AS G322: Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation An ‘unseen’ moving image extract with one compulsory question dealing with textual analysis of various technical aspects of the languages and conventions of moving image media. Candidates will be asked to link this analysis with a discussion of some aspect of representation within the sequence.

The moving image extract will be provided by OCR in DVD format, with full instructions for the administration of the examination, viewing conditions and note-making time. Centres must prepare candidates in advance of the examination, using a range of examples from texts from the genre stated below, to demonstrate textual analysis of all of the following technical areas of moving image language and conventions in relation to the unseen extract:

• Camera Angle, Shot, Movement and Composition

• Mise-en-Scène

• Editing

• Sound

The focus of study for Section A is the use of technical aspects of the moving image medium to create meaning for an audience, focussing on the creation of representations of specific social types, groups, events or places within the extract. It is not necessary to study the history of the genre specified. Centres should use examples of the genre specified with their candidates to prepare them for undertaking unseen textual analysis. Set Topic Content The content below represents what candidates should learn and is also provided as the source of the questions in the examination papers.

Candidates should be prepared to analyse and discuss the following: technical aspects of the language and conventions of the moving image medium, in relation to the unseen moving image extract, as appropriate to the genre and extract specified, in order to discuss the sequence’s representation of individuals, groups, events or places:

Camera Shots, Angle, Movement and Composition

• Shots: establishing shot, master shot, close-up, mid-shot, long shot, wide shot, two-shot, aerial shot, point of view shot, over the shoulder shot, and variations of these.

• Angle: high angle, low angle, canted angle.

• Movement: pan, tilt, track, dolly, crane, steadicam, hand-held, zoom, reverse zoom.

• Composition: framing, rule of thirds, depth of field – deep and shallow focus, focus pulls.

Editing

• Includes transition of image and sound – continuity and non-continuity systems.

• Cutting: shot/reverse shot, eyeline match, graphic match, action match, jump cut, crosscutting, parallel editing, cutaway; insert.

• Other transitions, dissolve, fade-in, fade-out, wipe, superimposition, long take, short take, slow motion, ellipsis and expansion of time, post-production, visual effects.

Sound

• Diegetic and non-diegetic sound; synchronous/asynchronous sound; sound effects; sound motif, sound bridge, dialogue, voiceover, mode of address/direct address, sound mixing, sound perspective.

• Soundtrack: score, incidental music, themes and stings, ambient sound.

Mise-en-Scène

• Production design: location, studio, set design, costume and make-up, properties.

• Lighting; colour design.

It is acknowledged that not every one of the above technical areas will feature in equal measure in any given extract. Therefore examiners are instructed to bear this in mind when marking the candidates’ answers and will not expect each aspect will be covered in the same degree of detail, but as appropriate to the extract provided and to the discussion of representation.

Representations Candidates should be prepared to discuss, in response to the question, how these technical elements create specific representations of individuals, groups, events or places and help to articulate specific messages and values that have social significance. Particular areas of representation that may be chosen are:

• Gender

• Age

• Ethnicity

• Sexuality

• Class and status

• Physical ability/disability

• Regional identity

Revision guide The following pages outline the meaning of all the key terminology listed under ‘Set Topic Content’ (above) and should help you in your revision!

Camera: Framing the image How to describe different framing choices and techniques

Looking room (Interviewee looks into space in the frame. towards the interviewer)

Walking room (Moving subject walks into space)

Camera: Framing moving images The scale of a shot, or the apparent closeness of the viewer to the subject in the screen image, is identified by terms like long shot, medium shot, close-up and so on. These terms identify particular points on a continuous spectrum of proximity - how ‘tightly’, or ‘loosely’ the screen's frame will enclose the subject.

There is no absolute definition for the many terms describing shot size. American, European and British schemes vary, as do individual interpretations. Terms will also vary according to the subject, since they relate to our proximity to subjects of varying sizes: a close-up of a table, for example, might actually be a medium shot of a vase of flowers on the table, or a wide shot of a design motif on the vase, depending on the subject of our attention: is it the table, the flowers or the motif?

Some of the more common terms and abbreviations are listed here, with an approximate definition in relation to the human figure:

extreme long shot (ELS); long shot (LS) - shows the entire human figure, from above the head to below the

feet; medium long shot (MLS) - from the knees upward; medium shot (MS) - from the waist upwards; close-up (CU) - all the head and some shoulder; extreme close-up (ECU) - a portion of the face.

You can see these in the handout There are many other terms - e.g. wide shot, close shot, full shot - and it is important to remember that all of them have alternative names.

The decision to use any particular shot size will depend largely on the shot's function in the narrative. A close-up, for example, concentrates our attention on the character on screen when his/her role in the story is important; a close-up can also highlight important details (e.g. the ticking time bomb) which might otherwise be missed.

So, shot sizes are chosen to serve the narrative, and some terms indicate how shots are often named in terms of their narrative function.

An ‘establishing’ shot, usually a wide shot, shows the setting and context for the action which is to follow.

A ‘two-shot’ shows two characters in the frame, and will usually be cut together with close-ups.

A wide ‘master shot’, showing all the action of the scene, will be cut together with close-ups, reverse angles and so on.

An over-the-shoulder shot (OTS) shows, at the edge of the frame, part of the back of the head and shoulder of a character , so making clear the spatial relationship between the character and what they're looking at.

Illustrations by Roy Stafford, from The Media Students’s Book by Gill Branston & Roy Stafford

Camera Movements Once upon a time, films were made by pointing the camera at a set and simply recording the actions of the actors, as if they were on stage. Not any more! Just like the framing of a shot, camera movements come with their own vocabulary which needs to be learned.

Pan Camera pivots left or right around a vertical axis, but stays fixed to the same spot. Typically used to follow characters moving a relatively small distance in a space, or to redirect the audience’s attention from one part of the set to another.

Tilt Camera pivots up or down around a horizontal axis, but stays fixed to the same spot. Sometime referred to (wrongly) as ‘pan up’ or ‘pan down’.

Crab Studio camera moves completely to the left or right. Typically used to follow the movements of characters through an extended physical space.

Dolly Studio camera moves in/out from subject. Can be used to raise the prominence of a particular character or object in a scene.

Track While studio cameras usually sit on ‘dollies’ that allow them to be moved anywhere on a flat studio floor, on location film cameras sit on a trolley that is moved along a specially laid track. Thus, on a film, it is said that the camera tracks left/right (crab) or tracks in/out (dollies).

Boom Camera moves up or down (as though it’s in a lift). Usually accompanied by some kind of tilt, this movement provides a radically changing perspective on a scene.

Zoom Camera zooms in/out from subject. This is not strictly a camera movement because it’s the lens that moves – it is an optical effect, which looks very different to a dolly or tracking shot.

Dolly zoom Also known as the ‘Vertigo’ shot after its use in Hitchcock’s film. In this shot, the camera zooms out while tracking/dollying in. The result is that the object in the foreground can appear to remain consistent, while the background seems to recede rapidly. The visual equivalent of that feeling you get when you leave your stomach behind at the top of a rollercoaster!

Hand-held In which the camera is held by hand, usually providing a subjective, kinetic/erratic feel.

Steadicam This is the brand name for a mechanism that a cameraman can use to hold the camera and move it smoothly. This allows for a sweeping, gliding movement, especially where purely hand-held movements would be uneven. Larger cameras are mounted on a special harness worn by the camera operator (right).

Lenses and focusing Different camera lenses have different optical effects. This photograph has been taken from a position quite close to the boat, with a wide angle lens. This has provided a distorted perspective, exaggerating the distance between images in the foreground and background. An extremely wide angle lens is called a ‘fish eye’ lens.

This image has been taken from much further away from the boat using a telephoto lens. This also distorts the perspective, appearing to flatten the image and rob it of its depth. Objects that are varying distances away can seem to be in the same physical plane.

The foreshortening effect created by the use of a telephoto lens was creatively used in Stand By Me (Reiner, 1986). In the scene, the two boys are trapped on a railway bridge as a steam train begins to cross it. This shot shows the train threatening to run the boys over. In fact, it was at least 200 metres behind them. A very long, 600mm lens was used to compress the apparent distance between the two. Deep and shallow focus Cameras tend to rely on a lot of light to focus. As a very general rule, the more light there is available through the lens, the ‘deeper’ the focus – the more of the contents of the image will be in focus.

This photograph has a small depth of field, or a shallow focus. In this case, the foreground is in focus, but the rest of the image is ‘soft’.

This photograph has a large depth of field or deep focus: objects in the foreground and background are all in focus.

In film and television, a focus puller can rack focus on a shot with a small depth of field, adjusting the focusing ring on the lens so that a different object comes into focus. This shifts the attention of the audience from one subject to another.

Composing the image How to arrange the ingredients of a shot within the frame

The 180º rule When shooting a conversation between two people, stay on one side of the line that connects them together. You can be anywhere in the 180º arc around them created by the line, but don’t “cross the line”, or the people in your shot can seem to switch places.

The same rule applies if you’re following someone going for a walk. Stay on one side of the ‘line of action’ – the line they’re walking along. If you ‘cross the line’ from shot to shot, they will appear to suddenly change direction!

The rule of thirds Amateur film-makers and photographers tend to want to put the subject of the image right in the middle of the frame. However, that’s not a very attractive composition, particularly with people, where it can give far too much room above people’s heads.

The basic principle behind the rule of thirds is to imagine breaking an image down into thirds (both horizontally and vertically) so that you have 9 parts, like a noughts and crosses board. The places where the lines cross are places where you can consider putting the subjects of your image.

Here are two examples:

Looking room / Walking room We can extend the rule of thirds to think about framing someone looking across, or walking across, the frame.

If you filmed a horse or a person walking across your image, you need to give them space in the frame to walk into.

In this frame, the horse is walking out of shot. Even if you panned to follow it, it would still feel like he was racing out of the frame. This is unbalanced framing.

In this shot, the horse is on the left of frame, walking into the right. There is more space on the right hand side, so the horse can ‘walk into it’. If you pan to follow, keep the horse on the left of frame to give it ‘walking room’.

The same applies in close-ups of people.

This close-up of Daniel Radcliffe in My Boy Jack obeys the rule of thirds. However, he is looking out of the shot. This is odd to look at, so unless you want to make your audience feel uncomfortable, avoid this.

If we reposition Daniel on the right side of the frame, looking left, he still obeys the rule of thirds. But now, because he’s looking into a space – ‘looking room’, it feels more balanced and natural.

Rules are made to be broken! All of these rules are designed to help audiences to feel comfortable when they are watching film and television. However, there may be times when the producer of the text wants his/her audience to be uncomfortable. On these occasions, the rules are broken: characters cross the line, framing is ‘off’, characters don’t get looking or walking room etc. These creative choices can unsettle an audience because they are unfamiliar and unbalanced – which can sometimes be exactly the effect required!

Editing moving image The term ‘editing’ technically describes the removal of material. In the hands of a film-maker, however, it becomes much more than that – a system for constructing stories. Critical to this are the ways in which one shot can be joined to another, and the length of time between edits. As with camera and sound, the world of editing has its own distinct vocabulary, which you will need to learn

Transitions When you come to edit your own footage, you will have the choice of four basic kinds of edit, or transition.

Cut The most basic kind of transition, and named after the process which, in film, saw the last frame of one shot being sliced and glued to the first frame of the next. A cut is an instant change from one shot to another.

Dissolve A dissolve is a gradual transition (sometimes called a cross-fade) between one shot and another. During a dissolve, it is possible to see one shot superimposed over the other. The kind of transition is usually used to signify a change of time or place. For example, in classical editing, a dissolve might take us from a businessman’s lunch meeting to his arrival back home in the evening.

Fade A fade is a kind of dissolve that takes us from a shot to a solid colour. This is most typically a fade-to-white or a fade-to-black, but it can be to any colour. A fade to black usually connotes a more significant change in time than a dissolve, or perhaps that the character in shot has fallen asleep or passed out!

Wipe This in-vision transition involves one shot appear to wipe or move across another. This is an old-fashioned technique, once common in action-adventure serials, but rarely used today. However, it can be seen in George Lucas’s Star Wars films, where he uses them to illustrate parallel action (‘meanwhile…) in a style which recalls the old film serials which inspired him. This example (right) shows a diagonal wipe between a shot of enemy ships in deep space and an XLS of C3PO and R2D2 lost in the desert of Tatooine.

Editing techniques: basics Continuity editing Continuity editing is family of principles. It is a style of editing in which the action in a scene appears to be continuous, even though it is the result of many ‘takes’ over possibly several days.

Action match Films and TV dramas are typically shot with a single camera. Each time we see a different angle on a scene, the actors in it have had to repeat themselves. In classical editing, the editor attempts to join different angles on a scene together so that the action in it matches. This is also sometimes referred to as a match cut, or match-on-action. In the sequence below, from Steven Spielberg’s The Terminal (2004), the shot cuts at the point where the official puts Victor’s passport into a bag.

Eyeline match An eyeline match is a cut between a shot showing a character looking at something, and the object that he/she is looking at, which will not be visible in the ‘looking’ shot. It tends to heighten the significance of the object they are looking at for the viewer. In this (abbreviated) sequence from Hot Fuzz (Wright, 2007), a series of eyeline matches is used to convey a specific narrative point. Follow it left to right!

Shot/reverse shot One of the most common editing devices, this technique involves cutting back and forth between similar shots of (say) two people talking to each other. By obeying the 180º rule, the editor can show both sides of the conversation across, say a dinner table. Here’s another example from Spielberg’s The Terminal. Note that this is also an example of eyeline match. Only one camera is used, of course, so the scene has to be shot repeatedly from different angles and distances to capture the sequence.

This editing approach is usually used for shooting interviews for news, current affairs and documentary programmes.

Cross-cutting / Inter-cutting The very earliest editing invention was inter-cutting (or cross-cutting) – thanks to Edwin S. Porter's Life of an American Fireman. Two scenes in different places (parallel action) are cut together so that the attention of the audience is switched between two different storylines. This scene shows firemen rushing to the rescue of a woman trapped in a burning house by cross-cutting between the two scenes.

Editing technique: advanced Jump cut In classical editing, the cuts are typically ‘invisible’ – they do not interrupt the flow of the action. A jump cut is not: it interrupts the flow of the action, disturbing the audience’s involvement in the narrative. When two shots of the same subject are cut together, but the framing and angle of the two shots are too similar, a jump cut will occur. This pair of frames from Love, Actually (Curtis, 2003) are consecutive and show a subtle change in composition and a change in Hugh Grant’s pose. It is a nice joke that Grant is dancing to the song, Jump.

Graphic match In which adjacent shots in a narrative sequence are cut or dissolved together to represent a visual connection between the two. Two well known examples are shown below. In Raiders of the Lost Ark (Spierlberg, 1981) and, indeed, all four of the Indiana Jones films, Spielberg opens with a graphic match, dissolving from the Paramount logo to an actual mountain, framed to match the mountain’s position in the logo. And in Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960), the film dissolves from the plug hole, down which water, and Marion’s life-blood is flowing, to her dead, unseeing eye.

Cutaway Mainly a news/current affairs/documentary technique. The interruption of a continuously filmed action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually, although not always, followed by a cut back to the first shot, or a variation on it which would not have cut together invisibly. The cutaway shot always shows something not visible in the shots either side. For example, two close-ups of a young woman being interview might be separated by a close-up of her hands in her lap – the cutaway covers an edit in her dialogue.

In this example, from The Choir: Unsung Town (BBC, 2009), a cutaway to the watching crowd is used to cover the join between a long-shot of two men beginning to box, and an MCU of them much later in the bout. All three shots are here taken from the same ringside position. Shots 1 and 3 could not cut together invisibly, however, as the two mens’ positions do not match.

Insert Similar to a cutaway, but shows something that is visible in the wider view. For example, in MLS, a character might pull back his jacket to reveal a holster – insert close up on the gun in the holster – cut back to MLS.

Slow motion Slow-motion footage can increase tension as it lengthens the time it takes to complete an action. Slow-motion video tends to look ‘jerky’, as it will have usually been shot at 25 frames per second. To slow it down to 12fps (for example) involves holding each frame for twice as long, revealing the differences between each frame. In film (and some video cameras), the frame rate can be speeded up while filming. If film is shot at 48fps, then played back at 24, the slow-motion will appear smooth and graceful.

Speed ramping The process of speeding up footage in the edit, usually by removing individual frames from the sequence.

Ellipsis Ellipsis is the process of removing scenes from a sequence, and leaving the audience to identify the passage of time. For example, consider the following sequence:

1. LS: A man leaves an office and approaches the kerb 2. MCU: he raises his arm and calls out “Taxi” 3. Cut to: A woman sitting alone in a restaurant, MLS. 4. CU: She looks annoyed and glances at (cutaway, eyeline match) the clock on the wall 5. Reverse LS: at the end of the room, the man enters and approaches, looking

apologetic. The audience never sees the man get in the taxi, nor follows his journey, but they know that this is what he has done. This is ellipsis – the compression of time. We don’t need to see every action to know that it has taken place.

Expansion of time By the same token, editing can be used to expand time. In the Stand By Me (Reiner, 1986) trestle bridge sequence, the run across the bridge is lengthened (and tension raised) by repeatedly cutting to different angles of the same event. In XXX (2002), Rob Cohen uses what he describes as a cubist technique (look it up!) to show the same action multiple times from different perspectives. This is not quite action matching – each edit cuts back to a moment before the last frame of the previous shot. Especially effective in action scenes.

Montage A video montage is a collection of shots which combine to tell a story, but without a linear cause-effect narrative structure. Sergei Eisentsein pioneered this technique in the Odessa Steps sequence of Battleship Potemkin (1925), cutting together a variety of different moments occurring during a civil uprising to create an impression of the whole event.

Sound in Film and Television Just like the angle of a camera or the composition of a shot, sound can have a dramatic influence on the meaning of a piece of film or television. It can be more difficult to illustrate this on paper, but here is a handy guide to key terms you will come across, both when you analyse a text, and when you produce your own. The exam board will expect you to use these terms in both your coursework pre-production and in your written analysis.

Core terminology Diegetic sound Definition: Characters in a film or TV drama exist in a diegesis – the world of the narrative. Any sound which can be said to exist/be heard within that fictional world is diegetic. Sounds which characters cannot hear, but which the audience can, such as a background musical score, is described as non-diegetic. Dialogue A conversation between two or more people. Technically, film can feature monologue (one person speaking) but this term is rarely used. Mode of address A complex idea related to the way a text is constructed to convey communication between the producer of the text and the audience. This is most clearly seen in a direct mode of address (or direct address for short) where the text addresses the audience directly. A newsreader – looking straight at the camera – employs a direct mode of address, as does an advertisement which asks “Have you been injured in work-place incident that wasn’t your fault...?” When, in Ferris Bueller’s Day Off (Hughes, 1986, pictured), the hero turns to the camera and says “Life moves pretty fast. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it,” writer-director John Hughes is employing direct address. Synchronous sound Sound recorded at the same time as the action that is filmed. Sometimes referred to as sync sound for short. Dialogue is usually sync sound, although it can be lip-synched afterwards in a process called dubbing, or ADR (additional dialogue recording). Additional, asynchronous sound can be added in post-production to further underscore a scene’s importance. For example, the background sound of an ambulance might be added to a scene featuring a couple arguing their way to a divorce. Sound bridge The use of sound across transition between two different scenes two ‘bridge the gap’ between the two, and thus connect them. This is often (but not always) achieved by effecting a transition in the sound between diegetic and non-diegetic. For example, a piece of music might be heard playing on the radio in a character’s car (in classically ‘tinny’ sound) but become part of the non-diegetic soundtrack as the scene cuts to a high angle shot revealing the car’s position in a twilight rush-hour jam.

Sound motif A specific sound used at more than point in the soundtrack in association with a particular character, setting, situation or theme. The heavy breathing of Darth Vader is a sound motif – its arrival in the soundtrack often precedes the actual arrival of the character. Music can also be used as a sound motif. For example, in a James Bond film, the Bond theme is only used when the hero is about to do something outlandishly or archetypally Bond. Sound perspective This refers to the apparent distance of a sound, and can be influenced in the edit by the use of echo, reverberation and volume. It is most easily manipulated by controlling the distance between the microphone and the sound being recorded. A close sound perspective foregrounds the most important sound in the scene (often the dialogue) by keeping the microphone close and the pickup narrow, cutting out other sounds. Suddenly we hear the sound of his daughter, Bo, screaming. The indirect nature of the sound (it bounces off the ground, the walls, the trees etc.) and its lack of volume gives this sound a distant perspective. Non-diegetic sound Pitch The frequency of a sound or musical instrument. The pitch of a sound can be said to be low (thunder), midrange (a doorbell) or high (cymbals). Rhythm The consistency of a beat pattern in a sound or piece of music. Music has specific rhythms referred to as a ‘time signature’. Three very recognisable time signatures are:

• 3-4 time (1-2-3-1-2-3 - a waltz) • 2-2 time (1-2-1-2-1-2 – a march) and • 4-4 time (1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4 – ‘I don’t know but I’ve been told –

1 – 2 – 3 – 4’) Other rhythms also exist, however. John Carpenter famously used 5-4 time for his Halloween score (his villain, Michael Myers, is pictured, right) and the unconventional rhythm is deeply unsettling to listen to. Score Specifically the background music for the film or show, as written down on paper – but this term is typically used to describe any music composed and recorded especially for a film or TV series. Sting A brief musical insert, just a few seconds long. Tempo The speed of the rhythm. Up-tempo music seems to move quickly and deliver pace, down-tempo music is slow and often relaxing. Voiceover Shown on a script as V/O – this is recorded speech with no apparent diegetic source. If a film has a narrator (like Blade Runner or American Beauty, for example), this is a voiceover.

Additional terminology The following terms are not listed by OCR as required knowledge – but they are useful! ADR: Additional Dialogue Recording. The re-recording of sync sound in a studio to improve either the quality of the sound or the actor’s performance. Actors have to lip-sync their dialogue to match their filmed performance. Boom A long pole with a microphone mounted on the end (see picture, right). Held overhead by the boom operator so that the microphone is positioned above the actors but out of shot, to capture dialogue. Ambience / Ambient sound The background sounds in a scene. In the opening of Signs these include a ticking clock, the crows’ caws, the crickets etc. Dead / live acoustic A small enclosed space with carpet and curtains has a dead acoustic – if you clap in it, there will be no echo. A large hall without fabrics on the walls or floor has a live acoustic – it echoes. Sounds experience a longer decay in a space with a live acoustic (see below). Foley The techniques for recording diegetic sound effects in a sound studio before inserting into the film is named after Universal Studios sound editor Jack Foley. Foley artists use a variety of materials to replicate and synchronise sounds for a film that location or set recording has missed, including door latches, footsteps, rustling clothes etc. They also create many sound effects. For example, snapping celery is often used (with some digital tweaking) to represent the sound of a leg breaking. Ouch! Gun microphone A narrow microphone with a directional pick-up, detecting sounds from one direction only. Lavalier microphone Also known as a lapel or clip mic – a small microphone that attaches to the clothing. Parallel sound Sound that appears to match the mood of the visuals is referred to as parallel sound: it reinforces (‘anchors’) or amplifies the meaning of the visuals. Contrapuntal sound The opposite of parallel sound – it is in juxtaposition to the visuals and creates a contrast with them which the audience is forced for interpret. Sound envelop – Attack, Sustain, Decay. Any sound has three phases of existence

Attack – the rise of the sound from nothing to its peak of loudness. This can be fast (a gunshot) or slow (the full length of a thunderclap)

Sustain – the maintaining of the sound’s peak or near-peak volume. This can be long or short.

Decay – the term for the sound’s fading away to nothing.

Mise en scène The construction of visual media texts is usually very carefully planned. Everything we see on the movie/TV screen, or printed on paper, has been placed before the camera. The important word here is placed and so we must ask ourselves why? and to what effect? This idea is termed mise en scène (“meez-on-sen”) or ‘what’s in the frame’; the elements of which are: • Setting – including scenery, props, furniture and other set dressing. • Costume and make up • Lighting – intensity, source, colour and direction • Figure, expression and movement

Things to watch out for and consider Setting • Where/when does the action take place? What details of the setting indicate this? • How, if at all, does the setting indicate genre? • Does the setting indicate mood? If so, how? • What does the setting suggest about the characters? Their status? Culture?

Occupation? • How do props (moveable parts of the setting) contribute to the sense of place? And

genre? Costume • Does the costume suggest a certain historical period? • How does costume indicate genre? • What does the costume suggest about the characters’ background? • If the characters significantly change their costumes during the narrative, what does this

indicate about their changing feelings/fortunes/status? • What do the costumes suggest about the way a character feels about themselves? The

impression they want to make on others?

Lighting • What kind of mood does the lighting create? Are different techniques used to create

different moods? • How does the lighting indicate genre? • Does the colour of the lighting change for different scenes? If so, to what effect?

Figure expression and movement • Where are the characters positioned within the frame? Does this reflect their

importance? Feelings? Relationships with each other? • What thoughts, feelings and emotions are evoked by the actors’ performances?