participation, capacity building, sustainable management.

Executive Summary1. The project focuses on assessing land degradation along the eastern

Mediterranean covering most of Lebanon and western Syria, which constitute vital socio-economic areas in the Region. It is concerned with investigating the nature and extent of land degradation processes as they are becoming crucial to the sustainability of local communities who are losing land productivity.

2. Detailed work will assess the different causes, using field and remote sensing techniques, with highly experienced interdisciplinary teams. This is achieved through partnership and cooperation between the remote sensing agencies of both countries as project leaders, and the relevant ministries of agriculture, environment and municipalities.

3. The project serves several purposes including characterization of the degradation in different micro-climatic zones, i.e. from the coastal humid, through the mountainous and into the inner dry semi-arid. The experience can be later applied to other Arab countries. Thematic maps at different levels of work will be produced. Some will serve for planning purposes at the level of the decision-maker, others will be for experts and researchers, and the third will help the community at large.

4. The component of human impact is given high significance as human interference is a prime factor in the degradation, plus being affected itself by the consequences. Accordingly, public participation is

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considered throughout the phases of the project, implemented through seminars, workshops and interviews.

5. Of course, a general evaluation of the status quo and available data will be undertaken. This should cover old works, digital coverage and attribute data on degradation processes, environmental impacts and socio-economic aspects which would prove useful for the laying out of maps and identifying change trends. This is also crucial for the integrated interdisciplinary approach of the project where experts on databases, remote sensing and GIS, socio-economists, environmentalists, soil scientists and earth resources people will be working together.

6. The integrated approach will help identify effective remedial measures within a proper management plan. Although preventive measures should be given priority, yet the team and plan would be open to others, i.e. mitigation and restoration measures as well. These would cover both technical and policies/institutional sides, assuring that capacity building and a monitoring program have built in a reliable mechanism for sustainability of the project, after its termination.

7. Geographic coverage from the coast inland to the edge of the eastern mountain chain will assure that different physiographic, climatic, terrain and local communities are represented. Monitoring, mapping and prioritization will assure covering different criteria to select “hot spots” and “bright spots”. International standards and geo-indicators on soil, water and plants will be applied for categorization and prioritization of those spots, but taking local characteristics into consideration.

8. Again, output maps will be designed for different stakeholders in order to make them “user friendly”. Detailed work on stability, erosion, land use, agro practices, land value and trends of changing patterns will help determine the remedial measures for the hot spots.

9. The project builds up incrementally to reach the management plan. This requires training and capacity building for the different stakeholders. Different types of stakeholders are envisaged, i.e. ministries, municipalities, NGOs, researchers and private sector. This would include policy-strategy analysis, the knowledge base needed and relevant legislation and organization. Aspects and procedures should

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cover cooperation, technical upgrading, regulations, rehabilitation, economic incentives and public participatory modalities.

10.Since public participation is important to the project, observation tools, reflecting on extent of degradation, i.e. indicators, are given for monitoring by the public. The implementation must be approved by the concerned stakeholders, and verification procedures are given for that purpose.

11.Post implementation and sustainability funding can be secured through local interest groups, and act as seed for encouraging external support. The project funding of US$ 1,270,000 is proposed to be shared by the lead agencies in both countries and international support.

12.The project ascertains two important working issues, one is that it raises no ethical issues, and two it gives due significance to gender issues.

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Introduction and literature review

IntroductionLand resources in the eastern Mediterranean have been continuously subject to increasing human pressures. Several natural and human-induced factors contribute to the deterioration of land resources in the region. The abundance of bare and deteriorated lands with shallow soils points to processes of severe erosion and land degradation. Analysis of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) shows that considerable percentage of the Lebanese and Syrian (mainly in the coastal zone) territory has complex landforms with sloping and rugged lands, implying that steep slopes are a major physical factor enhancing soil erosion. The torrential rainfall causes flash floods and erosion, sometimes leading to mass movements due to poor drainage and weak lithology. Among the oldest direct human-induced erosion factors are deforestation and degradation of vegetative cover in the mountains. Forest fires, and chaotic urban sprawl amplify the negative impact of deforestation thus enhancing soil erosion by water and wind. Inappropriate irrigation practices and fertilizer application contribute to the development of soil salinity, not only in the arid and semi-arid areas, but also in the more humid Mediterranean coastal areas especially with greenhouse agriculture. Seawater intrusion and mismanagement lead to deterioration of groundwater quality and soil contamination hazards. An integrated approach is needed to facilitate the monitoring of land degradation, extraction of indicators and the elaboration of responsive measures to prevent and reverse land degradation processes where possible.Egypt occupies an area of over 1 million square kilometers (km) characterized by an arid and hyper arid climate. The main agro ecological zones are the north coastal belts, including the north-west coastal area, the Nile Valley, which encompasses the fertile alluvial lands of Upper Egypt, the Delta and the reclaimed desert areas on the fringes of the Nile Valley, the inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert with its elevated southern areas, and finally the western desert, oases and southern remote areas. The population is concentrated along the Nile and within the Delta, where most of the country’s agriculture is practiced.The area of the coastal zone of Egypt is subject to different types of land degradation as a result of physical, chemical and biological processes. Land degradation is due to the low natural resilience of the soil as well as various environmental and human pressures. The low soil fertility and weak structure are

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due to the overall characteristics of these soils, which are sandy and silty with low organic matter content. This makes these soils highly vulnerable to wind and water erosion. With the reclamation of the land, further deterioration of its quality is occurring as a result of misuse and mismanagement of land resources. Productivity has been limited, in part, by high salinity levels and by the encroachment of urban settlements onto previously cultivated lands. The natural protection from coastal erosion and the formation of coastal lagoons were due to the high sand dunes. However, coastal erosion is being accelerated by the retreat of the shores resulting from the insufficient sediment load of the Nile River water discharged into the Mediterranean Sea. In fact, the erosion rate of the shoreline of the north-west coast has increased in the past two decades and satellite images show that the areas already lost to the sea are in the thousands of feddans.There are soil salinity problems, which are caused by the overexploitation of groundwater on the fringes of the Coastal Zone of Egypt; in addition, the prevailing soil resources and the physiography are of low quality, and there are inappropriate land management practices. Waterlogging, and the mismanagement of irrigation coupled with restricted drainage conditions are leading to increased soil salinization and to soil sodicity development.39 Wind and water erosion are aggravating the problem and leading to a loss of plant cover and genetic resources. In the north-west coastal zone, the effect of tillage and inappropriate land use is leading to high annual soil losses (10.6 tons/ha), which are 93 per cent greater than losses occurring through wind erosion. The use of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals is leading to the pollution of soils and to serious environmental hazards. For example, the use of chemical fertilizers increased fourfold in the past two decades, and the same holds true for herbicides, which are used to control submerged weeds and water hyacinths in canals and drains.The expansion of irrigation into desert lands is increasing the pressure on the available and often nonrenewable groundwater resources. The demand for water has been increased, due to the high population growth and to the development of irrigated agriculture, which has further aggravated the conflict for water.The overexploitation of groundwater resources is leading to an intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers and this is causing deterioration of the quality of water, which is becoming more and more saline. Its use in irrigation further adds salts to the soil, and this is negatively affecting land productivity. The problem is more severe in the reclaimed areas of the north-west coast where groundwater is the main source of freshwater resources.Over the upcoming decades, the coastal zone of Egypt is expected to be affected by climate change and a possible sea rise, the overall impact of which will largely depend on the degree of coastal alterations. An intensified use of land in the coastal region will inevitably be due to the continued growth of the population. The

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anticipated agricultural intensification and increased land reclamation, irrigation, urbanization and other activities that negatively affect the soil and water quality will amplify the negative impact that climate change and sea rise will have on the area. Land degradation as a result of urban encroachment on the highly fertile agricultural land is one of the recent problems that have affected the agricultural sector of Egypt. The expansion of cultivated areas into rangelands and the cultivation of low productive land, prone to erosion, are causing a substantial loss in biodiversity and are reducing the grazing lands traditionally used by Bedouins. This is also affecting the total water balance and as a result might increase soil erosion. Libya consists mostly of desert terrain. Only the narrow coastal strip receives sufficient rainfall to make it suitable for agriculture and this is where ninety three percent of the population lives. In the coastal belt is where the main agricultural areas are also located. The study area located in northwest part of Libya, known as the Al-Jifārah plain in, is the most advanced economic region in the country. Intensive development and population growth combined with water scarcity during recent years have resulted pollution of the groundwater aquifers which represent the only dependable water supply of a burgeoning and expanding economy.

Most of the area has 5–10 inches (125–250 mm) annual rainfall, except for the coastal area around Tripoli, which has about 15 inches (380 mm). The coastal strip supports many palm groves; some fruit and grain crops are grown. The central region of the Jifārah, with a much lower water table, supports only nomadic herding of sheep and goats. The narrow piedmont area of al-Jifārah (up to about 1,000 feet [300 m] above sea level), a desert region with scattered oases, is everywhere separated from the Saharan upland by pronounced scarp ridges, or cuestas

Location

EgyptOfficially the Arab Republic of Egypt, a country in north-eastern Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Palestinian and the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. The principal geographic feature of the country is the Nile River. It located between longitude 24.2 and 37.3 E and Latitude 21.3 and 32.1 N. Egypt has a maximum length from north to south of about 1085 km (about 675 mi) and a maximum width, near the southern border, of about 1255 km (about 780 mi). It has a total area of 997,739 sq km (385,229 sq mi). Geographically, Egypt can be distinguished into four main geographic regions; NileValley & Delta, Sinai Peninsula, Eastern Desert and Western Desert.

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Lebanon

LybiaJefara Plain located in Northern west of Libya between Longitude and Altitude (31.45 – 33.00) and (14.30 – 10.45) started from Gabes Gulf in Tunisia ,west to Ras-Elmasin Zone in ElKhomes in Libya ,east and Mediterranean sea ,north Nafosa mountain chain ,south.

Location of study area

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Syria

Tunisia Tunisian coasts extend over almost 1300 Kms, without considering the shores of wet zones opening onto the sea. The sandy beaches, located mainly at the bottom of the bays and gulfs of the eastern façade of the country, extend over about 575 Kms. In addition, there is a fairly large number of islands and islets.

The study site is in the village of Korba situated in the north-eastern part of Tunisia, administratively attached to the Governorate of Nabeul.

Built on a hillside, 20Kms from Nabeul city, Korba is famous for its sandy beaches its garden market products and its arboriculture.

As consequence, the case study represents un area with many conflicting pressures which are increasing rapidly.

Localisation of Study Site

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YemenThe investigated area is extending about 135 km along the Red Sea shoreline of Yemen. It lies between –longitudes 42º 51' 39" to 42º 57' 15'' E and latitudes 15º 02' 27'' to 15º 03' 12'' N. The only existing city in the study area is Hodeidah beside some villages e.g. Nukhaylah, Al-Mandar , Al-jabanah, Al-Urj. Two main islands are located in the investigated area namely Mujamilah and Al-Hylla.

Morphology and climate

EgyptThe Northern coast of Egypt extends for about 1050 km from Rafah to the east, on the Egyptian-Palestinian border, to Sallum in the west, on the Egyptian-Libyan border. The coastline borders both the Arabian desert and the Sahara, including the Suez Canal and the Nile delta as the northern gateway to Africa.The total Northern coastline of Egypt can be divided into three major sub-zones; North Coast of Nile delta, Northwest Coast and the North Coastal Areas of Sinai (NAP, 2002 and NEP, 2007. 1-Northwest CoastThe Northwest Coast of Egypt forms a belt about 20 Km deep, which extends for about 500 Km between Amria (20 Km west of Alexandria) and El Salloum near the borders with Libya.

PhysiographyThe region can be subdivided into five physiographic areas, each with its own particular topographical features:

Alexandria to Alamein: The coastal plain is wide and includes three main ridges running parallel to the coast – a recent coastal ridge covered by sand dunes, and two old consolidated ridges – with flat depressions in between. The coastal plain rise to the Maruot Plateau at an elevation of 5-40 m asl.

El Alamein to Ras El Hekma : This is an irregular succession of alternating low hills and closed depressions, sloping from south (60 m asl) to north (the coastline). There is an almost continuous range of dunes along the coast.

Ras El Hekma to Ras Abu-Laho: The cliffs of the Libyan Plateau run parallel to the coast. A discontinuous series of dunes develops at a distance varying from 200 m to 3 Km from the coast. There are some saline depressions in the lower part of

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the plain, some with outlets to the sea. The escarpment of the plateau is deeply cut by wadis .

Ras Abu-Laho to Sidi Barrani : This region is characterized by a uniform topography. The coastal belt of alluvial soils is narrow and intermittent. South of the coastal belt, a large area of gentle uniform slopes extends up to the Libyan Plateau.

Sidi Barrani to Salloum : A flat coastal band 2-4 Km wide, is found South of the dunes, starting some 10 Km east of El Salloum. A few large depressions occur along the edge of the Libyan Plateau at 200 m asl. Some important wadis dissect the escarpment, especially southwest of SidiBarrani.

Main Climatic FeaturesThe North West coast (NWC) is characterized by dry Mediterranean climate, with average high and low temp of 18.1 0C and 8.1 0C in the winter and 29.2 0C and 20 0C in the summer, respectively.Rainfall in the Northwest Coast ranges between 105.0 mm / yr at ElSalloum and 199.6 mm / yr at Alexandria. Data from eight stations situated near the coastline show that most of the rainfall (70% or more) occurs within the winter months (November to February ), mostly during December and January .There are significant variation in rainfall from one location to another, which is attributed mainly to the orientation of the coast at these locations. The prevailing rainfall gradient from north shows that the average mean decreases sharply from 150 mm near the coast to 50 mm at 20-70 Km inland. The NWC area has the highest average wind speed in Egypt in the winter where wind speed could reach 18.5 Km/hr. Wind speed drops gradually inland.

2- North Coastal Areas of SinaiPhysiographyThe northern strip to depth of about 5 Km from the shore line has a very gentle slope in south / north direction reaching about 20 m asl in the southern parts. Then a medium slope develops towards inlands reaching elevations of 90 m asl. The physiography of North Sinai sub-zone is characterized by the Tina Plain in the east which is formed of Nile alluvial deposits in the lowest lying areas of Sinai. In the middle is the Bardaeweel lagoon (Shallow Lake). South ofBardaweel extend desert plains with large areas of sand dune belts and sand sheets. The eastern parts of the coastal areas have the highest average rainfall in Egypt. It is dissected by the largest wadi in Sinai, Wadi Al Arish, which emerges from

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elevated gravelly plains and terraces in the south to a distance of about 20 Km till the Mediterranean Sea coast.

Climatic FeaturesNorth Sinai areas are characterized by the dry Mediterranean climate type with relatively rainy, cool winters and dry hot summers. Air temperatures are similar to those of the NWC but with large variations diurnally, seasonally and geographically. The annual wind speed is around 14.0 Km/hr and the prevailing wind direction is north-west and north. The amount of rainfall in Sinai decreases from the north-east towards the south-west. The greatest amount of rainfall is found in Rafah (304 millimeters / yr.) in the north-east. The annual average along the Mediterranean coast amounts to 120 mm / yr. Rainfall decreases in the uplands to the south to about 32 mm / yr. On the whole, the average annual rainfall in the entire Sinai Peninsula is 40 millimeters, of which 27 millimeters are estimated to come from individual storms that may provide 10 millimeters at a time.Rainfall occurs in Sinai mainly during the winter season (November to March) and during spring or fall. Rainfall is practically absent from May to October. Along the Mediterranean Coast, 60% of the rain occurs in the winter, while 40% falls during the transitional seasons. Due to differences in water availability, growing seasons differ in the different parts of the Governorate of North Sinai.

LebanonLebanon is an east Mediterranean country enjoying a mild winter and hot summer on the coastal area, with subtropical cold winter and dry summer in the mountains. The annual precipitation is between 600 and 1200 mm with a semi arid area in the Northeast Bekaa where it is less than 300 mm. The country consists of a narrow coastal plain, and two parallel mountain chains, the western and eastern, separated by the Bekaa plain. Lebanon has a complex geomorphology of mainly hilly and mountainous slopes dominated by hard limestone rocks.

LibyaAl-Jifārah slopes southward from the Mediterranean coast up to the tableland of the Sahara in three distinct regions. In the north is a narrow, low, coastal strip characterized by sandy beaches and many small hollows covered with sabkhah (saline plains with small lakes in the rainy season). South of this is a gently rolling area of steppe vegetation, varying in elevation from about 160 to 650 feet (50 to 200 m) above sea level. The southernmost region is a piedmont at the foot of the Saharan upland, known in Libya as the Nafūsah

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Plateau. In Tunisia this tableland sends out a long north-south spur that forms the western border of the coastal plain.ClimateThe Mediterranean Sea and Sahara Desert are the dominant climatic influences in Libya. In the coastal lowlands, where 80 percent of the population lives, the climate is Mediterranean, with warm summers and mild winters. The climate in the desert interior is characterized by very hot summers and extreme diurnal temperature ranges.

Summer temperatures in the north range from 26.7° C to 32° C. The ghibli, a hot, dry, dust-laden desert wind, which can last one to four days, can change temperatures by 17° C to 22° C in both summer and winter. Precipitation ranges from light to negligible. Less than 2 percent of the country receives enough rainfall for settled agriculture.

The mount areas of the north receive a yearly average of 381 to 508 millimetres. Other regions get less than 203 millimetres. Rain usually falls during a short winter period and frequently causes floods. Winters can be bitterly cold, with temperatures below 0° C. Frost and snowfalls sometimes occur in the mountains. Evaporation is high, and severe droughts are common.

Libya is vulnerable to climate change because of prevailing arid and semi-arid climate conditions, recurrent droughts, inequitable land distribution, and overdependence on rainfed agriculture. Precipitation is the main parameter of climate, which may control the socio-economic prospects. It begins usually in autumn to winter, which is the rainiest season and end is spring, while a negligible precipitation occurs in summer. High precipitation variabilities and severe precipitation intensities over Libya may cause severe moisture stress on cultivated crops and reduce yields. As a common rule, precipitation in arid and semi-arid areas has in most cases negative effects. Due to high temperatures, most water evaporates without any benefit to agriculture, whereas a small percentage of precipitation only infiltrates to groundwater. (EL-TANTAWI, 2003)

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Source: Metrological Department

Figure 2.3. Climate map of Libya

SyriaGeomorphologically, Syrian coastal region can be divided into 5 main geomorphological areas: shore –line, coastal plain, hilly areas, river valleys, and mountainous areas.

There are 2 major plains in the zone, Jableh-Latakia plain in the north (approximately 50 x 10 km) and Akkar plain in the south (very narrow near Tartous, more than 10 km wide toward the border with Lebanon). Both plains gently slope toward the sea. Thus, most rivers and wadis run towards the west or southwest carrying fluviatile deposits.

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East to the first coastal mountain chain, there is one major plain in the country called Al- Ghab plain which is mainly used for agricultural purposes. It is located in between the two coastal mountainous chains.Millennia of combined effort of the forces of sea and wind have produced very long and broad beaches along the coastline. They run all the way from Latakia to the Lebanese border, with relatively short interruptions south of Jableh and south of Banias. The longest beaches, the one south of Latakia and the other one south of Tartous, are almost 1 km deep (wide), more than 15 km long, and combined with impressive belts of sand-dunes in the background.

Climatically, The entire coastal region belongs to the Mediterranean humid or subtropical types of climate, with the amount of rainfall and temperature gradually increasing from the west to the east and decreasing from the higher to the lower slopes of the coastal mountains and from north to south down the Bassit block (PAP/RAC, 1990). Thus, a general characteristic of the coastal zone is a combination of high temperature and medium amount of rainfall. The annual temperature averages for Latakia and Tartous are almost 20 oC, as compared to 12.5 oC for Slenfeh, in the mountainous hinterland (Climatic Atlas of Syria, 1977, and Eid 2004).Temperature: The coldest month in Syria is January, while the hottest month is August in the coastal area. The mean monthly temperature values increase continuously after January to reach their maximum during July. In the coastal area, the mean monthly temperatures range from 10 to 12o C in January and up to 26o C in July. In the mountainous regions these values drop to 4 to 6o C in January and to 20 to 22o C in July. The average maximum temperature in the coastal area ranges from 15 to 17o C in January to 28 to 29o C in July. In the mountainous regions they vary from 6 to 8o C in January to 24 to 26o C during summer. The highest minimum temperatures are found in the coastal plain with 6 to 8o C in January, in the coastal mountains these values are 2 to 4 o C. Rain fall: In Syria, rainfall distribution and reliability are mainly affected by the seasonal routes of the Atlantic cyclones passing eastwards along the Mediterranean. The rainfall season usually begins in September over the coastal area and reaches the maximum in December and January. The season extends till June. The precipitation amount in the coastal area reaches values of 850-860 mm over the coastal low land. In the coastal mountains the annual average of the

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rainfall increases gradually with increasing elevation to reach a maximum of 1500-1600 mm at the ridges of the mountains.

Tunisia Morphology

The cap bon peninsula corresponds to an anticline structure known under the name of “anticline of Jebel Abderrahman” or “Oued chiba”.

The mio-Plecenous stratigraphy series is presented by a succession of marly beaches, sandstone or sand.

The anticline of Jebel Abderrahman is lined on the East-West sides by two synclines essentially composed by marly layers: the synclines of Takelsa on the West and Dakhla in the East.

The anticline of Jebel Abderrahman constitutes, in fact, a set of mountains of 600m height. These various reliefs are subjected to severe erosion.

Indeed, the heart of the anticline which should present the maximum convexity was eroded by oued Chiba to from an egg-shaped anticline having 15 km long and 7 km width. This anticline is cut in Eocenous marls.

ClimateThe Korba region belongs to the Mediterranean Bioclimatic class, which is semi-arid and having a warm winter. Like all the Mediterranean regions, the climate has got 4 seasons. Korba region is characterised by a hot summer and a warm winter with an irregular pluviometry.

TemperatureThe averaged temperatures as well as the maxima and minima recorded

in the Nabeul station are detailed in the table below.

Monthly temperature Precipitations related to the meteorological station of Nabeul The maxima are recorded during the period form June to September.

The minima correspond to the period from December to march (see figure below). We notice that the extreme temperatures can reach 37.6°C in august. The extreme minus temperatures reach 7.5°C in January. The temperatures

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show a thermic contrast between a hot and dry summer and a cold and humid winter.

Precipitation

The area of Korba has a precipitation average situated between 400 and 500mm per year. The rainiest months of the year are from September to April and the driest from June to August. These climatic conditions are favourable to bathing in summer. The following table represents the monthly values of the precipitation in Nabeul station

Wind Monthly Precipitations related to the meteorological station of Nabeul 1997

Wind

The dominant winds are NW-EW. They can be violent and exceed 20m/s.

Month jan Febr march april may june july aug sept oct nov dec

Direction WNW WNW WNW W ENE NW NNW WNW NNW SW WNW WNW

Speed(m/s) 28 26 30 24 27 22 21 19 22 30 25 26

Monthly maximum absolute wind (Nabeul station) (2002)

Yemen

The Hodeidah study area lies in the Tihama coastal plain which is a part of the tectonically formed Red Sea coast. The plain is almost sandy desert, gently sloping and slightly undulating from the base of the foothills of the Western Highlands to the Red Sea. It is occasionally dissected by wadis (Wadi Siham and Wadi Nakhla); the downstream of them are located near the shoreline. Commonly the upper boundary of the coastal area is marked by a zone of perennial vegetation and dunes. In the Kwar Katib, Al-Urj, Al-Hylla

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and Al-Mandar; the mangrove and seagrasses are located.

The area is characterized by a hot summer and warm winter. The air temperature and the evaporation rate are high in summer months (June to September). In Hodeidah city the maximum value of air temperature in summer is 43ºC and the minimum value is 26.6ºC. Table (1) shows the distribution of the temperatures during the period of 2004-2007. In the winter months (November to February) the lowest values are reaching 17.8ºC in January and the highest values are reaching 33.9ºC in November (Figure 1).

The rainfall is usually very sparse; it is mostly in the form of showers of short interval often associated with thunderstorms and occasionally with some dust storms. The monthly rainfall distribution is reported in table (2), showing that the annual precipitation in the investigated area ranges from 4 mm in winter to 50 mm in summer, most of which occurs during August and September and from December to April. Relative humidity is a convenient means of expressing the dryness or wetness of air. Along the main land of the coastal zone, the humidity is usually rather lower than over the sea. Relative humidity in the study area reaches its maximum value in winter (81 %) and its minimum value in summer (68 %).

Table (1) Monthly Mean Air Temperatures (Degree C°) Mo

nth

ElementJan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov.

Dec.

2004Maximum 30.6 30.9 33.4 35.9 37.4 38.8 38.9 38.1 37.5 36.1 33.9 32.5Minimum 17.8 20.5 24.2 26.9 28.1 28.2 28.4 27.1 26.1 24.2 21.5 19.1

Mean 24.2 25.7 28.7 31.5 32.7 33.5 33.6 32.6 32.0 30.2 27.7 25.8

2005

Maximum 31.5 31.4 32.7 34.6 35.0 37.1 38.3 37.7 36.2 34.4 32.5 30.8Minimum 19.3 20.8 23.9 25.1 36.3 27.8 28.3 29.9 26.3 25.1 23.3 22.7

Mean 25.5 26.1 28.1 29.9 30.7 32.4 33.3 33.7 31.3 29.8 27.8 26.7

2006

Maximum 30.2 31.2 32.2 34.5 36.0 36.4 37.9 36.9 36.5 34.9 32.6 30.7Minimum 21.0 23.5 25.0 26.2 28.0 29.2 30.3 29.0 27.8 25.7 22.4 21.6

Mean 25.5 26.9 27.9 29.9 32.0 32.5 33.6 32.5 32.3 30.1 27.5 26.1

2007

Maximum 30.7 31.3 32.9 34.8 36.5 37.2 38.5 38.2 36.8 35.3 32.5 31.0Minimum 18.5 22.8 23.5 25.8 28.1 28.3 28.9 29.1 28.2 25.1 22.3 21.8

Mean 25.4 26.1 28.3 29.9 32.3 32.8 33.7 32.6 32.5 30.4 27.4 26.2

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-0.4-0.2

00.20.40.60.8

11.21.41.6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Months

Tid

e (

m)

Figure (2) Diagram of tidal current values during year

The maximum value of wind speed recorded at Hodeidah station is observed in July (11 Knots; KT) and the minimum one (8.6 KT) is observed through October with annual mean 9.5 KT. Wind speed at the study area is generally weak. The surface wind is mostly warm and may be loaded by sandy and /or muddy dust.

The tide is essentially oscillatory semi-diurnal. The high spring in the summer reach to (0.8) m and the low (-0.1) m with an average (0.3) m. In winter the spring range is -1.4 m and the low is 0.4 m with an average 0.7 m. Figure (2) shows the annual change of the tide. The high tide is 1.5 m in January (winter) and low tide 0.4 m. In September (summer) the high tide is 1.0 m and the low tide is -0.2 m.

The water temperature varied form winter (average 27.5oC) and summer (average 38oC) in the Hodeidah coastal area. The pollution in the investigated area is need to study of the soil and shallow marine water and sediment near the Hodeidah port, sewage outfall, industrial and domestic waste disposal sites.

Soil information

EgyptThe North Coastal of Egypt including the following soil information.

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1- Soil of the North West coastal: Soil types and properties are highly influenced by geomorphic and pedogenic factors. The main soil units could be summarized as follows: Coastal oolitic sand dunes. Soils of the lagoonal depressions. Consolidated dunes. Deep sand and clay loam soils. Moderate to limited depths of sandy to clay loam. Wind blown formations. Soils of the alluvial fans and outwash plains over the plateau.

Water resources are mainly that of rainfall, groundwater resources are limited and usually of low quality especially with respect to varied salinity content.

2- North Coastal Areas of SinaiThe desert soils of northern Sinai are of three different origins: aeolian, alluvial and soil formed in situ. The latter is related to land form and is found in the plateau region of Wadi Al Arish on either calcareous or volcanic parent material. The majority of alluvial soils were formed under recent climatic conditions. They constitute the present wadi beds and they are characterized by a granulometric differentiation according to flood intensities and sedimentation times. As a consequence, soils in the upstream of the wadis are coarser in texture than the soils further downstream. In the dune area the soils are generally different than in the gravel plain. The dune area is dominated by soils with almost no signs of soil forming processes. Saline soils are found exclusively in the coastal zone. Haplic calciosols dominant the desert region in the gravel plains (El-Shaer and El-Morsy, 2008).The Tina plain in the west was formed of alluvial Nile deposits as a natural extension of the old Nile Valley. The soils are heavy textured with high salinity contents due to water logging condition attributed to the near-sea and low lying location. Water resources are varied; Rainfall water with possible runoffs if the rainfall exceeds 10 mm per rainy storm. When runoff occurs wadi beds will begin to carry water depending on the amount and duration of rainfall. It is estimated that 60 percent of the mean rainfall in Sinai is lost to evpotranspiration. Groundwater in Sinai may be classified into two types. Shallow groundwater, occurs mainly within weathered layer of igneous and metamorphic rocks, quaternary rock, recent deposits such as wadi fill or sediments and sand dunes. Deep groundwater mainly occurs as semi – confined aquifers of per-Quaternary formation. Groundwater resources in the North Coastal area are limited in nature and in general of low quality. A third water resource is being introduced to the area, namely “ Al Salam

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Canal” which will convey mixed Nile and agricultural drainage water across the Suez Canal to reclaim 400,000 feddans in Northern Sinai.

LebanonEarly attempts of soil mapping focused on the use of aerial photos to produce small scale reconnaissance maps (Geze, 1952) and analyze the landscape pattern developed over specific substratum (Verheye, 1988). More recent studies used remotely sensed data to update soil information (Darwish et al., 2002) and to asses land resources for large-scale soil studies and mapping (Darwish, 1999). Other studies monitored land vulnerability to water soil erosion, erosion pressure, movement of geologic and soil materials (Faour et al., 1999; Boukheir et al., 2001a), and pollutants movement in karstic rugged mountainous areas (Khawlie et al., 2002). Obviously, there are several reasons behind the deteriorating soil cover, which constitute a hazard that can be dealt with through the European DPSIR system (Driving forces, Pressures, Status, Impact and Response).

Libya

Soils in western Libya (from Tunisia to Misurata in the east) are: inceptisols and entisols (49.1 %), aridisols (11.5 %), salorthids (10.7 %) and sandy soils (3 %; UNEP, et al., 1996: 266). Sandy soils bear more developed vegetation with a more regular and higher primary productivity than finer textured soils. Thus, profitably and commercials cultivated rainfed olive orchards are grown on deep sandy soils under as little precipitation as 200 mm/year in Tripoli area, but this is not possible without an additional runoff complement on silt soils (LE HOU´EROU, 2001: 108).

Soil salinization and alkalization occurs in the case of irrigated lands, with inadequate leaching of salts contained in the soil or added in irrigation water. Salinization and alkalization of soils prevail on the northwestern Al-Jifārah Plain where soils are converted to saline soils by the salinity of groundwater used for irrigation and the result of faulty technology in water development schemes such as using too salty water on too heavy soils and insufficient drainage or even no drainage at all (LE HOU´EROU, 1977: 21).

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SyriaRed soils are overwhelming in both coastal plains (Jableh and Akkar). These soils contain clay and loam, and vary in depth. However, the coastal zone, i.e. in the two plains, their depth usually goes to 1 m or more. The soils of highest quality can be found in the western parts of the Jableh and Akkar agricultural plains which have largely benefited from the combinations of factors such as favorable climate, abundance of groundwater, easy access to agricultural mechanization, easy transport and the existing infrastructure network.In general, Latakia soils can be divided into main five groups (GORS, 1991) coastal plain soils, piedmont soils, summit soils, river bed soils, and forest soils.According to the land directorate in Tartous, There are seven soil types: Alluvial soils, Hill soils, Valley and Drainage Soils, Low Mountain Soils, High Mountain Soils, Steep Slope soils and Summit Soils (Darwish et al., 1986).

Tunisia On the oriental hillside of the cap bon and more particularly in the region of Korba, we can distinguish the following sets.

Ancient glacis: the high zones corresponding to glacis of erosion are occupied by limestone and fragments of red grounds. On the other hand, the low zones corresponding to glacis of accumulation are occupied by deep soils: brown limestone grounds.

The glacis connection to the thyrrehenien dune (red soils); on the hillsides of thyrrhenien dunes and on the ancient glacies close to the sea, the Mediterranean red soils meet. They rest on the encrusted dune. These soils have a rough texture, a stable structure and a good porosity

The tyrrherienne dune: except the red soils, observed on its hillside and in the intermediate depressions, the tyrrhenienne dune presents very eroded limestone soils.

The coastal area: the shore is lined with a fringe of salted soils situated between the coast and the tyrrhenienne dune

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Yemen

Several units of environments are associated with the Hodeidah study coastal area. These environments are Wadi plain, downstream, Coastal plain and sabkha.the soil in these units are variable. The wadi plain soil vary in texture containing sand, mud and some gravel (cobble, pebble and granular); showing well rounded, spherical and elongated shape and poorly sorted grains. The distribution of the soil is maily fine sand and mud in the downstream area. The soil in the coastal dunes is mainlyfine sand; it is related to wind regime and direction. The distribution of soil of the sabkha (gravely and sand, mainly poorly sorted) is related to types of source sediments. The sand fractures are related to continental source while the gravels are related to marine source.

Soil degradation is deterioration in the physical and chemical properties of the soil due to environmental change causing soil erosion, loss of fertility and salinization. The increase of coastal dunes, sabkha and saltmarsh area affected the soil.

A. Driving forces

1. Urban encroachment

EgyptPopulation densities in some areas along the Nile River are greater than 1,000 people per square kilometer. Egypt’s population has increased more than seven folds from 11 million in 1907 to almost 77 million at the beginning of the year 2008.Rapid population growth is straining natural resources as agricultural land is being lost to urbanization. The pressure of an increasing population combined with the scarcity of cultivable land, leads farmers to demand more from the land than it can yield. The pressure increases all the more rapidly as the spatial growth of human settlements, especially cities, takes a direct toll on the surrounding land resources: based on FAO data it has been estimated for instance that between 1973 and 1985 Egypt lost 13 % of its farmland to urban sprawl. It is commonly said that the land developed thanks to the Aswan Dam merely compensates for that loss to urbanization (UN, 2007).

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LebanonRapid chaotic urban growth is one of the principal causes of desertification in the Mediterranean area (Eswaran, 1997). This is particularly true in Lebanon where the total urbanized areas exceed 646 km2, or 6.3% of the Lebanese territory. The most important urban agglomerations are concentrated on the coastal zone, where 19.3% of the country comprises 47% of the total urbanized area (Dar-Iaurif, 2002). The urbanized area has increased more than two fold, about 2.36 times, from 254 km2 in 1963 to 599 km2 in 1998 in and around Beirut. Urban sprawl encroached on agricultural land near the coastal cities Tripoli, Sidon, Tyre and invaded the forested mountain slopes overlooking the coastal plains, e.g. Jounieh bay. The average rate of annual urban sprawl encroachment on natural and agricultural land is 10 km2 (ECODIT-IAURIF, 1996).Moreover, on the coastal zone of Lebanon, 225 km length and 8 km width, more than 24% of the terrain is urbanized (Huybrechts, 1997). The integration of remote sensing and GIS provides an efficient way to monitor changes, thus contributing to environmental assessment of land degradation. This is reflected in the multi temporal image analysis of the second largest Lebanese city Tripoli and surrounding, located in north Lebanon, between 1984 and 1997. It reveals that the urban area increased about 51% with a simultaneous expansion of grassland/degraded land to about 61%, and a decrease of olive plots and horticulture land of about 34% and 61%, respectively (Darwish et al., 1999a). The intersection of land use and soil capability maps of Tripoli area showed a mean loss of 43% of best productive lands. This loss of natural resources implies threatening the productivity, the quality of life and non-sustainability for coming generations (Darwish et al., 2004).

SyriaThe main characteristics and problems related to the population of the coastal zone are the high population growth and the high population density in the coastal zone. Population growth rates are indeed very high. The distribution of population over the coastal region points at the significance of intra-regional migrations, from mountains and hilly areas towards the coastal plains, or in or around cities. Furthermore, with the exception of the area of Damascus, the coastal region is the most densely

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populated region in Syria, which is a direct consequence of the high population growth and migration dynamics. The highest population densities are in the coastal cities.From satellite images we can see clearly that 90 % of the urban areas are falling in the coastal plain with an area of 80.48 km2 (about 11% of the lower coastal plain) which is the fertile arable land. This land is used from hundreds years for agriculture. It is wise to keep this land for agriculture and look for less fertile land for urban expansion.

Tunisia

The coastal landscapes of Korba are facing an increasing human-induced pressures including population increase, overgrazing and tourism development.

During the last decade, the Mediterranean basin and specially the costal zones faced several kinds of environment degradation. The coastal zones of Korba were dominated by the urban and touristic infrastructure extension. In the same case, we note an increase in the agriculture and industry development that involve an overexploitation of water resources. Then, this development affects and aggravates the sensibility and the vulnerability of this fragile ecosystem.

Thus, the management of the coastal ecosystem environment needs a global comprehension of the relationship between coastal resources, their exploitation and their evolution.

The increase of tourism and industrial activity induce conflicted consumption of water resources and area. This pressure engenders and affects the natural environment by hydric throwing out, solid wastes, atmospheric pollution, land uses, surface and ground water consumption and supply.

Yemen

The urban areas (Hodeidah city, towns and villages) increase during the period (1972- now). The Hodeidah city increase toward the east (dune and barren plain area) where the beach, mangrove area and tidal flat were affected

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by the human activities. Some national security sites (such as port, power station and harbors) are constructed on the beach of the study area. Some of these constructions are affected on the habitats in the shallow marine and beach area.

2. Land cover change

EgyptLand cover / land use changes are very dynamic in nature and have to be monitored at regular intervals for sustainable environment development. The monitoring of land use/land cover changes along the northern part of the Northern Coastal of Egypt is very important for the planner, management, government and non-government organizations, and the scientific community. This information is essential for planning and implementing policies to optimize the use of natural resources, and accommodate development while minimizing the impact on the environment. Therefore, there is severe pressure and demand, dictated by the growing population, on this limited area of agricultural land. The demand of this growing population for housing, utilities, services and infrastructure has been steadily taking away valuable acreages of land from this limited agricultural area. A loss estimated to be at the rate of about 30,000 acres per year, makes this problem a very serious one if let uncontrolled. Therefore, land use patterns are constantly changing, commonly with agricultural land being converted to urban use.If land in Egypt, both in this traditional agricultural area and in desert type areas, is to be allocated to its most appropriate use, planners must have two types of information: information on current land use patterns; and information on potential land capability. In the first case satellite data, with the aid of computer categorization and classification and supplemented by ground truth data, proved to be a valuable tool in providing up-to-date information on regional land use patterns. Also, repetitive satellite coverage proved to be very helpful in monitoring changes. In the second case, satellite data, with aircraft and field observations, can provide valuable information on soil types, potential groundwater resources, mineral resources, and other parameters, which can be used, in conjunction with information from other sources through GIS application. The main objective is to determine suitability of other non-agricultural areas and establishing new communities away from the limited valuable agricultural area.

LebanonRecent analysis of land cover change between 1963 and 1998 at country level shows an augmentation of barren and deserted land from 1076 km2 to

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4370 km2 (Masri et al., 2002). During the same period, all types of green cover diminished according to the following proportions: Forest 32%, citrus 35%, olives 31%, vineyards 82% and fruit trees 72%. These changes are explained by climatic factors, socio-economic conditions and market conditions.The largest forest decrease is noticed in the inland semi-arid zone around El-Bekaa plain. Increasing rate of land cover deterioration can be attributed to natural causes, like the decrease in precipitation, and anthropogenic causes revealed by socio-economic pressures since the late fifties. Those pressures have especially affected limited access to rangeland on the eastern mountain chain, as well as not very productive land in poor forest areas, thus creating hot spots. On the contrary, more favorable climate, added to better economic conditions of Mount Lebanon region, have probably helped its population in preserving some, and even enhanced forestry areas (bright spots). Change detection study in the Bekaa Valley, the richest agricultural zone of Lebanon, using two landsat images (1987 and 2000) pressed the need for land cover change monitoring in Lebanon (Jomaa and Khawlie, 2002). It was demonstrated that during recent years, drastic changes in land cover systems have taken place in the area. Land degradation reflected, as bare lands and rocks developing on the surface, represent the largest category among the degradation classes. Analysis of NDVI showed a 40% decrease in the vegetation cover within the study area. Moreover, the supervised classification used demonstrated a high increase in urbanization that reached in some cases 80% or more between the two years.

SyriaThe natural land cover of the coastal area in Syria is similar to those natural covers in all Mediterranean countries. According to morphology of the land in the coastal zone, the vegetation cover can be divided into strips.The first strip till 600 to 800 meter above sea level: most of this category land are arable land where crops, legumes, tobacco, citrus, fruit trees, olives and figs. Pinus L. and Quercus L.. Some ever green species also can be found like Quercus calliprinus and Myrtus comminus and others.The second strip from 800 to 2000: the main vegetation cover in this strip is Pinus L. and Quercus L. Most of this vegetation cover either it is cut or it is degraded.

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The upper strip from 1200 up: the main vegetation covers of this strip are Cedrus libani, Fruxinus L., Cedrus libani, Fraxinus L., Sorbus torminalis and others. At the top of the mountain near Slenfeh Cedrus libani and Abies cilicica can be found accompanied with other wide leaves species. The main problems in the first strip (plain area) is the urbanization encroachment on the fertile arable land as well as the mismanagement of irrigation water and the misusage of fertilizers and pesticides.In second and third strips the main problems are more related to agricultural practices and mismanagement of the natural resources. From the bad agricultural practices: planting with direction of contour lines without terraces. The mismanagement of the natural resources can be presented in forest cut, forest fire….

Tunisia In the case of Cap Bon, agriculture is predominant even if the tourism sector has grown enormously during the last decades on the coastal front. Most of the interior of Cap Bon is dedicated to agriculture (where the terrain permits such practice) or represents natural/semi-natural soils, primarily where the topography is rugged. The coast, on the other hand, represents a mosaic of land-uses with typical coastal regions biotopes.Depending on the topography, a substantial portion has been converted to cultivated land. The areas which are not appropriate for cultivation are dedicated to pasture. Large and flat plains are mostly cultivated for cereal or extensive olive plantations; more manageable parcels of land are used for crops and orchards. The coastal stretch between Nabeul and Korba, is quite rural in character and mainly cultivated with olives and crops. An apparent pressure on the coastal areas of the promontory is development, from privately owned dwellings and extensive complexes for recreation and leisure.

Yemen

The landcover changes in the study area are located by cultivated land, coastal dune, sabkha wit land and habitate (coral, mangrove and seagrasses). The cultivated land increased in the downstream areas of the Wadi Nakhal and Wadi Siham. The coastal sabkha basins represent one of the most

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common environmental type in the backshore zone where cover an estimated 12 km2 from the land of the study area. the surface of the sabkhas is divided into two subunits; wet and dry sabkha. The sabkha have decreased over barren and sparsely vegetated plains in Hodeidah study area affected by the movement of the coastal dune.

The shoreline change of the Hodeidah study area is concentrated in the spits and island sand as well as in some other small parts taking the direction NW-SE. According to causative factors two types of the shoreline change were recognized: natural shoreline change and human shoreline change. The natural shoreline changes are related by wave, current and tide.

B. Pressure

1. Forest fires

LebanonForest fires are still one of the major threats to land cover in Lebanon. A total number of 1413 forest fire events took place in 1997 alone. The reason behind forest fire initiation can be attributed more to neglect and mismanagement than to natural causes (Masri, 1998). Mapping forest fire prone areas in broadleaved and coniferous Lebanese areas revealed that only 8 km2 on the southern exposure slope of western Mount Lebanon chain belong to “very high and high” potential hazard, while 183 km2 on the northern aspect were classified as “low to medium risk” category areas (Masri et al., 2003).

SyriaSimilar to Lebanon, forest fire in Syria is also one of the major causes of forest area decrement. Based on the statistics of Forestry directorates in Syria (1993), there are 786 fire in Lattakia, 166 fires in Al- Ghab, 385 fires in Hama, 434 fires in Idleb and 800 fires in Tartous. reasons behind forest fires can be attributed to neglect, mismanagement, man smoking, random tourism, Hunting, electricity lines, burning agricultural residuals and children. Natural causes can be considered as negligible causes compare to the man derived causes.

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Tunisia Fire has a long history in Mediterranean landscapes and can be considered to be an integral process in the evolution of cultural landscapes. Fires occur naturally in the Mediterranean climate. Aside from naturally occurring fires, however, fire may also result from a variety of anthropogenic activities/processes, such as landfills, burning of vegetation for agricultural purposes, and deliberate actions such as arson. According to climate change predictions, Mediterranean region will become drier. Fire is increasingly a threat and deliberately set fires may easily spread out of control and result in the destruction of expanses of natural vegetation. Recommendations therefore include the strict control of activities that may lead to fire, primarily during the drier months in areas where seasonal vegetation (e.g. grasses) is dry and prone to fire. This should also be accompanied by widespread educational campaigns and strict monitoring and surveillance.

Yemen

The mangroves are distributed in the tidal flats in the north and south of the Hodeidah city and al-Urj a but high concentrated in the Kwar Katib. Two species mangrove characterized the study area, Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata(Figures 3 & 4). The mangrove area has decreased

Figure (3) Avicennia marina mangrove in the Al-Urj tidal flatFigue (4) Rhizophora Mucronata mangrove to the north of Hodeidah

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toward shoreline. This decreasing is related mainly to the camels grazing and to cutting for different purposes.

Patch reefs are massive and soft coral reefs where massive living Porites sp., Acropora sp. and Fungiia sp. are dominante. Fragments of Stylophora sp., Pocillopora sp. and Acropora sp. are located in the sandy onshore of Al-Urj and in the west of Hodeidah city. The coral reef and seagrasses changes may be related by diving, fishing and global climatic change. The decreased wit land (tidal flat) is ralted to Human activities, where concentrated in the southern side of Hodeidah and Ras Katib.

2. Land pollution

EgyptBefore the construction of the Aswan High Dam a few decades ago, agricultural productivity in the old Nile Valley and Delta was renowned for its excellent quality and high productivity. Application of high doses of naturally produced organic fertilizers with few complementing chemical fertilizers were perfected and practiced as long standing farm traditions. After the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the seventies, there has been a sharp reduction in the sediments load carried by the Nile water. This has been one of the negative consequences of the construction of the High Dam since these sediments that are rich in the nutrients are lost. The farmers use more intensive mineral fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides to increase productivity in the same farm unit especially after the liberalization of prices of agricultural products. The use of pesticides increased in Egypt from 2143 tons in the fifties up to 11700 tons in 1990. The causes of soil and water pollution come from many sources including: the dumping of industrial waste water in to irrigation canals, the seepage of some sewage water with low treatment levels, chemical fertilizers and the residues of applied insecticides and pesticides (Bahna, et al., 2006). The pollution in the soil and water are directed and indirected increasing human diseases. Also, As a result of atmospheric pollution many

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contaminants tend to precipitate into the River Nile. In addition to this contamination there is treated sewage water and agricultural drainage water that is fed to the Nile containing fertilizers and pesticides and therefore deteriorating the major source of irrigation water which consequently has an effect on the lands that will be irrigated.

LebanonA numerical morphometric approach in karstic regions defined conduit flows or conduit/fracture orientations, and proved a genetic connection between all routing systems causing the ease of pollutants transmitted by water from surface to subsurface media (Shaban et al., 2000). The coastal rugged mountainous area in Lebanon is highly karstified, as revealed through detailed fieldwork, and is usually under heavy pressure from tourism and human interference. This implies the likelihood of water pollution, thus water becomes non-usable, and yet it is difficult to trace that pollution through the carts (Khawlie et al., 2000). To do that requires obtaining multi-layers of data reflecting both the characteristics of the terrain like geology, slopes, soil cover, drainage, hydrogeology, and human interference like landuse, administrative boundaries, roads network, etc. (Khawlie et al., 2002). On the other hand, industry, manufacturing and agricultural activities result in slight accumulation of some heavy metals in the soil with possible contamination of sediments and water resources with Ni, Cr and nitrates in some limited areas of Central Bekaa plain (Darwish et al., 1999b). Excess fertilizers input coupled with poor rotation, low water and fertilizer efficiency resulted in increased nitrate content in the soil and possibly groundwater (CNRS/NCRS, ACSAD and BGR, 1997-2003). The soil protection effectiveness and its shielding effect from the possible heavy metal transfer to deeper soil and aquifer layers need an assessment. This is due to the high nitrate concentration found in the arable lands at 5 m depth and the high nitrate concentration in deep wells, which need to be evaluated for human consumption and irrigation according to the international norms (WHO, 1993; FAO, 1985; ISO, 5667-11, 1995)

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Syria Regular analysis of water and sediments showed that the following pollutants are available in different watersheds in Syria with different severity. The following major conclusions could be made on the basis of the interpretation of the water quality data.

- Due to irrigation there is an early onset of salinization in the coastal agricultural plain indicated by sodium in sediment and an increase in the Specific Conductivity of the water.

- Nickel and chromium are high in some rivers sediment. High chromium levels are probably due to leather tanning, and both elements are increased as a result of metal plating activities.

- Phosphorus levels are extremely high along the course of some rivers and together with high ammonium nitrogen indicate sewage from human waste and to a lesser extent from direct animal access to the waters. Nitrate is high and mainly derived from fertilizer use while the high nitrite is a result of the flagrant disposal of solid domestic waste directly into the river, on riverbanks and on roadsides throughout the watershed.

- Bacterial infection with total coliform and faecal coliform is extremely high and results from sewage waste. Settlements pipe their untreated sewage directly to the river resulting in water unfit during both summer and winter for any human use including direct contact, irrigation and the washing of fruit and vegetables.

- DDT parent compound was found in the river sediment at higher levels than its metabolite indicating current use of this banned substance.

- The springs that were analyzed are polluted by direct animal access and by bacteria nutrients from surface land use up flow of the springs. Aquifers are open and highly sensitive to land use of potentially polluting substances.

Tunisia The city of Korba is very sensitive to the bordering urban structures. The voluntary or unvoluntary accumulation of the diverse wastes (household waste, industries, tourism) represents a permanent nuisance for the study area.

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3. Soil erosion

EgyptDue to Egypt’s arid nature it is constantly threatened by wind erosion which amplifies the desertification process especially in the eastern, western and Sinai deserts that are categorized as sensitive and fragile habitats having very little vegetation and experience severe droughts. Some studies have concluded that the wind erosion ratio in Egypt is 5.5 tons/hectare a year in oases areas in the western desert and 71-100 tons/hectare a year in areas where agriculture is rain fed such as the northwest coast. This exemplifies how wind erosion poses a threat on soils in these areas ranging from moderate to severe. Rainfall in addition to wind can also serve as an erosion factor where areas in the north coast, Red Sea, Aqaba Gulf, south Sinai and some eastern desert valleys experience what is known as water erosion also have serious impacts on soil that bring about desertification.The erosion rate of shorelines of the Nile Delta has been enhanced in the last two decades. Satellite imagery estimated the areas lost to the sea to be several thousand feddans. This was attributed to the lack and change of sediment load of the Nile water discharged to the Mediterranean Sea at the end of Demiatta and Rashid Nile main branches. Other investigations warn of the impacts of climate change on the coastal areas of fertile valley. These could present more serious and adverse impacts than the present erosion rate of shorelines (UNESCO and DTR., 1973, Torab and Azab, 2007).On the other hand, the soils in the North Coastal zone of Egypt face the dynamic problems of water and wind erosion (Fryrear, et al., 2008). The main factors conducive to soil degradation are natural relevant to intensity and duration of rainstorms which could be enhanced by terrain attributes as well as human overus. Conservation practices should be elaborated based on an integrated management approach including soil, water, plant, and animal resources. The trade – off relations between agricultural expansion and resource conservation is the subject of maximum consideration (Daels,  et al., 1993).In conjunction with the expansion of cultivation, the level of mechanized land preparation has also increased to a point where only a few farmers continue to use animal draft power. The higher number of tractors has enabled larger areas of cereal land to be prepared. Access to additional tractors for use by groups of small farmers could improve the timeliness of cultivation , but the methods of plowing and the levels to which tractors become available , need to be carefully monitored in view of the potentially adverse effects of mechanized cultivation on soil structure which in turn could enhance wind and water erosion.

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LebanonThe assessment of erosion using RS and GIS in the central Lebanese mountains showed more than 90% of the area having moderate and high erosion rates (Faour et al., 1999; Bou kheir et al., 2001a). One of the essential dynamic factors in this concern is related to the human impact on soil accumulation. Mainly, excavation processes such as quarrying, construction practices and deforestation represent these processes. Unfortunately, human implements for soil conservation are not sufficient to face those geo-environmental problems (Bou Kheir et al., 2001b). Erosion is accelerated by the abundance of steep slopes and barren lands notably in the mountain areas. The analysis of potential soil erosion as a function of soil characteristics (soil depth, structure, texture, organic matter content, structural stability), geomorphology and climatic conditions showed the frequent occurrence of medium, high and very high erosion on the escarpments of the western mountain chain in North Lebanon (Darwish et al., 2002a).

SyriaThe coastal area has excellent agricultural conditions. However, the region is being confronted with various types of land degradation, deforestation and improper utilization, and leading to ecological and environmental problems which are becoming more and more serious. Moreover, as a result of various conditions such as agricultural development, urban expansion, deforestation, overgrazing, inappropriate agricultural practices and forest fire. Soil erosion by water is becoming a major problem in several areas of Latakia and Tartous. Furthermore, large areas of the rolling hills and gentle mountain slopes have been turned into bare land. If soils are not properly managed, soil erosion leads to decreasing soil productivity in the short term and to irreversible soil degradation in the long term (Abed, 2000).

Nahal 1984, mentioned that the amount of eroded soils exceed 200 tons per hectare per year in the coastal mountains when facing the combination of heavy rainfall, steep slope inclination and bare slope surface. This rate was also mentioned by the FAO report in 1980. The FAO cited that the soil loss rates range between 50-200 t/h/y in the coastal mountains with deteriorated natural vegetation cover, 10-50 t/h/y in coastal mountains with

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less deteriorated natural vegetation cover, 10-50 t/h/y in the coastal plains. The soil erosion risks mainly occur on the southern and northern parts around Kurdaha city, as well as in some eastern and northern mountain areas where the combination of heavy rainfall events, barren mountains and the steep slopes prevails. These regions have the greatest erosion rate of 275 tons per hectare per year. According to Abed (2000), the soil erosion extent and severity mainly occur on the eastern and northern high mountains in Latakia, where the heavy rainfall, barren mountains and the steep slopes exist. These regions are mainly located near to the east of Slunfa city and in separate areas north to Rabiha city as well as in some northern parts of Latakia southwest of the Kasab area. These areas have the greatest erosion rate of 275 tons per hectare per year. The other sites that have serious erosion problem are those of barren lands which are located near to the north and south of Kurdaha city, with an erosion rate of 275 tons per hectare per year while the coastal plain region erode at a rate of 0 to 50 tons per hectare annually, and then northern mountains at 10 to 70 t/h/y.

GORS, 2004 mentioned that 6% of the Syrian coastal zone is very high susceptible and extremely susceptible to water soil erosion and 64% is moderate and high susceptible to water soil erosion.

Sheet erosion is the dominant erosion type in the region. Rill erosion and gullies spread over some spots, while mass movements may be found on steep slopes.

PAP/RAC (1992) reported that the rates of annual loss of soil per hectare have been the lowest throughout most of the coastal zone (below 30 tone/ha/year). Only areas north of Latakia and in the hinterland of Banias-Tartous coast have been categorized as exposed to "medium" or "strong erosion" (30-60, and 50-100 t/h/y, respectively)

Some projects were realized in Tartous such as a reforestation project, a fruit trees plantation project, and an agricultural development project. While for Latakia the currently active projects are reclamation of stony-

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lands project (Fruit trees plantation project), the martyr Ali Al-Ali Project, and an agricultural development project.

In order to combat soil degradation, local farmers usually apply terracing and land reclamation techniques.

Tunisia Most of Mediterranean countries like Tunisia show nowadays an intensification of agricultural practises related to an increasing of human supplies. Because of their specific climate and soil sensitivity, soil erosion due to water has indeed reached a worrying level. Soil loss from cultivated lands and the decrease of water storage capacity in reservoirs are examples of the negative incidence of this phenomenon on soil and water resources.Therefore, accurate estimation of soil water erosion at catchment scale for various land-use and climate scenarios is an important key to define sustainable management policies. In the last decades, several studies have been carried out to build models suitable for quantifying soil erosion. Among these models, the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP, Flanagan and Nearing, 1995) is a physically based, distributed parameter model that has been developed and mainly validated in USA. But only few studies have investigated its applicability to environmental conditions that differs from those where the model was developed. The aim of this work is to test the efficiency of the Wepp model to quantify soil erosion at catchment scale in a Mediterranean semiarid area. To this end, soil erosion measures collected at the outlet of an experimental catchment (Kamech catchment, 2,45 Km², Cap Bon, Tunisia) since 1994 were used.This large data set (more than 200 erosive events) allows us to analyse Wepp performance during a continuous period of 10 years. The differences between observed and simulated values are finally analysed and discussed.

C. Impact

1. Climate, water and droughts

EgyptEgypt has been distinguished into four Agro-ecological zones on basis of climate in combination with the physiography, natural resources, agriculture and other factors

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affecting the socio-economic activities. This approach would facilitate the investigation and identification of the active factors of desertification, their impacts, capacity building needs, participating stakeholders, required legislations, economic tools and social implications. It would also facilitate the selection of indicators and measures for monitoring ongoing and future desertification processes. Drought is a normal feature of climate, but also one of the most common and severe of natural disasters. In most world regions the economic damages caused by droughts are greater than those caused by any other events such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. World-wide population growth has intensified the pressure on water resources and increased the vulnerability to drought. Prolonged drought cycles are a major factor in land degradation processes and affect extensive geographical areas. While such a natural hazard may strike any climatic region, its occurrence is more frequent in arid and semiarid regions. Low erratic rainfall and long drought periods are by far the most dominant limiting factors in the rangelands of Egypt. However, drought diminishes rangeland productivity but also adversely affects feed species diversity and the composition and size of grazing herds. Furthermore, drought and poor soil developed in arid lands impose a highly fragile ecosystem in which vegetation and soil resources are vulnerable to deterioration from slight misuse (NAP, 2005).

LebanonLying in the semi arid-sub humid eastern Mediterranean zone sensitive to climate change, Lebanon is witnessing a higher frequency of droughts and episodic torrential rain signifying its apparent trend towards more aridity. Water mismanagement is leading to increase wastage and, coupled with increasing demand, is making securing the needed water a problem. Existing conditions and plans for water supply and demand clearly show a water deficit building up annually anywhere between a low of 140 Mm3

and a high of 800 Mm3 for a business-as-usual scenario, and a low of 250 Mm3 and exceeding 800 Mm3 for a climate change scenario in the year 2015 (Khawlie, 1999). This is further linked to another deterioration factor, namely, the possible effects of sea level rise as seawater intrusion will increase, further impacting the quality of coastal fresh water. In fact, a general increase with time the last three decades in the Cl- content of coastal water wells in the capital Beirut is observed. Parallel to this trend, the precipitation regression line over the same area is negative as plotted from 1880 to 2000. Following lower precipitation rates and a decline in water quality in Lebanon (Khawlie, 1999), the groundwater quality in the

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coastal area has been deteriorating, especially with excessive pumping promoting seawater intrusion (El Moujabber & Abou Samra, 2002).Environmental deterioration of water in Lebanon, or its vulnerability, is due to three major aspects: improper management, reduced water availability and climate change. The over-arching effects seen in desertification and land degradation are accompanied by major impacts hitting natural and human systems (Khawlie, 2001). Major among the natural impacts are deteriorated springs, soil erosion, mass movements, ecological imbalances, deforestation and reduced nutrients to plants. Impacts on humans include diseases, negative life-cycles, reduced sectoral growth, social conflicts and ill-targeted development.

SyriaThe inland east to the first coastal mountain chain, the rain fall average decreases making a higher frequency of droughts making the trend towards more aridity. Water mismanagement either in coastal zone and in land is leading to increase wastage and, coupled with increasing demand, is making securing the needed water a problem. Ground water degradation in the coastal plain is occurring because of over drawing of the ground water for the agricultural purposes and this make the sea water to be mixed with the fresh ground water. On the other hand fresh water (wells and springs) is getting polluted by fertilizers and pesticides. Land and soils are also deteriorated through mismanagement of irrigation water, mismanagement of agricultural practices and mismanagement of applying fertilizers an pesticides. These can cause soil erosion, mass movements, ecological imbalances and deforestation.

Tunisia Tunisia's geographical location, bordering the Mediterranean on the east and north and stretching to the Sahara in the south, gives it a diverse climate. The climate changes from Mediterranean to semi-arid and arid, from humid in the extreme North to desert-type in the extreme south. The exploitation of the cap bon water table during several years succeded to cover the whole water needs in the region. The exploitation increased with the introduction of citrus trees in the beginning of the last century.

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Water scarcity is endemic in Cap Bon region, which makes the area particularly vulnerable to any reduction in supplies. The common benchmark for water scarcity is 1.000 m3/per person per year. In Cap Bon water availability falls below this level. Variability of precipitation directly influences runoff and ground water levels through-out Cap Bon region. But also other processes damage conventional water supplies, such as poor infiltration due to soil degradation, which reduces aquifer recharge and at the same time reservoirs could be seriously affected by severe sedimentation due to soil erosion. The problem of reduced water availability will be compounded by demand increases resulting from both socio-economic factors and climate change itself. The problems of salt intrusion will be further exacerbated by reductions in runoff and by increased withdrawals in response to higher demand. Excessive demand already contributes to saline intrusion problems in many coastal areas of Cap Bon. There is no doubt that many opportunities exist to improve supply, through demand side management and increasing the efficiency of water use, for example through improved irrigation systems, changes in crops. However, an improvement of the conventional water resource management is necessary, as it will contribute significantly to higher water use distribution efficiency.

2. Other stresses

EgyptOther pressures and factors leading land degradation in Egypt

1-Sand Encroachment

Sand dunes and other sand forms in the coastal and inland deserts are the most vulnerable to wind erosion and deposition, consequently they constitute a serious

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threat to the agricultural development, rural and urban settlements, road traffic and public health. Active dunes and sand encroachment cover more than 166000 km2, i.e., about 16.6% of the total country area. The erratic rainfall, active winds, soil unstability, scarcity of plant cover, increased these detrimental phenomena especially in the coastal area due to overgrazing and cultivation of marginal land which led to severe disturbance of the natural equilibrium of the ecosystem.The characteristics of sand dunes either active or inactive and their potential threatening of the agricultural land in the Nile Delta and Valley were studied using the multitude land satellite imageries across the area surrounding the cultivated land.

2- Loss of Natural Vegetation Cover and Threaten of Biodiversity

Nature vegetation cover of Egypt is variable conditions due to the variability of water resources mainly. Rain falls edaphic and topographic conditions. However, about 45% of the total rangelands areas are severely degraded and could be described as very poor, ranges, 35% as fair, 15% as good and 5% as excellent ranges. The last two categories are restricted to far rough topographic areas, lacking water point and/or areas protected by tribes, governmental agencies or for military purposes.

3-SalinitySalinity problems are wide-spread in Egypt. Almost 30% of the irrigated farmlands are salt-affected. It is estimated that 60% and 20% of the Northern cultivated land and both Middle and Southern Delta regions, in sequence, are salt-affected soils. Meanwhile, in the Nile Valley, i.e., Upper Egypt, salt affected soils represent about 25% of the cultivated areas. Likewise, many areas of the reclaimed desert land adjacent to the Nile Valley and Delta as well as in Sinai and the Oases suffer from water-logging and high salinity. The process of salinity is due to;

Excessive application of irrigation water. Irrigation with poor-quality water, e.g., using low quality mixed

drainage water, and increased use of low quality ground water. Inadequate salt leaching practices. Inefficient or impaired drainage conditions. Evaporation from water-table especially when it is within 2m,

significantly contributes to root-zone salinity.

Poor land leveling with consequent localized redistribution of salts can often cause salinity problems of significant magnitude.

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LebanonMore than two thirds of the soil resources in Lebanon are facing other significant stresses like alkalinity, moisture deficit, urban expansion and salinity (Darwish, 2002). In greenhouses, a steady increase in the soil electrical conductivity (ECe) from 0.4 dS.m-1 to 15 dS.m-1 was observed (Solh et al., 1987). This was mainly associated with the excess input of fertilizers (Atallah et al., 2000) and use of saline water in irrigation. In open field, more than 52% of the monitored sites in Hermel area, northeast Lebanon, show an ECe in the range of slightly saline and saline soils (Khatib et al., 1998; Darwish et al., 2002b). The recent monitoring of the electrical conductivity of the saturated-paste extract of 75 samples in Qaa indicates an increasing proportion of salt-affected soils in comparison with the previous field sampling undertaken in 1997 for the same area (Darwish et al;, 2005). In an attempt to relate soil secondary salinization with farmers’ practices, a direct correlation between the amount of added manure and soil salinity was not observed. It is rather the combination of high evaporation rate, the use of manure with high salinity index fertilizers coupled with mismanaged irrigation that possibly enhanced the soil salinity buildup. The evaluation of soil vulnerability to desertification based on soil parameters like depth, texture, organic matter content, water retention capacity and structural stability reveal that more than 75% of the territory is highly prone to desertification (Darwish, 2002). If this figure is intersected with the geomorphology, vegetation, climate and social indexes, the area prone to desertification becomes close to 90% of the total area of the country (NAP, 2003).Additional studies on Daher El Baidar area (Central mountain chain) demonstrate the human impact on inducing desertification. Monitoring using three images with different times showed that the negative changes in NDVI are occurring mainly at quarries and land excavations.

SyriaOther significant stresses on environment and soil resources in study area can be defined by Liquid wastes of olive presses, phosphorous dusts rising up from seaports, widespread of solid wastes and irrigation crops and orchards using none treatment sewage water in additional to moisture deficit, urban

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encroachment, water logging, and salinity, deforestation, forest cut and fire and some socio- economic problems.- Liquid wastes of olive presses: more than 800,000 m3 of liquid wastes coming out of 500 olive presses located in study area, its contains high percentage of oil (> 20%), organic maters and toxic substances….. which destroying soil aggregates and increasing fine fractures in soil texture, leading indirectly to soil degradation and desertification.- Phospho-gypsum dust moves from the ports in Latakia and Tartous during the exportation and boarding theses substances into the shipping ships. This dust move with wing and cover large areas surrounding the ports influencing the vegetation cover either the orchards or crops as well as influencing the health of the surrounding settlements. Cement factory in Tartous is also causing similar effects.- irrigation with swage water in the coastal plain cause deterioration for soils in the area and indirectly causing reduction in the yield.

Tunisia

The coastline space constitutes the backbone of the country. It is the favoured location for human activities which are more and more focused within this small and vulnerable space.

Many pressures generated by urban development and the concentration of socio-economic activities have been exerted on the coastline, arising from the following factors:

The establishment of tourist facilities on coastline sites has often underestimated ecological requirements;

Tunisian tourism remains above all a seaside tourism. It constitutes a coastline concentration factor insofar as major accompanying and have been established and have accelerated the urbanisation of the coastline;

The port developments and the construction of dams on the major wadis disrupt the sedimentary transit and supply along the coastline;

In addition, the tourist zones are now beginning to be accompanied by urban in depth extension, either to house the population directly or indirectly working there, or for purpose of secondary housing. In both cases, the pressure on the coastline increases inexorably, thus translation into increased

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presence in the most vulnerable spaces (destruction of dunes is a major cause for the beginning of erosion or its aggravation) and by encroachment by constructions and infrastructures on the coastline.

Yemen In Hodeidah, reclamation is confined to building the seawalls and the

corniche along the shoreline, construct stage at the southern side of Hodeidah and building harbors at the eastern side of Khawr Katib. The activities include road development, seaport works, fish port and fishing boat harbor. Rubbish of building materials are disposed in a landfill on the beach and tidal flat. A direct adverse human impact on palm occurs when it is used for primitive industries and constructing material for houses (Figure 5).

The sewage pipe of Hodeidah city discharges directly into the sea (Figure 6) and other sewage pipe located to the north of Hodeidah discharges into Khawr Katib after treatment (Figure 7). The solid wastes of houses in Hodeidah are disposed in the north of Hodeidah (Figure 8).

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5 6

7 8

Figure (5) Cut the palm west of Al-Homrah villageFigure (6) Sewage pipe rubbish of Hodeidah city pour directly in the seaFigure (7) Trough of sewage indirectly pour to seaFigure (8) The rubbish of houses north of Hodeidah;

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Justification and benefitsThe project will encompass different disciplines, which provides the possibility for integrated analysis and management. For the first time in the two countries, soil erosion will be studied on the level of watershed, linking the natural factors with the socio-economics. This will help overcoming the lack the information on the quantification of soil erosion to elaborate mitigation programs. During the life time of this project, data on the state of land degradation will be collected and analyzed and a database will be created. It will help assessing the driving forces, nature and extent of land degradation. On the other hand, the project will study the nature and extent of soil contamination with heavy metals and provide for the first time an assessment of land capability and suitability based on soil quality.The government and public involvement in the project will ensure the adaptation of the assessment methods and elaboration and implementation of remedial and preventive measures. The production of several levels of thematic maps will serve the decision-making circles and public awareness. The project findings will support the conservation and improvement of soil productivity. The analysis of production and market conditions and socio-economic factors behind land abandonment will ensure the means for better economic and environmentally sound production systems. This will alleviate poverty and migration and provide the women a role in the progress of local societies.The training provided at local, municipal and ministry level will help building national capacities for the remediation of hot spots and monitoring of bright spots. The high cost of land degradation in the area and its social and economic consequences justify the analysis of land degradation, which can contribute to improved living standards, and conflict resolution of shared resources.Assessing the actual risks of soil erosion and contamination and the development of management plans to protect natural resources will maintain the required quality of soil and water resources, and alleviate/reduce the heath hazards related to the deterioration of the environment. Elaborating simple methods and indicators for the assessment and monitoring of land degradation, producing the means for an effective control during the implementation of remedial measures and dissemination of knowledge and proper exploitation plans will raise the effectiveness of the society to manage its resources.

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Objectives Collect, evaluate and screen existing data: Information on land

degradation in Lebanon is recent, and studies analyzing the driving forces and impacts of degradation have started in the fifties but covered different aspects sporadically. They were mainly related to natural factors, and to a less extent to human factors. Analyzing the existing data in the spirit of Driving forces, Pressure, Status, Impact and Response (DPSIR) and elaborating gaps for the execution of land degradation assessment using the adapted FAO’s LAnd Degradation Assessment (LADA) methodology is a prerequisite for a successful study.

Investigate nature and extent of Land Degradation: The project aims at studying the state and extent of land degradation integrating the biophysical and human factors. Initiate studies addressing the quantification of the physical, chemical and biological degradation to build a database on the watershed level relating the causes and effects of land degradation.

Assess levels of chemical soil contamination: With the expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial activities, land is subject to increased pressure on its quality due to probable increasing level of soil contamination with toxic heavy metals. The project will assess the nature, extent and spatial distribution of heavy metals in the arable soil layers, and assess the protection that different soil types can provide to groundwater and plants.

Identify effective indicators for bright and hot-spots: The project aims at identifying different environmental indicators that are simple to quantify using the available and produced information. Indicators will characterize each component of land degradation. They are also applicable in control of the implementation of remedial measures in the hot spots, and for the monitoring of the improvement of bright spots.

Map and establish data bases and information system: Three levels of thematic maps will be produced to serve the purpose of decision-making process, technical staff and local players. They will be based on the information stored in the database which is regularly updated following any change in land use, urban expansion and other driving forces.

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Develop a management plan to protect natural resources: According to the project goals, the assessment of land degradation is oriented to define a scheme for areas of priority intervention. The management plan will cover not only unstable areas but also stable managed and natural areas undergoing degradation.

Enhance participatory approaches contribution to remediation measures: Based on the assessment procedures and elaboration of indicators, the project will work in close interaction with government bodies and local stakeholders to elaborate and execute the remedial measures. A special focus is oriented to the gender issue, which is still not actively involved in rural action programs.

Build up capacity to strengthen institutional setting and policies: Based on institutional technical and infrastructural background, which plays an important role in the elaboration of appropriate policies, the project aims to strengthen institutional capacity building to fulfill gaps in the current legislation addressing the conservation of natural resources in the area.

Disseminate appropriate knowledge and proper exploitation plans: To ensure public awareness, the applicability of data elsewhere, and scientific merit of the methodologies, the project will widely disseminate relevant information to ensure the proper management and implementation of results.

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ScopeThe focus of the proposal on sustainability of natural resources, notably soil, stems from their significance to socio-economic stability in the region, especially Syria and Lebanon. The impacts of land degradation, or desertification, is huge indeed. This theme has, in fact, taken international significance as witnessed by the following programs (more details in Funding Section): UNEP – MAP CAMP projects, EC SMAP projects, UNDP – GEF component on desertification, UNCCD, GTZ Regional aid on desertification, FAO LADA and GLCN projects, CIDA – Canada and SIDA of Sweden … etc.The remote sensing agencies of Lebanon and Syria will coordinate the work in each country, working with partners from ministries of agriculture, environment and municipalities. A project steering committee (PSC) will have an overall view throughout the project. Work packages will have responsible leaders to assure coordination, scheduling and proper implementation. Careful monitoring of project progress and reporting against its milestones will assure minimal risk to project success. Several meetings of the PSC and technical committees will secure the above. The project has a full work package for proper dissemination of knowledge.The project will be performed by highly experienced interdisciplinary teams of soil scientists, earth scientists, information and remote sensing specialists, agronomists, economists and sociologists to cover its requirements on data collection, assessing land degradation, identifying remedial measures, monitoring hot spots and differential mapping output for different stakeholders. An upgraded database will serve several purposes, especially the proposed management plan. The inherent nature of land degradation, intertwined so closely with the community, demands that participatory approaches and capacity building are followed. This is important in order to strengthen institutional and policy formulation. Obviously, dissemination of the resultant knowledge is crucial, and will be taken at different levels.The work plan of the project follows five overlapping phases, starting with initiation where integrating inputs, plus project management and coordination are defined, and existing data are collected; Phase II carries on, in addition, to investigating physical land degradation through field work and remote sensing; this continues in Phase III with exploring extent of chemical contamination and defining hot spots; the control starts in Phase IV where

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monitoring of indicators and remedial measures is operative, plus mapping of outcome. In the final Phase V, refining the database, the maps, and establishing a management system is completed. All phases will end with reporting, and several workshops plus dissemination activities, for participatory and capacity building purposes, will be done.

Methodology and work planThe work plan of the project will follow five overlapping phases, which will go in parallel with marked milestones and accompanying work packages where different methodologies will be applied delivering the expected outputs of the project. The detailed work packages below delineate the methodologies and their tasks.The five phases relationships are structured so that the project carries on smoothly from one into the other without delays of interruption (Figure 1). Phase I, the initiation, starts with coordination of the integrated inputs and defining project management, while collection of data starts (work packages – WP00 and WP01), this carries on in Phase II where investigating the land degradation through field work and remote sensing proceeds (WP02, WP03), then identifying and monitoring hot/bright spots begins in Phase III including finding out the remedial measures (WP04, WP05), these carry on inputing data for Phase IV where project control and building up the final maps and databases have started, as well as feeding inputs to start the last phase (WP06, beginning of WP07). All the previous results are being checked in the final Phase V, where participatory approaches, capacity building, refining data outputs and management plan for post project implementation are completed, followed with reporting (WP08, WP09, WP10).The work details are described later in the relevant work packages. But it is important to reflect on the sequence of activities and show it in a Gannt Chart (Figure 2) (see Appendix).

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Figure 1. Graphical presentation of work packages and phases

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WP00Project End

WP01

WP02

WP03

WP06

WP04

WP05

WP07

WP08

WP09

WP10

Phases III III IV V

From this point the text not updated yet

Methodologies in Work packagesThe different partners in Lebanon and Syria will work cooperatively together under the leadership of the coordinator in each country, the CNRS-RSC in Lebanon, Partner 1, and GORS in Syria, Partner 2, the other partners are numbered as shown below:

LebanonP01- CNRS-RSCP03-MoAP05-MoEP07-MoM

SyriaP02-GORSP04-MAARP06- MoLAE

WP 00: Project coordination and managementLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 48 Total effort: 48Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P0716 25 1 2 1 2 1

Objectives:The objectives of project management include:

Maintenance of communication with the Funding Agency(ies) officer(s), compilation and preparation of all reports

Maintenance of communication within the project partners Coordination and synchronization of individual work packages Coordinating project meetings Monitoring of project according to its schedule, milestones and outputs Monitor the quality of the work in close collaboration with partners Document tracking and management

Tasks: Setting up necessary communication structure with e-mailing, website

and on-line discussion Maintaining communication with officers of funding agencies, and

project partners through applicable media, mostly electronic

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Monitor project progress, compile all reports and outputs for timely transmission to the relevant officers

Organization of project meetings (PSC and Technical Committee) at rotating locations, starting with a kick-off meeting, review meetings, all synchronized with the work plan, milestones and dates of deliverables or outputs

Deliverables and Milestones Regular management and progress reports Annual reports Final report

WP 01: Collection, evaluation and screening of existing dataLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 10Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P074 6 0 0 0 0 0

Objectives: Design data collection strategy and compile inclusive list of works done

in the countries and region on land degradation assessment to identify data gaps

Define the local stakeholders and ensure their direct involvement Record and document the data requirements of the proposed system Adapt the methodology requirements against local conditions Evaluate limitations and alternative approaches if necessary.

The main objectives of this work package are to ensure that relevant desertification problems, as defined by local stakeholders, are tackled, that all end users are defined, and published information on the status of land degradation is collected and analyzed, and that data requirements and proposed tools are matched and adjusted according to local constraints. Tasks

Identify and contact key institutions local actors in the decision making process, to ensure early involvement and support of relevant network and database

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Document the sources of information and collect the relevant data Compile checklist of soil and land degradation problems, relevant

indigenous and proposed solutions, define a meta data structure for their documentation, and obtain gender specific information on issues where available

Analyze the published information to characterize the status of land degradation in the area and link the impacts of desertification trends on environmental and socio-economic aspects

Validate data availability against project requirements, the state of different agro-ecological zones and field assessment tools to adapt the methodologies.

DeliverablesD01.1 First WorkshopD01.2 Report – analysis of available dataD01.3 Structure of Data Information System

WP 02: Investigate land degradation and start methodologiesLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 55Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P0716 25 4 6 1 2 1

Objectives Identify driving forces (demographic changes, economic activities,

landuse change, institutional roles, policies and legislation) and their effect on the degradation of soil resources

Assess the types of land degradation, its status, extent pressure and response of different stakeholders in major agro-ecological and climatic zones

Apply the methodology of land degradation assessment framework in different land units and land facets according to local conditions

Define the representative areas and scale within each landuse pattern, select the procedures, indicators and tools

Analyze field data integrating RS and GIS within a structured database and information system

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Validate results and assess their accuracy.

Tasks Following the LADA approach, classify the area of study into land units

representing similarities in major landform and lithologies Subdivide land units into land facets based on repeated landuse and

physiographic, mappable, pattern Develop a questionnaire and field data collection forms on the current

agricultural and environmental management practices, socio-economic and biophysical aspects based on the “five capitals”, i.e. social, economic, environmental, institutional and ecological

Define the baseline for the land degradation assessment Assess the dynamics of land degradation by the type of land uses: forest

systems in two densities: dense and rare (pine forest, oak forest, mixed forest), agricultural areas (orchards, field crops, protected agriculture), mixed forest-agriculture, bare lands, urban areas, per urban agriculture, wild life, industry).

DeliverablesD02.1 Report – Land degradation statusD02.2 Assessment of applying methodologyD02.3 Report – Applying remote sensing & GIS in land

degradation

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WP 03: Assess chemical contaminationLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 12 End month: 38 Total effort: 23Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P076 9 1 2 2 3 0

Objectives Define the background value (natural concentration) of heavy metals in

the soils. Study the nature, extent and map the soil heavy metal contamination Implement the European standards and criteria for the assessment of the

level of heavy metals in the soil and adapt them to local conditions Allocate suitable uses of lands according to their quality based on

Eikmann-Kloke charts presenting a threshold of heavy metal content in the soil and the corresponding land use

Investigate the level of salinity, nitrate and nitrite in the groundwater used for social needs and irrigation

Integrate the results of this study into the landuse planning projects in each country.

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The main objective of this work package is to use the available facilities and

capacities in each country to assess the state of land contamination by toxic heavy metals like Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Cu, Zn, Co and Pb. It will help assessing the risks of heavy metal transfer in the soil toward the groundwater or into the food chain through plant uptake by using a module for the evaluation of the soil protection effectiveness. This approach will be based on soil physico-chemical properties and its attitude to fix heavy metals according to the state of its pH, calcium carbonate, organic matter and clay content, and the depth of the unsaturated zone and percolation rate, as prescribed in the ISO standards and German concept on soil protection effectiveness.

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Tasks Use the RS technique to identify and classify the sources of pollution Link the type and level of heavy metal found in the arable soil layer

according to the cropping pattern (upper 0-30 cm for annual crops and 0-60 for perennial crops) with different sources of pollution

Identify the current and projected impact of major landuses on the state of soil heavy metal contamination, notably agricultural activities and the application of low quality fertilizers and irrigation with contaminated water

Collect soil samples from the root zone in a density of one sample per km2, analyze them using nondestructive methods and modern nuclear techniques (particle induced X-ray emission-PIXE and particle induced gamma ray emission-PIGE)

Produce maps at 1:50.000 scale on the spatial distribution of toxic heavy metal according to the adapted Eikmann-Kloke standards using the krigging method

Elaborate plan of possible, alternative, land uses from multifunctional land uses and going through different cropping systems until industrial zones and parks according to the level of metals in the soil

Assess the quality of groundwater and the type of its uses based on available data of the EC, NO3 and NO2 content according to the WHO standards for drinking water, FAO criteria for irrigation water quality and ISO standards for water chemical contamination.

DeliverablesD03.1 Report – Chemical contamination statusD03.2 Field work assessmentD03.3 Evaluating results of chemical analysisD03.4 Chemical contamination hot spots

WP 04: Identification and monitoring of hot spots/bright spots and indicatorsLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 18 End month: 42 Total effort: 31Person-months per partner:

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P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P078 13 2 3 2 3 0

Objectives Map areas with different intensity of degradation and show the aerial

extent of land degradation Identify the coupled effects of several land degradation processes

aggravating the state of land degradation of a land facet, making it the severest among the assessed areas, thus allowing its classification in the hot spot class

Identify and map bright spots, stable areas with no or very little human interference or recovered hot spot areas, by an assessment comparing its recent state with a previous one, where land degradation has been mitigated, stopped or reversed

Characterize land management and society response including the applicability and feasibility of measures and the stakeholder’s involvement

Design indicators for the description and measurements of land degradation or land recuperation.

The main objectives of the work package are to distinguish the degree and spatial extent of the degradation process for comparison purposes. This is done by integrating all the elements of the DPSIR approach and the indicators of the state (type and intensity of degradation) to characterize the type of land degradation (physical, chemical and/or biological), and causes (driving forces and pressure), allowing to identify the hot spots and highlight them on a map, using the legend proposed by LADA. In addition, the objectives consist of comparing the state of a degraded area with a base line, which allows assessing the current state of the land, and notice any improvement reflecting the response and remediation measures, which permit classifying the area as bright spot.

Tasks Link the state of land degradation with the driving forces and pressure

to interpret the results of the field measurements and questionnaire (interviews with the farmers and other stakeholders) to compare the severity of land degradation in the assessed areas

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Establish a network of causal chains using a manual procedure or automated integration decision support system

Retrieve improvement trends from the monitoring of the state of land degradation, as compared with a previous situation, using comparable and measurable indicators to judge on the amelioration of the state transferring the area from hot spot to bright spot

Design and categorize indicators characterizing the indirect (driving forces) and direct (pressure) causes of land degradation, and characterizing its state, impact and the stakeholder’s response.

DeliverablesD04.1 2nd WorkshopD04.2 Report – Hotspots/Bright spots statusD04.3 Field work assessmentD04.4 Establish indicators & monitoring systemD04.5 Prioritize Hotspots/Bright spots action plan

WP 05: Identify effective remedial measuresLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 24 End month: 36 Total effort: 26Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P075 8 5 8 0 0 0

Objectives Observe and describe applied remedial measures Involve end users in the process of assessing currently applied remedial

measures and propose alternatives or improvements Design effective measures to reduce soil erosion, improve soil

conditions, stop forest clearing, remediate and prevent chemical degradation (salinity, sodicity, toxicity, contamination) and biological degradation (land cover, soil moisture, aridity), and to mitigate the drop of water table depth, drought, climatic change, decline in crop yield

Upgrade farmers skills through activation of extension services to stop the buildup of nitrates in the soil and groundwater

Design remediation measures to protect groundwater quality.

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The work package will analyze the currently applied protective, curative and remedial measures to assess their effect on the current state of land degradation. These will be categorized in term of their importance for land conservation. It will also analyze the dynamics of decision-making regarding the adoption of effective measures and define the role of different stakeholders in proposing, supporting and implementing these measures. It will review the applied policies and legislation regarding the causes and impacts of land degradation. Based on the pressure and response of different stakeholders, the work package will propose cost effective and simple remedial measures and define the role of each governmental body, NGO and rural community in stopping and reversing land degradation.

Tasks Integrate the on-site and off-site effects of land degradation within a

comprehensive plan to propose workable and applicable remedial measures

Ensure the direct people involvement in the process of evaluating and proposing effective remedial measures

Propose effective measures to prevent soil erosion and the contamination of surface water bodies with soil sediments rich in nitrogen and phosphorous that can affect the river water quality and aquatic life

Combine the double effect of hydrology, land stability and land use on landslides and mass movement to properly analyze the risks related to prone areas in term current and of future land uses

Integrate the physical and socio-economic factors in the understanding of the causes and effect of land degradation to propose remedial measures that answer specific conditions.

DeliverablesD05.1 Report – Remedial measures statusD05.2 Contribution to effective approaches in the fieldD05.3 Analysis of different scenarios of remediation

WP 06: Map, establish database and information SystemLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 26Person-months per partner:

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P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P0710 16 0 0 0 0 0

Objectives Collect, evaluate and screen available data on soil degradation and

designing suitable database to involve all kinds of data which will be used in the project (description of samples, Chemical analysis, Land forms, Physiographic units, pollutants…..)

Assess the types of information systems, to select a suitable one for serving the tasks of the projects.

Establishing compatible database to be linked with Geographic information system (GIS).

Thematic mapping for degradation status, factors, and risks at three levels: decision makers, institutional research and the public.

Tasks Classification of available data according to desertification factors in

the study areas and determination of data types representing degradation status according to Land Units and Land Facets.

Subdividing database into sub-databases according to degradation factors, and creating a uniform code (related with different ranks of units based on land facets, landuse classes and physiographic units) and link sub-databases to Geographic Information System (GIS).

Applying field and remote sensing mapping methodologies for cartography to create useful maps and schemes representing the study area status of degradation for highlighting the hot and bright spots.

Creating thematic Maps in two different scales to meet different users as well as factors of degradation will be defined at three levels as shown in the following Table:

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MapsScale

1:25.000Scale

1:50.000Planning Maps(Decision makers)

Yes (districts)

Thematic maps(Researchers & concerned institutions)

Yes (based on topo sheets) Yes (topo sheets)

Community awareness maps(local people)

Yes (districts)

Creating maps-schemes for each degradation factor at a scale of 1:25000 and ranking the factors into four categories (High, Medium, Low and None) to execute spatial analysis of factors in process of creating final maps as follows:

Hot Spots Bright SpotsDescription Level

Protected area Rehabilitated area Managed land

Soil, water & plant are deteriorated HighLess deteriorated MediumMinor deteriorated LowNone: lands with very low or no effect of man (natural forest)

Ranking of soil and plant factors will be executed as follows:Soil factor will be classified into High (h), Medium (m), Low (l) and None (n).Plant factor will also be classified into high (H), Medium (M), Low (l) & None (n).The ranking of the two factors is explained in the following Table:

Soil Factor

h m l n

Pla

nt

Fac

tor

h H H M -

m H M L -

l M L L -

n - - - N

Soil and plant are limiting factors

Ranking of soil-plant and water factors will be executed as follows:soil-plant factor will be classified into high (H), Medium (M), Low (L) & None (N).Water factor will also be classified into high (h), Medium (m), Low (l) & None (n).

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The ranking of Soil-Plant and Water factors is explained in the following Table:

Soil-Plant Factor

H M L N

Wat

er F

acto

r h h h m -

m h m m -

l h m l -

n - - - n

Soil - plant are limiting factors

Finalizing Data Information System based on Geographic Information System (GIS) for easy handling and distribution of project output in the three mentioned levels above.

DeliverablesD06.1 Report – Land degradation mapping statusD06.2 Applying field methodologies mappingD06.3 Applying remote sensing mappingD06.4 Refining and establishing databaseD06.5 finalizing data information system

WP 07: Development management planLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 29Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P0710 16 1 2 0 0 0

Objectives Protect natural resources by analyzing the stable managed areas and

applying preventive measures Assign and apply appropriate curative measures over hot spots areas

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Integrate the results of the physical assessment and related descriptive mapping with the aggravating socio-economic conditions.

Assess the proposed remedial measures and evaluate/monitor their performance

Involve local authorities and population in managing hot spots areas Serve policies & legislation for sustainability of natural resources.

Tasks Set up priority problem areas based on a prioritization procedures

integrating of the physical assessment and thematic mapping considering actual and potential land use values according to different views, notably the perception of the local population, established national policies and assessment of potential for forestry, agricultural use and other land use forms

apply stakeholder approval mechanisms for PPP involvement & a special awareness program will be designed for this purpose

Link remedial measures to relevant stakeholders in order to define the concerned institutions to be responsible and the role of each player

Define indicators (factors) of soil degradation, considering local conditions of study area. These indicators will be further weighted and defined in details. The following Table shows the indicators in general with the level of impact:

Indicators High Medium LowA. Demography1. Population Density 2. Urbanisation rate 3. population density in arable land B. Standard of Living4. GDP per capita on social base C. Water consumption5. securing irrigation water D. Agriculture6. pesticides and fertilizers (Agrochemicals) E. Industry7. Quarries density 8. Olive presses F. Energy9. Wood logging area G. Services10. Number of tourists per 100 inhabitants H. Environment11. irrigated land with sewage water

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Indicators High Medium LowI. Land/Soil12. Forest area 13. Forest fire 14. Land use changes 15. Erosion type 16. Erosion risk 17. Erosion rate

DeliverablesD07.1 Draft management planD07.2 Define (fine tune) indicators for management planD07.3 Management planning activities and implementation

WP 08: Design and enhance participatory approachLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 29Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P075 8 1 2 3 5 5

Objectives Enhance participatory approach contribution to remediation measures

based on the assessment procedures and elaboration of indicators. Enhance interaction for elaborating and executing remedial measures

with government authorities and local stakeholders Focus on involving rural areas to activate action programs which serve

local population and protect natural resources in these areas.

Tasks Assessment of integrated public participation methodologies Designing special programs for local population awareness and

increasing institutional capabilities Defining public monitoring plan and training requirements.

DeliverablesD08.1 Report – participatory modalities statusD08.2 Assessing integrated public methodologies and trainingD08.3 define public monitoring plan and training requirements.

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WP 09: Design and enhance capacity building, policies & institutionsLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 20Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P073 5 2 3 2 3 2

Objectives Build capacity to strengthen institutional setting and policies, based on

institutional, technical and infrastructure background. Fulfill gaps in the current legislation addressing the conservation of

natural resources in study area.

Tasks Increase institutional capabilities for working in the field of policies &

legislation to insure the sustainability of natural resources Assess the needs for capacity building for managing hot spot areas and

conserving bright areas, and establish a local institutional team to increase public awareness of environmental issues in the study area.

DeliverablesD09.1 Report –institutional capacities modalities statusD09.2 Assessing needs for capacity buildingsD09.3 Strategies and policies for capacity building

WP 10: Disseminate appropriate knowledge & proper exploitationLead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 38Person-months per partner:

P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P0712 19 1 2 1 2 1

Objectives Disseminate appropriate knowledge & proper exploitation plans to

ensure public awareness to applicability of data elsewhere and scientific merit of methodologies

Disseminate relevant information to ensure the proper management and implementation of results.

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Tasks Creating project website and printing brochures introducing the project

activities, deliverables, management plans Carrying out meetings with decision makers, local authorities and

higher authorities Carrying out meetings with local population to illustrate the project

results Carrying out workshops at the district levels for decision makers,

NGOs and farmers Carrying out workshops at the governorate levels for public Involve the national and local media to spread out the objectives and

the results of the project Carrying out a final workshop for both countries.

DeliverablesD10.1 Project websiteD10.2 Guidelines for public assessment of hot spotsD10.3 institutional strategies to implement monitoring programD10.4 3rd WorkshopD10.5 Final country reportsD10.6 Final Report

Expected outputs and applicationsThe project has eight well defined milestones that are foreseen at more or less regular, six-monthly intervals (Table 1) to coincide with progress in work packages and administrative progress reports. The Project Steering Committee (PSC) would meet around each milestone.

Table 1. Project milestones time definition and descriptionMilestoneNumber

ProjectMonth

Milestone Description

M1 PM06 End of initiation phase, 1st workshopM2 PM12 End of existing data collection plus readying

methodologies, start operationsM3 PM18 Refining/fine-tuning remote sensing & field data

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requirements – communication planM4 PM24 Implementing work packages, 2nd workshopM5 PM30 Implementing work packages, mapping & indicatorsM6 PM36 Develop management planM7 PM42 Public participation, capacity building completedM8 PM48 Project & reporting completed, dissemination

Of course, these milestones will be parallel to the work packages, which are detailed in the previous section (Methodology). Several work packages serve each milestone, and several deliverables or outputs serve each work package, as shown in Table 2.Table 2. Expected Outputs

N°

Wor

kP

acka

ge

N°

Out

puts

Title Due

WP01 D01.1 First Workshop PM6D01.2 Report – analysis of available data PM12D01.3 Structure of Data Information System PM30

WP02 D02.1 Report – Land degradation status PM18D02.2 Assessment of applying methodology PM30D02.3 Report – Applying remote sensing & GIS in land

degradationPM20

WP03 D03.1 Report – Chemical contamination status PM21D03.2 Field work assessment PM24D03.3 Evaluating results of chemical analysis PM30D03.4 Chemical contamination hot spots PM38

WP04 D04.1 2nd Workshop PM24D04.2 Report – Hotspots/Bright spots status PM27D04.3 Field work assessment PM33D04.4 Establish indicators & monitoring system PM40D04.5 Prioritize Hotspots/Bright spots action plan PM42

WP05 D05.1 Report – Remedial measures status PM30D05.2 Contribution to effective approaches in the field PM33D05.3 Analysis of different scenarios of remediation PM36

WP06 D06.1 Report – Land degradation mapping status PM18

73

N°

Wor

kP

acka

ge

N°

Out

puts

Title Due

D06.2 Applying field methodologies mapping PM30D06.3 Applying remote sensing mapping PM36D06.4 Refining & establishing database PM39D06.5 Finalizing Data Information System PM45

WP07 D07.1 Draft management plan PM35D07.2 Define/fine-tune indicators for management plan PM40D07.3 Management planning activities & implementation PM45

WP08 D08.1 Report – Participatory modalities status PM27D08.2 Assessing integrated public participation

methodologies & trainingPM30

N°

Wor

kP

acka

ge

N°

Out

puts

Title Due

D08.3 Define public monitoring plan & training requirements

PM33

D08.4 Verify & approve remedial measures by public PM40WP09 D09.1 Report – Institutional capacities modalities status PM33

D09.2 Assessing needs for capacity building & training PM38D09.3 Strategies & policies for capacity building PM42

WP10 D10.1 Project website PM12D10.2 Guidelines for public assessment of hot spots PM30D10.3 Institutional strategies to implement monitoring

programPM38

D10.4 3rd Workshop PM46D10.5 Report PM48

For WP01 there are three outputs that include a preliminary structure of data system, analysis of available data and, for both promotion of the project to different stakeholders and progress report by the first six months, the first workshop will be held. By that time, already assessment of the methodology through field work on land degradation, and through remote sensing would

74

have started, thus in WP02 and WP03 there are seven outputs covering status reports, evaluation and mapping. This carries on with WP04 delivering five outputs, consisting of the second workshop (second year of the project, that would serve also promotional and dissemination purposes), plus mapping of hot spots/bright spots and setting the control by monitoring indicators. Certainly, this will serve several applications, such as prioritization and saving resources, knowledge of good practices and setting a control-checking system for feedback.WP05 concerns itself with remedial measures, and its outputs are both a status report and an analysis in view of different scenarios. The application here is that different cases will be encountered in the field, facing each may have its specific conditions. This opens the way to WP06 focusing on mapping outputs and refining the database. These will serve different levels of stakeholders, some at the decision-making level that would help in planning, some at the research level, and others will serve the community at large.The three following work packages 07, 08, and 09 producing ten outputs have to do with establishing a working management plan, and activities to enhance public participation and institutional capacities. The participatory approach will assure good communication confidence between authorities and the stakeholders. The role of the local community should be strengthened through regulations and policies, notably on rehabilitation. On the other hand, capacity building is needed to enhance institutional cooperation, to assure technical upgrading with training notably on application of standards and regulations, and focus rehabilitation on hot spots or priorities, as well as produce alternatives of economic incentives. The above will definitely contribute to assuring the sustainability of the project after its termination. In addition, this sustainability is shown in WP10 to be supported by five more outputs, including a website, guidelines, strategies, a third workshop and a report.

Project requirementsIn general, there is a fair distribution of the budget, mostly, about one third, goes to personnel who would do the actual work, the analysis, field visits, and travel costs for project meetings, and overheads. In some cases, third party assistance is foreseen for certain tasks, as well as cost for computing and third

75

party data acquisition. A small amount is necessary for the operation of the project web server, and some for regional dissemination purposes.As Table 3 shows, the two lead partners in Lebanon and Syria, i.e. CNRS-RSC and GORS, will be in charge of most work packages, but the other partners both contribute to several packages (Table 4) and share leading position in others, notably those packages on remedial measures (the Ministry of Agriculture), on participatory approaches (the other Ministries on Environment and Municipalities).Table 3. Work package listN° Workpackage Description

Lead partner Start month

End month

00 Project coordination & management GORSCNRS-RSC

1 48

01 Collect, evaluate, screen existing data

GORSCNRS-RSC

1 30

02 Investigate land degradation & start methodologies

GORSCNRS-RSC

3 38

03 Assess chemical contamination GORSCNRS-RSC

12 38

04 Identify/monitor hot/bright spots & indicators

GORSCNRS-RSC

18 42

05 Identify effective remedial measures Agriculture 24 3606 Map, establish database &

information systemGORS

CNRS-RSC12 45

07 Develop management plan GORSCNRS-RSC

30 45

08 Design & enhance participatory approaches

Environment 24 40

09 Design & enhance capacity building, policies & institutions

Municipalities 32 42

10 Disseminate appropriate knowledge & proper exploitation

GORSCNRS-RSC

6 48

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Table 4. Human efforts for the project, man-months –No updatesPartner

Work package

Lebanon Syria

Tot

al

CNRS-RSC

Min. of

Agric.

Min. of

Envt.

Min. of Muni.

GORSMoLA-

E

Min. of

Agric.WP00 project management 16 1 1 1 25 2 2 48WP01 existing data 4 0 0 0 6 0 0 10WP02 land degradation methodologies 16 4 1 1 25 2 6 55WP03 chemical contamination 6 1 2 0 9 3 2 23WP04 hot/bright spots & indicators 8 2 2 0 13 3 3 31WP05 remedial measures 5 5 0 0 8 0 8 26WP06 maps & database 10 0 0 0 16 0 0 26WP07 management plan 10 1 0 0 16 0 2 29WP08 participatory approaches 5 1 3 5 8 5 2 29WP09 capacity building 3 2 2 2 5 3 3 20WP10 dissemination 12 1 1 1 19 2 2 38Total 9595 18 12 10 15015

020 30 335

The distribution of man-months on the different work packages reflect the general man-power needs, but the categories needed vary among the different partners as shown in Table 5, which also shows the man power cost.

Table 5. Categories of personnel to achieve work, their inputs in man-months (*) and their cost [**] No updates

Partner ScientistsResearchers Engineers

Res. Assts.

Techni.Chief scientist

Scientist

LE

BA

NO

N

CNRS-RSC

1(18)[2000]

3(26)[1500]

2(14)[1300]

1(8)[1000]

3(16)[800]

3(13)[500]

Min. of Agric.

1(2) 1(8) 1(5) 3(3)

Min. of Env.

1(6) 1(2) 3(4)

Min. of Muni.

1(4) 1(2) 2(4)

SY

RIA

GORS 1((18))[[1000]]

5((24))[[800]]

3((14))[[550]]

3((10))[[400]]

4((16))[[300]]

5((14))[[200]]

Min. of Agric.

2((6)) 2((4)) 5((4))

Min. of LAE

2((6)) 2((4)) 5((4))

Lebanon* shown in parenthesis (8)** shown in brackets [in $] for each/month(rates shown for CNRS apply for others)Syria* shown in double parenthesis ((8))** shown in double brackets [[in $]] for each/month(rates shown for GORS apply for others)

The overall budget broken down into seven items (personnel, travel, consumables, equipment, other costs, subcontracting, dissemination) plus overhead is shown in Table 6 (see Budget section).The two lead partners are well equipped with the basic needs for field work and remote sensing – information work, but need to upgrade and support those needs with “equipment” that is allocated for the project, to minimize conflict with other on-going projects. For CNRS-RSC, there is a strong need for a field car (4 x 4) as the project requires a lot of field work for many of its tasks. There is a high need for upgrading the remote sensing software (EnviSat and Radar) plus securing relevant licenses, and a dedicated computer.For GORS there is a strong need for two field cars (4 x 4) as the project requires a lot of field work as the study area is large . There is a high need for photocopier machine and four dedicated computers with relevant accessories.

Management and organization plan 1. Project management

The National Council for Scientific Research – Remote Sensing Center (CNRS-RSC) will act as the coordinator and lead partner in Lebanon, while the General Organization of Remote Sensing (GORS) in Syria will be the coordinator and lead partner there. They will take care of the day-to-day operational management of the project. They both have considerable experience in managing international funded projects that apply to each country, as well as cooperation in Regional projects (UN, EC and Arab League). Both have collaborated before with the other partners in both countries (Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Municipalities, Ministry of Local Administration & Environment), which assures that contacts and coordinated work will be facilitated with a strong network of committed partners (Figure 3). A Project Steering Committee (PSC) from representatives of all partners will guide the project management.

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Project Steering CommitteePSC

GORSSyria Coordinator

& Lead Partner

Ministryof Local

Administration & Environment

PartnersTechnical Committe

e

Ministryof Agriculture

Ministryof

Agriculture

Ministryof

Environment

Ministryof

Municipalities

CNRS-RSCLebanon Coordinator

& Lead Partner

Public Stakeholders Public Stakeholders

Figure 3. Interactive management and collaboration structure in Project not updated

2. Management tasksThe management tasks include: Coordinating and synchronization of the different work packages Coordinating project meetings Documenting project management tracking and quality control Monitoring of project progress in view of its schedule, milestones

and deliverables and risk management 3. Project meetings and communication

Overall project management will be based on regular meetings and communication of the Project Steering Committee (PSC). The PSC has representatives from each partner. It should assure continuous contact with stakeholders. It is assumed unanimous agreement is always sought, otherwise, a two-thirds majority will decide any contested issues. The PSC will convene up to twice a year, and at the beginning of the project for the first coordination meeting (the kick-off). These will be part of the regular project technical meetings as the project progress requires.

The PSC will also be responsible for all administrative and organizational matters, plus critical assessment of project progress as foreseen with milestones and deliverables. For Quality Assurance, all project deliverables will have to be reviewed and approved by at least three PSC members, excluding the partner responsible for the work package in question. Electronic communication on continuous basis, to assure full interaction, and to address all technical matters will be an on-going tool. Staff exchange and additional meetings, field visits at both countries are envisioned at different times for added benefits and knowledge permeation.

The Work Packages are assigned responsible leaders, that would take care of the work package coordination, scheduling, and proper implementation together with other partners, and communication of its deliverables, making sure all involved are aware and knowledgeable of its progress.

The project will maintain an e-mailing list and a website for general accessible repository of project-related information, i.e. reports, documents, data, announcements, media materials, and stakeholders information.

4. Project risk managementThe management system and task monitoring, including careful

monitoring of project progress against its milestones, and regular project internal progress reports, will assure minimal risks to project progress and success. Ad hoc meetings of the PSC, if and when need arises, can be called electronically. For any possible risk (delays, lacking data, institutional or unforeseen conditions …) certain contingency plans will be implemented. Any conflict that might arise between partners, or with stakeholders, will be resolved amicably, where the local coordinator, and if need be, the PSC, will make sure unanimity is reached for that purpose. If otherwise, the country’s arbitration and laws will be enforced.

5. Plan for disseminating knowledgeThe project dedicates a full work package (WP 10) to disseminate

results and activities. Involvement and benefit of relevant actors and stakeholders is crucial, notably administrative and technical bodies of central and local government, and the farming, rural community, plus Regional and International agencies. Seminars, workshops and internet will be variably used for that purpose. Scientific communications will be delivered in presentations and research papers to make sure the scientific community also receives the benefits of the project.

The project foresees some training activities for the methodological components to be applied in each country, including assessment of impact of socio-economic status as seen in human interference inducing land degradation.

The project gives due significance to public participation through the local stakeholders, including local government (municipalities) and non-governmental institutions and private sector.

Budget and funding planAll budget items are well defined, (Table 6) but the following gives

further details: Most “personnel” budget of lead partners will be covered by the lead partners themselves, so this is their contribution to the project (about 25 – 30% each). This covers their part-time salaries. The Lead Partners will have 6 personnel categories, all shown with their monthly rate in Table 5. The capital expenses,

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equipment, makes about 12.5%, which leaves about 60-65% as operating expenses (Table 6). The “Travel” would cover external travel outside the country to participate in conferences, workshops, training, exchange visits that are relevant to the project and its themes. The item “Consumables” covers such items as stationery, spare parts, operational daily needs for running office by personnel working for the project. “Other costs” cover such needs as testing soil samples (chemical and physical analysis), field work needs and repairs. “Subcontracting” implies expertise external to the partners that would be contracted on a part-time, job-specific basis. The item “Dissemination” relates to expenses for the website, holding seminars, meetings, workshops that serve all the project, especially participatory activities and capacity building, writing publications and reporting.

For search to funding sources, the theme of the project focusing on Land Degradation draws parallel to other international programs and interests. It certainly serves the UNEP-MAP aspirations of the Barcelona Convention for safe-guarding the Mediterranean and its natural resources. Their CAMP projects aims are quite close to the purpose of this proposal. The EC program SMAP, also focusing on assessing environmental degradation of the Mediterranean, has quite an interest in the proposal as it covers a major portion of the eastern Mediterranean focusing on its natural resources and public participation plus capacity building. Certainly, the UNDP-GEF component on desertification is a major player supporting action-oriented, plus policies and regulations, projects like this proposal. Along the same line, one notices the close parallelism with the UNCCD program facing desertification and capitalizing on such local initiatives. This proposal is doubly significant as it is Regional, covering most of Lebanon and western Syria, and its geographic area spans a multitude of climatic zones, from the humid to the semi-arid and arid. Regional agencies like the Arab League’s ACSAD Center and the autonomous ICARDA and the Mediterranean CIHEAM can be highly interested in the proposed theme. Currently, the German GTZ is supporting a regional component on this theme, and both the Canadian CIDA and Swedish SIDA also support projects in this domain. Of course, land

83

degradation is the prime concern of the LADA program at FAO where, recently, a gathering of experts was convened at Rome to compare the different methodologies for assessing land degradation and mapping affected areas. This opens the door to another interesting and relevant FAO program focusing on mapping the Global Land Cover (GLCN) which would be happy to know about this proposal, especially with the use of the techniques of remote sensing and geographic information systems. Its mapping outcome would serve several programs that rely heavily on maps as documents for planning and environmental assessment.

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Table 6. Budget overview ($)No updates

Budget item

Partner

SalariesPart time

Capital Expenses

Operating expensesTotal

Personnel EquipmentTravel &

subsistenceConsumables

Other costs

Subcontracting Dissemination Overhead

CNRS-RSC

120,000 50,000 40,000 15,000 45,000 30,000 60,000 40,000 400,000

Min. of Agric.

25,260 4,210 8,420 4,210 12,630 8,420 12,630 8,420 84,200

Min. of Envt.

18,960 3,160 6,320 3,160 9,480 6,320 9,480 6,320 63,200

Min. of Muni.

15,780 2,630 5,260 2,630 7,890 5,260 7,890 5,260 52,600

GORS 182,400 114,000 57,000 17,100 62,700 51,300 85,500 0 570,000MoLA/E 15,000 7,500 5,000 7,500 7,500 0 7,500 0 50,000Min. of Agric.

15,000 7,500 5,000 7,500 7,500 0 7,500 0 50,000

Total 392,400 189,000 127,000 57,100 152,700 101,300 190,500 60,000 1,270,000

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and related applied models, case study: Latakia district, Syria. Ph.D. thesis.

2. Atallah, T., Darwish, T., & Ward R. (2000). La serriculture de la cote nord du Liban: entre tradition et intensification. Cahiers d’Etudes et de Recherches Francophones-Agricultures. V.9 (2): 135-140.

3. Bou Kheir, R., Girard, M., C., Shaban, A., Khawlie, M., Faour, G., and Darwish, T. (2001a). Apport de la teledetection pour la modelisation de l’érosion hydrique des sols dans la region cotiere du Liban. “Teledetection”Vol. 2. N. 2, p. 91-102.

4. Bou Kheir R., Shaban, A., Girard, M. C., Khawlie, M. (2001b). Impacts des activites humaines sur l’evolution hydrique des sols dans la region cotiere montagneuse du Liban. Secheresse, 12, 3: 157-165.

5. Climate Atlas of Syria, meteorological directorate, 1977.

6. (CNRS/NCRS, ACSAD and BGR, 1997-2003). Arab-German project on soil-groundwater protection from pollution.

7. Dar-Iaurif (2002). “Schéma d’Aménagement du Territoire Libanais”. Phase 1. Diagnostic et Problematiques. L0215. Septembe, 2002. Beirut.

8. Darwish S., Shankali M., Nokta A. Razak, Mokdad Y., 1986. Report on soil survey and classification in Tartous. Ministry of agriculture.

9. Darwish, T. (1999). Mapping of natural resources using remote sensing for soil studies. National Forum on support of remote sensing techniques to planning and decision-making processes for sustainable development. CTM, ERS/RAC, UNEP and NCSR/NCR. Beirut. 14/10/99: 36-41.

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Appendices

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