Artificial Photosynthesis: Potential and Reality

November 2016

Artificial Photosynthesis Potential and Reality

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

European Commission Directorate-General for Research amp Innovation

E-mail RTD-ENERGY-SR-APeceuropaeu

European Commission

B-1049 Brussels

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

Directorate-General for Directorate-General for Research amp Innovation

20164960

2016 EUR 27987 EN


Final

Authors Olivier Chartier Paul Baker Barbara Pia Oberč Hanneke de Jong Anastasia Yagafarova (Ecorys) Peter Styring and Jordan Bye (Sheffield University) Rainer Janssen (WIP Renewable Energies) Achim Raschka and Michael Carus (nova Institut) Stavroula Evangelopoulou Georgios Zazias Apostolis Petropoulos Prof Pantelis Capros (E3MLab) Paul Zakkour (Carbon Counts)

November 2016

LEGAL NOTICE

The information and views set out in this report are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the

official opinion of the Commission The Commission does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in

this study Neither the Commission nor any person acting on the Commissionrsquos behalf may be held

responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein

More information on the European Union is available on the Internet (httpwwweuropaeu)

Luxembourg Publications Office of the European Union 2016

Catalogue number KI-NA-27-987-EN-N

ISBN 978-92-79-59752-7

ISSN 1831-9424

Doi 102777410231

copy European Union 2016

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged

Printed in the Belgium

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may charge you)

5

Abstract

Technologies based on Artificial Photosynthesis (AP) offer the potential to deliver sustainable ldquosolarrdquo

alternatives to fossil fuels which are storable and transportable and can thus respond to the problem of

intermittency of other solar wind and marine energy technologies AP research has intensified over the last

decade pursuing multiple approaches or ldquopathwaysrdquo that each have their own relative advantages and

challenges However as most AP technologies are still at a low level of technology readiness it is currently

not possible to identify those AP pathways and specific technologies offering the greatest promise for future

industrial implementation The study argues accordingly that possible public support should retain an

approach that for the time being keeps Europersquos AP options open The proposed roadmap for support for AP

technology development which could be supported under Horizon 2020 foresees actions to address current

gaps in scientific knowledge and technology capabilities while scaling-up the size of projects through the

implementation of pilot projects and demonstrator projects that can validate the viability of AP technologies at

a commercial scale Europe occupies a frontline position in AP research with 60 of the estimated 150

leading global research groups located in Europe However AP research in Europe is relatively less well-

funded than elsewhere notably in the US and Japan European research efforts are also fragmented driven

by national-level strategies and research programmes Therefore the proposed roadmap integrates actions to

support improved networking and cooperation within Europe and possibly at a wider international-level In

turn improved coordination of national research efforts could be achieved through the elaboration of a

common European AP technology strategy aimed at positioning European industry as a leader in the AP

technology field

7

Executive Summary

Objectives and methodology

Artificial photosynthesis (AP) is considered among the most promising new technologies able to deliver

sustainable alternatives to current fuel supplies often viewed as a potential ldquogame changerrdquo in the fields of

energy conversion and energy production AP can be used to produce hydrogen or carbon-based fuels ndash

collectively referred to as ldquosolar fuelsrdquo ndash that offer an efficient and transportable store of (solar) energy which

can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels and as a feedstock for a wide range of industrial processes

Set against the above background the purpose of this study is to provide a full assessment of the situation of

AP providing answers to the questions Who are the main European and global actors in the field What is

the ldquostate of the artrdquo and what are the main ldquobottlenecksrdquo in scientific and technological development What

are the key economic and technological parameters to accelerate industrial implementation Answers to the

questions provide in turn the basis for formulating recommendations on the pathways to follow and the action

to take to maximise the eventual market penetration and exploitation of AP technologies

To gather information on the direction capacities and challenges of ongoing AP development activities the

study has conducted a comprehensive review of scientific and other literature and implemented a survey of

academics and industrial players This information together with the findings from a series of in-depth

interviews provides the basis for a multi-criteria analysis to identify key bottlenecks for the main AP

technology pathways The study findings were validated at a participatory workshop of leading European AP

researchers which also identified scenarios and sketched out roadmaps for actions to support the future

development of AP technologies over the short to long term

Definition of Artificial Photosynthesis

For the purposes of this study artificial photosynthesis is understood to be a process that aims to mimic

the physical chemistry of natural photosynthesis by absorbing solar energy in the form of photons and

using this energy to generate fuel molecules through a synthetic system that utilises either biomimetics

nanotechnology synthetic biology or a combination of these systems

Main technology pathways for artificial photosynthesis

It is difficult to precisely define the parameters of AP but there are three main identifiable technology pathways

along which research and development is now advancing

Synthetic biology amp hybrid systems aim to mimic existing biological systems that perform different stages of

photosynthesis (ie light-harvesting charge separation or molecule synthesis) and combine them to produce

specific fuel molecules These technologies are at a very early stage (TRL 1-4) however researchers have

already produced small quantities of hydrogen through the water-splitting reaction and have demonstrated the

reduction of carbon dioxide to methane and acetate Research is also investigating the possibility of using

basic cells (biological) to host biological machinery to generate more complex fuel molecules The long-term

goal is to reliably generate large quantities of fuel molecules combining and converting simple starting

compounds such as H2 and CO2 into a series of different compounds using enzymes and synthetic organic

and inorganic catalysts

8

Photoelectrocatalysis combines and integrates photovoltaic (PV) technologies ndash ie semiconductor materials

able to generate electric current from sunlight ndash with water electrolysis in a photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) or

suspensions of photoactive nanoparticles thereby enabling solar energy to be used to produce hydrogen (and

oxygen) via a water-splitting reaction PV technologies are already deployed commercially and are producing

power on a megawatt scale (TRL 7-8) however PECs to perform photoelectrocatalysis are as yet at a

relatively low stage of development (TRL 2-4) The main challenges facing this technology involve developing

materials that have high solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiencies are cheap to manufacture (eg use earth-

abundant metals) and are stable for long periods of time

Co-electrolysis uses co-electrolysis of carbon dioxide and water to generate syngas (COH2) by

simultaneously reducing carbon dioxide and water using a high temperature solid oxide cell electrolyser

(SOEC) syngas can then be used to generate simple intermediate compounds that can be used as feedstock

for more complicated chemicals Water electrolysers ndash such as alkaline and polymer electrolyte membrane

(PEM) electrolysers ndash used to convert water into H2 and O2 are mature technologies (TRL 7-8) that have

been commercialised SOECs are at a lower level of development (TRL 3-5) and given their high electricity

requirements current research is focused on increasing their efficiency

Technology pathways for artificial photosynthesis and indicative selection of generated compounds

Source University of Sheffield (PV = Photovoltaics)

AP research in Europe

Research in the AP field ndash bringing together interdisciplinary expertise from biology biochemistry biophysics

and physical chemistry ndash has intensified over the last decade Today more than 150 research groups are

estimated to be active worldwide of which 60 are in Europe1 Interest from industry is growing as well

although it remains limited due to the overall low levels of readiness for commercial application of many AP

technologies

Europe has a diverse community of researchers active in the AP field and covering all the main pathways with

the largest numbers of research groups located in Germany the Netherlands Sweden and the UK The most

significant and only truly pan-European-level research network is AMPEA2 but most networks and consortia

are national Some Member States have set up their own AP research programmes roadmaps and funds and

1 Source study estimates

2 Advance Materials and Processes for Energy Application (AMPEA) which is one of the joint programmes of the Europe nargy Research

alliance (EERA)

9

there has been successful collaboration in several ongoing European-funded FP7 projects Overall however

the level of funding in Europe falls short of that available elsewhere and national research plans (and funding)

seem fragmented and scattered with a short-term focus and lacking an integrated approach with common

research goals and objectives Equally the level of collaboration between academia and industry seems to be

more limited in Europe compared for example to the US or Japan

Relatively few companies are active in the field of AP and they can be counted in the lsquotensrsquo rather than

lsquohundredsrsquo Co-electrolysis is the only area where AP-related technologies are currently commercially viable

while current industry research activities mostly concern photoelectrocatalysis where companies from various

sectors (eg ranging from automotive and electronics to chemicals and oil refining) are involved There is

some industry involvement in synthetic biology amp hybrid systems but it is limited reflecting the early stage of

research activities along this pathway

Main challenges to development and implementation of AP technologies

To form a sustainable and cost-effective part of future European and global energy systems and a source of

high-value and low carbon feedstock chemicals the development of AP technologies must address certain

fundamental requirements

Efficiency in each main step of AP light captureharvesting (eg maximising the percentage of the

spectrum that can be utilised) energy transfer to a reaction centre (eg minimising energy loss during the

transfer) and charge generation and separation to allow the desired chemical reaction to take place (eg

preventing charge recombination)

Durability of the system in terms of the amount of energy that can be produced during the lifetime of an AP

system which is a challenge because of the rapid degradation of some materials under AP system

conditions (eg lack of long-term stability in aqueous conditions or when exposed to sunlight)

Sustainability of material use eg minimising the use of rare and expensive raw materials

To meet these requirements the main AP technology pathways must overcome several gaps in fundamental

knowledge and technology development (see tables) Even if these gaps can be addressed and the feasibility

of commercial- and industrial-scale deployment of AP systems can be demonstrated at a cost level that

enables AP-based products to be competitive in the market place commercial implementation may raise other

practical concerns These may arise in relation to land use water availability and possible environmental or

social concerns which have not yet been fully explored

Synthetic biology amp hybrid systems

Knowledge gaps Technology gaps

Develop molecular and synthetic biology tools to enable

the engineering of efficient metabolic processes within

microorganisms

Improve metabolic and genetic engineering of

microorganism strains

Improve metabolic engineering of strains to facilitate the

production of a large variety of chemicals polymers and

fuels

Enhance (product) inhibitor tolerance of strains

Minimise losses due to chemical side reactions (ie

competing pathways)

Develop efficient mechanisms and systems to separate

collect and purify products

Improve stability of proteins and enzymes and reduce

degradation

Develop biocompatible catalyst systems not toxic to

micro-organisms

Optimise operating conditions and improve operation

stability (from present about gt100 hours)

Mitigate bio-toxicity and enhance inhibitor tolerance at

systems level

Improve product separation at systems level

Improve photobioreactor designs and up-scaling of

photobioreactors

Integrate enzymes into the hydrogen evolving part of

ldquobionic leafrdquo devices

Improve ldquobionic leafrdquo device designs

Up-scale ldquobionic leafrdquo devices

Improve light energy conversion efficiency (to gt10)

Reduce costs of the production of formic acids and other

chemicals polymers and fuels

10

Photoelectrocatalysis


Increase absorber efficiencies

Increase understanding of surface chemistry at

electrolyte-absorber interfaces incl charge transfer

dynamics at SCdyecatalyst interfaces

Develop novel sensitizer assemblies with long-lived

charge-separated states to enhance quantum

efficiencies

Improve charge transfer from solid to liquid

Increase stability of catalysts in aqueous solutions

develop self-repair catalysts

Develop catalysts with low over-potentials

Reduce required rare and expensive catalysts by core-

shell catalyst nanoparticles with a core of an earth-

abundant material

Develop novel water-oxidation catalysts eg based on

cobalt- and iron oxyhydroxide-based materials

Develop efficient tandem absorber structures on (widely

available and cheaper) Si substrates

Develop nanostructure configurations promising

advantages with respect to materials use optoelectronic

properties and enhanced reactive surface area

Reduce charge carrier losses at interfaces

Reduce catalyst and substrate material costs

Reduce costs for tandem absorbers using silicon-based

structures

Develop concentrator configurations for III-V based

tandem absorber structures

Scale up deposition techniques and device design and

engineering

Improve device stability towards long-term stability goal

of gt1000 hours

Improve the STH production efficiencies (to gt10 for

low-cost material devices)

Reduce costs towards a hydrogen production price of 4

US$ per kg

Co-electrolysis


Basic understanding of reaction mechanisms in co-

electrolysis of H2O (steam) and CO2

Basic understanding of the dynamics of

adsorptiondesorption of gases on electrodes and gas

transfer during co-electrolysis

Basic understanding of material compositions

microstructure and operational conditions

Develop new improved materials for electrolytes and

electrodes

Avoid mechanical damages (eg delamination of

oxygen electrode) at electrolyte-electrode interface

Reduce carbon (C) formation during co-electrolysis

Optimise operation temperature initial fuel composition

and operational voltage to adjust H2CO ratio of the

syngas

Replace metallic based electrodes by pure oxides

Improve long-term durability

Effective utilisation of external heat sources

Up-scaling of cells for efficient co-electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2

Improved stability performance (from present ~50 hours

towards the long-term stability goal of gt1000 hours

Optimisation of operation temperature initial fuel

composition and operational voltage to adjust H2CO

ratio of the syngas

Improvement of co-electrolysis syngas production

efficiencies towards values facilitating the production of

competitive synthetic fuels via FT-processes

Cost reduction towards competitiveness of synthetic

fuels with fossil fuels

The AP technology development roadmap

Although AP technologies show great potential and despite significant progress made in recent years there is

still a significant way to go before they are ready for industrial implementation Although some aspects of AP-

based systems are well developed the assessment of the existing lsquostate of the artrsquo shows that AP

technologies are generally at low levels of technology readiness (eg TRL 3-4) Moreover there is not yet

compelling evidence to suggest any AP pathway (or sub-approach therein) is ldquomore promisingrdquo than another

This being the case it seems appropriate to adopt an ldquoopenrdquo approach to possible support measures for AP-

related research efforts in the near term which does not single out and prioritise any specific AP pathway or

approach

Nonetheless if AP technologies are to fulfil their potential it will be necessary to achieve the transition from

fundamental research- and laboratory-based validation to demonstration at commercial of near-commercial

scales this ambition forms the long-term goal for the proposed AP technology development roadmap

11

The roadmap distinguishes 3 phases (see figure below) and corresponding recommendations for specific

actions

Phase 1 (short term) Early stage research and scaling-up to pilot projects

Action 1 Support for multiple small AP research projects to address existing knowledge and technology gaps and to

promote long-term advances in scientific knowledge that may contribute to breakthroughs in novel

approaches for AP and to address technology challenges across the board of current (and potential) AP

pathways and approaches

Action 2 Support for enhanced networking of AP research and technology development to reduce fragmentation and

promote coordination and cooperation of research efforts in the AP and related fields through the support for

pan-European networking activities and promotion of research synergies

Action 3 Inducement prize to provide additional stimulus for research technology development and innovation

through a (financial) prize targeting ldquoproof of conceptrdquo of significant advances in the AP field

Phase 2 (medium term) Pilot project implementation and scaling-up to demonstrator projects

Action 4 Support for AP pilot projects to demonstrate the viability of AP concepts through support for a (limited)

number of pilot plant scale projects of the ldquomost promisingrdquo AP technologies

Action 5 Support for AP coordination to ensure effective use of research budgets and to avoid duplication of research

efforts Moving to a common European AP technology strategy requires inter alia alignment of national

research efforts and cooperation at a broader international level Equally to accelerate industrial

implementation cooperation and coordination of activities among the lsquoresearch communityrsquo and industry

should be promoted

Phase 3 (long term) Demonstrator project implementation

Action 6 Support for AP demonstrator projects to demonstrate the viability of AP technologies through support for one

or more demonstrator projects that facilitate the transfer of AP production systems to industrial production for

ldquofirstrdquo markets while allowing an evaluation of the development and integration of the full AP value chain (ie

from upstream supply of materials and components to downstream markets for AP-based products) The

demonstrator project(s) should also address other aspects (eg societal political environmental economic

and regulatory) necessary to evaluate the practical implementation of AP technologies

NB For convenience the timeline of these actions is presented in 3 distinct phases Some AP technologies are however

more advanced than others and could already be at or close to readiness for pilot projects Conversely certain fundamental

knowledge and technology issues cannot expect to be resolved in the short term Accordingly the different phases as

proposed within the roadmap should not be considered to define a strictly chronological sequencetiming of actions

12

Visualisation of the AP technology development roadmap with illustrative project examples

Source Ecorys

Phase 1 Phase 3Phase 2

TRL 9 Industrial Implementation

TRL 6-8 Demonstrator

TRL 3-6 Pilot Projects

TRL 1-3 Fundamental

2017 2025 2035

Example projects- Research on metabolic and genetic engineering of strains for photosynthetic microbial cell factories

- Research on strains for the production of a variety of chemicals polymers and fuels

- Research on the understanding of surface chemistry at electrolyte-absorber interface in PEC

- Development of novel water-oxidation catalysts for direct water splitting

- Research on improvements of light absorption and carrier separation efficiency in PEC devices

- Research on new materials for electrodes and electrolytes in electrolysis cells

-Research to improve the basic understanding of reaction mechanisms in co-electrolysis (dynamics of adsorptiondesorption of gases gas transfer degradation mechanisms etc)

Example of projects - Improvements of operating stability of microbial cell factories

- Improvements of bionic leaf device design

- Study on long-term durability of molecular components used in DS-PEC devices development of active photosensitizer and catalyst

- Improvement of device stability and STH production efficiencies for direct water-splitting devices at pilot plant scale

- Support the development of lab-scale modules and demonstration facilities of electrolysis cells for CO2 valorisation

- Support the upscaling of cells for efficient co-electrolysis of H2O (steam) and CO2 in Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC)

- Development at a near-commercial scale of demonstrator plant(s) for co-electrolysis

Example of projects- Pilot plant scale of photobioreactors for photosynthetic microbial cell factories

- Pilot plant scale of ldquobionic leafrdquo devices

- Development at a near-commercial scale of demonstrator plant(s) for direct water-splitting devices based on several absorber materials (eg dye-sensitised photo-electrochemical cell (DS-PEC) device silicon-based tandem absorber structures)

13

Supporting activities

Looking beyond the technological and operational aspects of the roadmap the study finds several areas

where actions may be taken to provide a better understanding of the AP field and to accelerate development

and industrial implementation namely

Networking and coordination of research With the exception of the few pan-European initiatives (eg AMPEA

and FP7 projects) the degree of collaboration among research groups is low Networking and coordination

activities (for example through Horizon 2020 Coordination amp Support Action - CSA) would contribute to reduce

duplication of efforts and facilitate exchange among researchers

Industry engagement and technology transfer Engagement of industry in development activities which has so

far been relatively limited will become increasingly important as AP technologies move to higher levels of

readiness for commercial implementation Encouraging active involvement of industrial players in research

projects could ease the transfer of technology from the research community to industry (or vice versa) thereby

helping expedite the evolution from prototypes and pilots to marketable products

Public policy and regulatory conditions To encourage industrial implementation and market penetration AP

technologies and products should face a legal and regulatory environment that offers a ldquolevel playing fieldrdquo

compared to other energyfuel types Beyond this reflecting the sustainability and environmental

characteristics of AP there may be a public policy justification for creating a regulatory and legal framework

and possibly other measures to specifically encourage the adoption and diffusion of AP technologies and

products

Safety concerns and societal acceptance AP technologies could potentially raise a number of public

concerns for example the safety aspects of the production storage distribution and consumption of AP-

based products the use of GMOs in synthetichybrid AP processes the use of rare expensive andor toxic

materials extensive land use requirements etc Such legitimate public concerns need to be identified

understood and properly addressed if AP is to overcome barriers to widespread societal acceptance These

aspects should be an integral part of an overall AP research agenda that provides for open dialogue even

from very early stages of technological development and identifies potential solutions and mitigating

measures

Protection of Intellectual Property To become a successful leading player in the development and industrial

application of AP technologies researchers and industry must be able to adequately protect their intellectual

(industrial) property rights (eg patent protection) without this becoming a barrier to overall technology

development and implementation It will be important to both protect European intellectual property rights

while also follow global developments in AP-related patent-protected technologies thereby ensuring that

Europe has a secure strategic position in the AP field and avoiding potentially damaging dependencies on

non-European technologies

15

Table of contents

Abstract 5

Executive Summary 7

Table of contents 15

1 Introduction 21

2 Scope of the study 23

21 Overview of natural photosynthesis 23

22 Current energy usage and definition of artificial photosynthesis 25

23 Introduction to the different types of Artificial Photosynthesis technologies covered in the study29

231 Synthetic biology amp hybrid systems 31

232 Photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting) 31

233 Co-electrolysis 31

3 Assessment of the technological development current status and future perspective 33


311 Description of the process 34

312 Current status review of the state of the art 35

313 Future development main challenges 38




323 Patents 44





333 Patents 53


34 Summary 54

4 Mapping research actors 57

41 Main academic actors in Europe 57

411 Main research networkscommunities 57

412 Main research groups (with link to network if any) 59

42 Main academic actors outside Europe 62



43 Level of investment 66

431 Research investments in Europe 67

432 Research investments outside Europe 71

44 Strengths and weaknesses 73

441 Strengths and weaknesses of AP research in general 73

442 Strengths and weaknesses of AP research in Europe 74

16

45 Main industrial actors active in AP field 76

451 Industrial context 76

452 Main industrial companies involved in AP 76

453 Companies active in synthetic biology amp hybrid systems 77

454 Companies active in photoelectrocatalysis 79

455 Companies active in co-electrolysis 82

456 Companies active in carbon capture and utilisation 83

457 Assessment of the capabilities of the industry to develop AP technologies 85

46 Summary of results and main observations 86

5 Factors limiting the development of AP technology 91

51 Cost efficiency lifetimedurability energy efficiency and resource use challenges 91

52 Current TRL and future prospects of investigated AP RTD initiatives 95

53 Knowledge and technology gaps of investigated AP RTD initiatives 95

54 Coordination of European research 100

55 Industry involvement and industry gaps 101

56 Technology transfer opportunities 104

57 Regulatory conditions and societal acceptance 107

6 Development roadmap 109

61 Context 109

611 General situation and conditions for the development of AP 109

612 Situation of the European AP research and technology base 110

62 Roadmap overview 111

621 Knowledge and technology development 111

622 Supporting and accompanying activities 117

7 References 121

17

List of figures

Figure 21 Schematic diagram of electron flow in in vivo photosynthesis that is used to generate a proton

gradient NADPH and ATP 24

Figure 22 Worldwide consumption of fuel types by percentage 27

Figure 31 General development and supply chain 33 Figure 32 Diagrammatic representation of a PSI-platinum hybrid system 34

Figure 34 Photoelectrochemical cell capable of water oxidation using solar energy 40

Figure 35 PEC reactor types 42

Figure 36 Potential schemes for the large-scale production of H2 using solar water-splitting

photoelectrochemical cells 47 Figure 37 Schematic diagram of water electrolysis being conducted in an alkaline electrolyser 48

Figure 38 Schematic diagram of water electrolysis being conducted in a solid oxide electrolysis cell 49

Figure 41 Research groups in Artificial Photosynthesis in Europe 62

Figure 42 Research groups active in the field of AP globally 66

Figure 43 Funding of FP6 and FP7 projects per year 2005 ndash 2020 69

Figure 44 Hondarsquos sunlight-to-hydrogen station 80

Figure 46 Illustration of the co-electrolysis process of NewCO2Fuels 85

Figure 61 General development roadmap visualisation 112

19

List of tables

Table 31 Rates of light-driven hydrogen production and turnover numbers for PSI-Catalyst hybrid systems

36

Table 01 The main manufacturers of alkaline and polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysers with the

performance data for each device This table was originally constructed by Ursua et al 201211

Table 33 The advantages and disadvantages of alkaline polymer electrolyte and solid oxide electrolysis

cell electrolysers This table was originally constructed by Carmo et al 20138 53

Table 41 Number of research groups and research institutions in European countries 59

Table 42 Number of research groups per research area (technology pathway) 60

Table 43 Number of research groups and research institutions in non-European countries 64


Table 45 Investments in the field of artificial photosynthesis 66

Table 46 EU FP6 and FP7 projects on artificial photosynthesis 68

Table 47 Total EU budget on artificial photosynthesis per technology pathway 68

Table 48 Summary of strengths and weaknesses of research globally 73

Table 49 Summary of strengths and weaknesses of research in Europe 75

Table 410 Overview of the size of the industrial community number of companies per pathway 77

Table 411 Organisations in synthetic biology amp hybrid systems 78

Table 412 Organisations in the field of photoelectrocatalysis 79

Table 413 Companies in co-electrolysis 82

Table 414 Organisations active in carbon capture and utilisation 83

Table 415 Summary of findings size of research community 87

Table 416 Summary of findings size of industrial community 89

21

1 Introduction

To establish a world-class technology and innovation sector that is fit to cope with the challenges up to 2020

and beyond the European Commission initiated an update of its EU energy research and innovation (RampI)

policy leading to the publication of the Communication ldquoTowards an Integrated Strategic Energy Technology

(SET) Plan Accelerating the European Energy System Transformation (C (2015) 6317 final) in September

2015 Under the heading ldquoKeeping Technology Actions Openrdquo the SET Plan Integrated Roadmap states that

ldquothe emergence of new technologies required for the overall transition of the energy sector towards

decarbonisation requires breakthroughs which have to be based on fundamental and generic knowledge at

the international state of artrdquo Artificial Photosynthesis counts among the most promising new technologies and

is often considered as a potential ldquogame changerrdquo technology in the fields of energy conversion and energy

production

The study ldquoAssessment of artificial photosynthesisrdquo has been implemented in the first semester of 2016

against this background the study aims to support future policy developments in the area in particular in the

design of public interventions allowing to fully benefit from the potential offered by the technologies The study

has three specific objectives The first objective is to provide a detailed review of the state of the art of artificial

photosynthesis technologies as well as an inventory of research players from the public and private sector

The second objective is to analyse the factors and parameters influencing the future development of these

technologies The third objective is to provide recommendations for public support measures aimed at

maximising this potential

The structure of the report is as follows Section 2 describes the scope of the study with a review of the

different types of Artificial Photosynthesis Section 3 provides an assessment of the technological

development based on a review of the literature Section 4 maps the main academic and industrial actors

Section 5 analyses the factors limiting the development of Artificial Photosynthesis technologies and a

development roadmap is presented in the Section 6

23

2 Scope of the study

21 Overview of natural photosynthesis

Photosynthetic and heterotrophic organisms exist together in a steady state in the biosphere Photosynthetic

organisms capture solar energy in the form of photons this captured energy is used to produce chemical

energy that the organism uses to form adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

phosphate (NADPH) ATP and NADPH are then used to generate organic compounds such as carbohydrates

from water and carbon dioxide12

Photosynthesis can be broken down into two processes light-dependant

reactions and carbon-assimilation reactions where the latter are driven by the products of the light reactions

In the light reactions electrons are obtained from water molecules that have been oxidised in a process often

referred to as ldquowater splittingrdquo to form electrons (e-) hydrogen ions (H

+) and molecular oxygen (O2) The

electrons are driven through a series of membrane-bound carrier proteins including cytochromes iron-sulphur

proteins and quinones to produce a proton gradient which is used to generate ATP and NADPH this is

summarised in Figure 21 The carbon-assimilation reactions use NADPH ATP electrons and H+ to reduce

carbon dioxide in a series of enzymatic reactions to generate an array of compounds21213

The light-dependent and carbon assimilation reactions of photosynthesis take place in the chloroplasts of

eukaryotic cells Chloroplasts are intracellular organelles with a non-uniform shape similar to that of

mitochondria They both have inner and outer membranes that enclose an inner compartment which is

permeable to small molecules and ions respectively The thylakoid membrane contains the photosynthetic

pigments and enzyme complexes that carry out the light reactions and ATP synthesis and are on the inside of

the inner membrane Chlorophylls are present in the thylakoid membrane and are responsible for absorbing

solar energy in plants An array of chlorophylls is called a photosystem Chlorophylls are green pigments

consisting of long phytol chains with a polycyclic planar structure similar to the protoporphyr in haemoglobin

at the top of the molecule However instead of a Fe2+

at the centre there is a Mg2+

coordinated by four

nitrogen atoms The phytol chain is esterified to a carboxyl group in ring IV The groups on the edge of the ring

(=CH2 and -CH3) can be exchanged for other groups depending on the organism the chlorophyll is present in

The heterocyclic five-ring system that surrounds Mg2+

has an extended polyene structure with alternating

single and double bonds These compounds strongly absorb in the visible region and have high extinction

coefficients Plants always contain chlorophyll α and chlorophyll β which both absorb green light at slightly

different wavelengths this maximises the amount of light the organism can utilise Chlorophylls bind with

specific proteins and membranes to form light-harvesting complexes (LHCs) In addition to chlorophylls which

are the main pigments in plants there are accessory pigments called carotenoids that absorb photons that

have different wavelengths so more of the spectrum can be utilised When a photon is absorbed by a

chlorophyll an electron in the chromophore portion is raised to a higher energy state called the excited state

When the electron moves back down to its ground state it can release the energy as light or heat In

photosynthesis instead of the energy being released as light or heat it is transferred from the excited

chromophore to a neighbouring chromophore in a process called ldquoexcitation transferrdquo1213

All of the pigment molecules in a photosystem can absorb photons and transfer the energy to other pigments

but only a number of pigments are associated with the photochemical reaction centre (PRC) The excitation

energy can be passed through multiple pigment molecules until it reaches a pigment associated with the PRC

The PRC transduces the excitation energy into chemical energy by passing the excitation energy to a nearby

molecule acting as an electron acceptor This leaves the chlorophyll with a positive charge which is

neutralised by another electron donor the electron acceptor becomes negatively charged In this way

excitation caused by photon absorption causes electric charge separation and starts the oxidation-reduction

chain Light-driven electron transfer in chloroplasts during photosynthesis is carried out by a number of multi-

enzyme complexes in the thylakoid membrane1213

24

Photosynthetic bacteria usually have one or two reaction centres Purple bacteria pass electrons through a

pheophytin which is a chlorophyll without the Mg2+

at the centre of the ring to a quinone Green sulphur

bacteria pass electrons through a quinone to an iron-sulphur centre The photosynthetic machinery in purple

bacteria is made up of 3 basic units a single reaction centre (P870) a cytochrome bc1 electron-transfer

complex (similar to complex III found in mitochondria) and an APT synthase Absorption of a photon drives

electrons through pheophytin and a quinone to the cytochrome bc1 complex following which electrons pass

through this complex to the cytochrome bc1 complex and back to the reaction centre This movement of

electrons generates the energy needed by the cytochrome bc1 complex to pump protons across the

membrane and create the gradient that generates ATP1213

The photosynthetic apparatus of cyanobacteria and plants is more complex than that found in a one-system

bacterium due to them containing two photosystems in the thylakoid membrane Photosystem II acts like the

single photosystem found in purple bacteria It should be noted that the water-splitting reaction occurs at

PSII14

When the reaction centre of photosystem II (P680) is excited electrons are driven through the

cytochrome b6f complex which pumps hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane to generate a proton

gradient PSI aids in the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH by absorbing a photon at 700 nm to excite an

electron which is passed through a number of carrier molecules to plastoquinone and then to ferredoxin-

NAPD+ reductase which generates NADPH As previously discussed the proton gradient that has been

generated from transferring the electrons that were excited by the photons is used by ATP synthase to

generate ATP To summarise the light-dependent reactions cause water to split into oxygen electrons and

protons which are used to generate a proton gradient form NAPDH from NAPD+ and generate ATP The

main differences between the two photosystems are the wavelengths of light they absorb and that PSII

conducts water oxidation (while PSI does not) Both absorb photons and both are capable of generating

ATP12-16

In the carbon-assimilation reactions ATP and NADPH are used to reduce (gain electrons) carbon

dioxide to form phosphates starch and sugars as part of the Calvin cycle which takes place in the stroma

this process is also known as carbon fixation1213

Figure 21 Schematic diagram of electron flow in in vivo photosynthesis that is used to generate a proton gradient NADPH and ATP

Theoretically the efficiency of natural photosynthetic systems should be around 26 This is calculated by

knowing the energy content of a glucose molecule is 672 kcal mol-1

To generate a glucose molecule 48

photons with a wavelength of 680 nm are needed which together have an energy of 42 kcal per quantum

mole which is equal to 172 kcal mol-1

672 kcal mol-1

divided by 172 kcal mol-1

makes for 26 efficiency

However in reality an efficiency of less than 2 is usually achieved in optimal conditions17

The efficiency of

natural photosynthetic systems is limited by electron-hole recombination which is when the charge separation

25

process is not successful Even when this process is successful up to half of the energy from the excited state

of the chlorophyll is used2 Energy is also used by the organism to ensure other processes within the cell are

functioning The inefficiencies of natural photosynthesis highlight major areas where researchers are looking

to improve in artificial photosynthetic systems and are discussed over the next sections

Photodamage occurs in photosynthetic systems when solar energy cannot be effectively dissipated as heat or

be used to form photosynthetic products fast enough Upon photon absorption chlorophylls are excited to a

singlet state whereby under normal conditions the chlorophyll molecule will either pass the energy to another

chlorophyll molecule by FRET emit a photon or dissipate the energy as heat High levels of light increase the

amount of photosynthesis occurring as well as the amount of time chlorophylls spend in their singlet state

which increases the risk of chlorophylls forming longer-lived triplet states if the energy is not passed on or

dissipated fast enough Chlorophylls in their triplet state can photosensitise toxic chemicals such as singlet

oxygen which causes photodamage18

Natural photosynthetic systems limit photodamage with a process

called non-photochemical quenching using molecules called carotenoids that quench chlorophyll triplet states

by triplet-triplet energy transfer Carotenoids in their triplet state are low energy and quickly release their

energy through heat production and do not facilitate the production of singlet oxygen1213

This method of

photoprotection has been mimicked in artificial photosynthetic systems to extend their lifetimes and enable

them to work under intense light conditions

22 Current energy usage and definition of artificial photosynthesis

The current demand for energy is primarily met by the combustion of fossil fuel resources in the form of coal

crude oil and natural gas

26

Figure 22 shows that the energy demand has doubled over the last 40 years and it should be noted that this

demand is expected to double again by 205031719

The increased energy demand could be met by increasing

fossil fuel combustion However fossil fuel combustion is not a clean process and releases large amounts of

greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides The accumulation of these

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing the average global temperature damaging the ozone layer

and causing more extreme weather2021

From these studies it is clear that using fossil fuels to meet the future

energy demand could cause irreversible damage to the environment and the human population2223

Due to

this much time money and resources are being dedicated to find clean stable and renewable energy

alternatives to fossil fuels2425

Current candidates include wind power tidal power geothermal power and

solar energy while the viability of nuclear power is currently under discussion due to the radioactive wastes

and potential emergency risks The majority of these technologies are currently expensive to operate

manufacture and maintain and produce rather small amounts of energy due to their low efficiencies This

report will focus on how solar energy is being utilised as a renewable energy source The sun provides

100x1015

watts of solar energy annually across the surface of the earth If this solar energy could be

harnessed with 100 efficiency the current energy demand for one year could be met within an hour In total

only 002 of the total solar energy received by earth over a year would be required161726

27

Figure 22 Worldwide consumption of fuel types by percentage Total fuel consumption was equal to 4667 Mtoe in 1973 and 9301

Mtoe in 2013 and is represented by the size difference of the two charts below The figure was adapted from The 2015 Key

World Energy Statistics report3 Mtoe = million tonnes oil equivalent This figure does not state whether the energy came

from a renewable source

Currently one of the best and most developed methods of utilising solar energy (photons) is by using

photovoltaic cells that absorb photons and generate an electrical current This electrical current can be

instantly used as a source of energy or it can be stored in a wide variety of batteries for later use There are a

number of disadvantages to solely relying on photovoltaics to provide us with all of our energy requirements

which are listed below

Photovoltaics can only be used in areas that have high year-round levels of sunlight

The electrical energy has to be used immediately (unless it is stored)

Batteries used to store electrical energy are currently unable to store large amounts of energy have short

lifetimes and their production generates large amounts of toxic waste materials

To address these disadvantages researchers are looking into ways that solar energy can be stored as

chemical energy instead of inside batteries as electricity This is the point where the research being conducted

begins to draw inspiration from photosynthetic organisms14

Photosynthetic organisms have been capable of

utilising solar energy to generate a multitude of complex molecules for billions of years27

Natural

photosynthetic systems are capable of producing two main fuel types hydrogen and carbon-based fuels

Hydrogen is generated from photon-driven in PSII and carbon-based fuels such as carbohydrates and lipids

are generated from the reduction of carbon dioxide with hydrogen (Calvin cycledark reactions)1628

Hydrogen

and carbon-based fuels are the main fuel types researchers aim to produce using artificial photosynthetic

systems29

Hydrogen is produced by splitting (oxidising) water with solar energy catalysts and water oxygen

is a by-product of water oxidation Hydrogen is the simplest fuel to produce and the majority of the

technologies discussed in this report have already had success producing it It is desirable however for

researchers to generate more complex carbon-based fuels such as carbon monoxide methane methanol and

higher order carbon-based compounds using solar energy carbon dioxide and water because carbon-based

fuels have a higher energy density than hydrogen and are used as our primary energy source It should be

noted that hydrogen does not exist in its molecular form in nature which means that it must be produced by

an energy input Hydrogen is most commonly produced by steam reforming natural gas or fossil fuels such as

propane diesel methanol or ethanol8 These methods produce low purity hydrogen and consume fossil fuels

so they do not relieve any fossil fuel dependencies and they further contribute to environmental concerns

In later sections of this literature review some of the main technologies that utilise artificial photosynthesis to

generate fuel molecules are discussed These technologies offer a potential method by which high purity

hydrogen can be produced by the water-splitting reaction using energy obtained from renewable sources

Hydrogen carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are important feedstocks for making industrial products such

as fertilisers pharmaceuticals plastics and synthetic liquid fuels With more research it is hoped that it will

soon be possible to produce complex molecules from chemical feedstocks that have been produced using

28

renewable energy Technologies that directly convert solar energy to electrical energy (photovoltaics) have

been commercialised for a number of years and can generate electricity on a megawatt scale at large

facilities Success has also been gained with generating hydrogen with a number of technologies such as

biological hybrid systems photoelectrocatalysis and electrolysers (some sub-technologies in this pathway

have been commercialised and can produce power on a megawatt scale) which will also be discussed in this

literature review Some success has been had with generating these more complicated molecules by artificial

photosynthesis from chemical feedstocks but it should be noted that these technologies are still at an early

research and development stage Using recent literature a definition for artificial photosynthesis was

developed for this study and is provided below

Artificial photosynthesis is a process that aims to mimic the physical chemistry of natural

photosynthesis by absorbing solar energy in the form of photons and using the energy to

generate fuel molecules through a synthetic system that utilises either biomimetics


This is a broad definition of artificial photosynthesis where the term physical chemistry includes any reaction

or process that takes place during natural photosynthesis The term fuel molecules encompasses the term

solar fuel and can include any molecule that the system has been designed to produce such as molecular

hydrogen hydrocarbons alcohols and carbohydrates Biomimetics refers to a system that aims to mimic a

biological system by including some aspects of a biological system such as photosystems I and II chlorophyll

molecules or the electron transport proteinsmolecules Nanotechnology can refer to systems that use organic

chemistry inorganic chemistry or surfaceinterface chemistry to generate artificial photosynthetic systems

Synthetic biology refers to biological systems that have been genetically engineered to either allow or prevent

a biological process to occur

To date much progress has been made in the development of artificial photosynthetic systems since the

conception of the term22628-35

The most common problems associated with artificial photosynthetic systems

arise from

Low efficiency

Inability to utilise the entire spectrum of photon wavelengths

Inability to efficiently separate the charged species

Most systems use expensive noble metals to conduct the chemistry36

Short device lifetimes

Should these synthetic fuels be produced at a large enough scale for commercial use a new set of problems

would appear associated with how the fuels should be stored and distributed Using artificial photosynthesis to

generate hydrocarbons that are already used as an energy source would require fewer infrastructural changes

than switching to a hydrogen economy Furthermore the production process needs to be easily scalable so

that fuels can be produced in a cost-effective way on a terawatt scale in a manner that can keep up with the

ever-increasing energy demand In the next section several different types of artificial photosynthesis

technologies are introduced that aim to effectively utilise solar energy

29

23 Introduction to the different types of Artificial Photosynthesis technologies covered in the

study

Research and development related to the area of artificial photosynthesis encompass several technological

areas The different pathways for artificial photosynthesis are illustrated in

30

Figure 22 along with some of the compounds that can be generated from these technologies on their own or

by combining them It should be noted that while Figure 23 presents a broad selection of potential compounds

that can be produced the actual number of compounds that could potentially be generated by artificial

photosynthetic systems is limitless

Figure 23 Different routes by which artificial photosynthesis can take place and the products that can be generated by utilising the

different technologies This image was generated by The University of Sheffield PV = Photovoltaics

The efficiency and usefulness of artificial photosynthetic technologies are dependent on how well they can

perform three distinctive steps that are found in natural photosynthetic organisms namely

How efficiently they are able to capture incoming photons (percentage of the spectrum that can be

utilised)

How efficiently the system can transfer the energy to a reaction centre (minimising energy loss during the

transfer)

How well the system can generate and separate charges to allow the desired chemical reaction to take

place (preventing charge recombination)

The complexity of artificial photosynthetic systems occurs when multiple charges have to be separated for a

chemical reaction to occur The production of hydrogen and oxygen from the water-splitting reaction which is

probably the simplest reaction these systems must be capable of still involves the transfer of four electrons

and the generation of more complicated compounds will require even more charge-separation events to occur

The following sections discuss the artificial photosynthetic technologies as depicted in

31

Figure 22 which are synthetic biologyhybrid systems photoelectrochemical catalysis and co-electrolysis

231 Synthetic biology amp hybrid systems

This pathway aims to take existing biological systems that perform different stages of photosynthesis such as

the light-harvesting charge separation or molecule synthesis steps and combine them so they are able to

produce specific fuel molecules These biological molecules can be modified or combined with other biological

molecules or synthetic organicinorganic compounds so that they are able to produce specific fuel molecules

more efficiently It is known that natural photosynthetic systems contain a number of crucial components that

need to be included in synthetic biology and hybrid artificial photosynthetic systems For example they should

contain a light harvester (semiconductor or molecular dye) a reduction co-catalyst (hydrogenase mimic or

noble metal) and an oxidation co-catalyst (photosystem II mimic that is capable of producing molecular oxygen

and hydrogen) It should be noted that these technologies are at a very early stage of development

(laboratory level technology readiness level (TRL 1-4)) and are many years away from being commercialised

Briefly researchers are capable of producing small quantities of hydrogen through the water-splitting reaction

and have demonstrated the reduction of carbon dioxide to methane and acetate Researchers are also

investigating the possibility of using basic cells (biological) to host biological machinery that is capable of

generating more complex fuel molecules The long-term goal of these technologies will be to reliably generate

large quantities of specific fuel molecules from simple starting compounds such as hydrogen and carbon

dioxide which are combined and converted into a series of different compounds using a series of enzymes

and synthetic organic and inorganic catalysts

232 Photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting)

This pathway aims to develop efficient photovoltaics and photoelectrochemical catalysts that utilise earth-

abundant metals capable of generating oxygen and hydrogen through the water-splitting reaction38

Photovoltaics can be used to generate electrical energy directly from sunlight Photovoltaicssemiconductors

can be used in photoelectrochemical cells to produce hydrogen from the water-splitting reaction PVs and

PECs are among the most advanced areas of artificial photosynthesis Photovoltaics utilise semiconductor

materials that are capable of directly generating electrical currents (electrical energy) when exposed to certain

wavelengths of light These semiconductors have to be capable of utilising a range of photon wavelengths

efficiently and must have long lifetimes Photovoltaics have been commercialised and are producing power on

a megawatt scale Future developments in this field aim to increase device efficiency and lower the costs

associated with them (TRL 7-8) Photoelectrochemical cells are capable of producing electricity and fuel

molecules when exposed to certain wavelengths of light Fuel molecules such as hydrogen are produced by

electrolysing water (splitting water) which could provide an unlimited source of hydrogen that could be used to

generate power or reduce carbon dioxide Water-splitting cells require semiconductors that are able to support

rapid charge transfer at the semiconductoraqueous interface have long-term stability in aqueous

environments and are capable of utilising a range of photon wavelengths30

233 Co-electrolysis

This pathway provides an alternative method by which water oxidation can be performed Alkaline

electrolysers and polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysers have been mature technologies now for a

number of years and are capable of converting water and electricity to hydrogen and oxygen The co-

electrolysis pathway aims to use carbon dioxide-water co-electrolysis to generate syngas (COH2) which is

produced by simultaneously reducing carbon dioxide and water using high temperature solid oxide cell

electrolysers (SOECs)39

Syngas can be used to generate simple intermediate compounds that can be used

as feedstock for more complicated chemicals used in fertilisers pharmaceuticals plastics and synthetic liquid

fuels Methanol is an example of a simple molecule that can be made from syngas The dehydration of

methanol can be used to generate the cleaner fuel dimethyl ether which is being considered as a future

energy source40

As a technique to produce power co-electrolysis offers a number of advantages over other

techniques such as photovoltaics and wind power in that it is not site-specific and can continuously generate

32

power However these devices require large amounts of electricity to function which affects their operating

costs It is likely that these systems will have their electricity supplied to them by solar or wind power farms in

the near future

33

3 Assessment of the technological development current status and future perspective

This literature review will focus on three technologies (synthetic biologybiological hybrid systems

photovoltaicsphotoelectrochemical cells and co-electrolysis) that are currently using artificial photosynthesis

to generate energy in the form of electricity and fuels The majority of research into these technologies has

focused on improving device efficiencies lifetimes and producing hydrogen The review will conclude with

discussions about the fuels researchers are currently producing potential large-scale facilities to produce the

fuels and finally the potential directions research into artificial photosynthesis could pursue Figure 3 shows a

general development and supply chain for technologies that aim to use artificial photosynthesis to convert

solar energy into power and fuels It should be noted that each technology will have its own set of specific

challenges which will be discussed at the end of each respective section This literature review was

constructed using material from a number of sources such as peer-reviewed journals official reports and

patents that have been filed

Figure 31 General development and supply chain for technologies that aim to use a combination of photovoltaics and

photoelectrochemical cell artificial photosynthetic technologies to convert solar energy into power and fuels

34


311 Description of the process

Artificial photosynthetic systems that utilise synthetic biology aim to modify existing natural photosynthetic

systems at the genetic level or combine them with other biological systems and synthetic compounds to

produce a specific fuel or improve efficiency It should be noted that technologies based on using synthetic

biology and hybrid systems to produce solar fuels are still at the research and development stage (TRL 1-4)

however the use of these systems to produce a limited number of fine chemicals is more advanced with a TRL

3-7 The majority of technologies developed in this pathway have focused on producing hydrogen and only a

limited number of technologies are capable of producing more complex fuel molecules It should also be noted

that most of these systems are only capable of producing small amounts of fuel molecules for a short period of

time Natural photosynthetic systems can be broken down into three distinct processes that these systems

have to mimic light-harvesting energy transfer and charge generationseparation (catalytic reactions)1437

For

these technologies to be successful the systems have to be designed so that they consist of electron donors

and acceptors and attempt to mimic light-driven charge separation2 Generally these technologies aim to

combine biological molecules that have catalytic activity (enzymes such as PSI [NiFe]-hydrogenase and

[FeFe]-hydrogenase) or combine the enzymes with synthetic inorganic and organic compounds9 Examples of

when these systems have been successfully created are discussed below with figures and the TRLs of the

technologies are given after each technology has been discussed

Illustrations

Figure 32 A simplified diagrammatic representation of a PSI-platinum hybrid system that is used to generate H2 can be found below

showing PSI P700 chlorophyll a apoprotein A1 (red) and PSI P700 chlorophyll a apoprotein A2 (blue) The electron provided

by ascorbate is transferred to a cytochrome c6 where a photon excites the electron which is then passed through PSI where

it is transferred to the platinum (Pt) catalyst to generate molecular hydrogen This figure drew inspiration from Fukuzumi

2015 and Gorka et al 20149

35

Figure 33 A diagrammatic representation of a FeFe-hydrogenase I ndash cadmium sulphur (CdS) hybrid system that is used to generate

H2 The faded red structure represents the surface topography of FeFe-hydrogenase I the blue arrows represent the

movement of the electrons through the Fe-S clusters where hydrogen ions are converted to H2 and the yellow structures

represent the CaI capped CdS nanorods The figure was constructed using inspiration from Wilker et al 2014 using the

PBD file 3C8Y and edited using PyMol software12

312 Current status review of the state of the art

The first example of researchers successfully producing light-driven hydrogen from an artificial complex

composed of biological molecules and platinum was achieved by combining the PSI subunit PsaE from

Thermosynechococcus elongtus with an oxygen tolerant [NiFe]-hydrogenase from Ralstonia eutropha H16 to

form a PSI-hydrogenase complex This complex in presence of ascorbate (electron donor) was capable of

light-driven hydrogen production at a rate of 058 microM (mg chlorophyll)-1

h-1

41-43

(TRL 3)

Hydrogenases are enzymes that catalyse the reversible oxidation of molecular hydrogen while platinum is

also capable of reversibly photocatalytically oxidising hydrogen44

Researchers recently showed that when a

platinum nanocluster was attached to a PSI molecule the complex was able to produce hydrogen at a rate of

673 microM (mg chlorophyll)-1

h-1

- the general structure of this complex is highlighted in Figure 323

Systems

based on these original concepts have been optimised to achieve higher hydrogen production efficiencies of

up to 244 microM (mg chlorophyll)-1

h-1

It should also be noted that the electron donor (ascorbate) had to be

present in excess in both cases2345

It should also be noted that these hydrogen production rates are

comparable to those of natural photosynthetic systems which occur at a rate of ca 300 microM (mg chlorophyll)-1

h-1

46

(TRL 3-4)

Researchers recently proposed a model by which hydrogen can be generated using CaI capped CdS

nanorods The authors reported that light is absorbed by the CdS nanorods to excite two electrons which are

then transferred into the CaI cap where the two electrons are used to reduce two protons (H+) and generate

hydrogen (electrons are replaced in CdS by ascorbate) In a recent publication the authors showed that it is

possible to combine the CdSCaI nanorods with [FeFe]-hydrogenase in place of PSI (ascorbate is used as an

electron donor) In this biomimetic system the electrons are transferred to [FeFe]-hydrogenase where they

reduce H+ to hydrogen This system was shown to have a quantum efficiency of 20 be active for up to 4

hours and had a total turnover of 106 hydrogen before activity was lost The loss in activity was found to be

due to the inactivation of the CaI cap at the end of the CdS rod147

36

Figure 3 represents the system and process described above where the blue arrows represent the movement

of electrons from the CdSCaI nanorods to the iron-sulphur clusters in [FeFe]-hydrogenase (TRL 3-4)

Researchers were recently able to produce hydrogen using a PSI-cobaloxime complex when it was

illuminated with natural light Cobaloximes are vitamin B12 mimics capable of catalysing H+ reduction

Cobaloximes offer a number of advantages over hydrogenases in that they are not sensitive to oxygen their

synthesis is relatively simple and they are constructed from relatively cheap materials In this system sodium

ascorbate used a sacrificial electron donor and cytochrome c6 transported the electrons to the PSI-cobaloxime

complex Upon light absorption the electrons were excited and transported through PSI to the bound

molecular catalyst cobaloxime where hydrogen production occurs27

The maximum rate for the photoreduction

of water by this hybrid system was measured to be 170 mol hydrogen (mol PSI)-1

min-1

as was reached within

10 minutes of illumination It should be noted that after 90 minutes hydrogen production levelled off giving a

total turnover of 5200 mol hydrogen mol PSI-1

27

It is thought that the activity of the hybrid decreased due to

the dissociation of cobaloxime from PSI research efforts are currently underway to stabilise the hybrid

system27

This system is of particular merit because the PSI-cobaloxime hybrid is composed of earth-

abundant materials unlike the hybrid systems containing precious metals It should also be noted that there

are multiple molecular catalysts for hydrogen production other than the cobaloximes that can offer improved

stability solubility in water and better activity and have been discussed in a recent review6 (TRL 3-4)

The production of hydrogen at a rate of 2200 plusmn 460 micromol mg Chl-1

h-1

(a faster rate than natural photosynthetic

systems) has recently been demonstrated This was accomplished by generating a hybrid system consisting

of a PSI complex tethered to a [FeFe]-hydrogenase using a 18-octanedithiol nanowire and also crosslinking

cytochrome c6 to the PSI complex This four component system was then placed in a sodium phosphate buffer

containing the electron donor sodium ascorbate at pH 65 and illuminating the sample with natural light48

The

authors also reported results for complexes consisting of different nanowire lengths (3-10 carbons) and a

chain length of 8 carbons was found to give the highest hydrogen production rates this is most likely due to

the chain being long enough to minimise steric hindrance between the two proteins The hybrid system

retained its activity for up to four hours and it should be noted that the decrease in activity was attributed to

depletion of the electron donor (full activity was regained upon replenishing the ascorbate) It should also be

noted that the hybrid system regained its full hydrogen-evolving activity after being stored in anoxic conditions

at room temperature for 100 days48

(TRL 3)

The technologies above are only a few examples of the methods researchers have used to generate hydrogen

from hybrid systems Table 31 below summarises hydrogen production rates by a number of different hybrid

systems that all incorporate PSI into their complex The information in Table 31 was originally summarised by

Utschig et al 20156 All of the technologies in this table have a TRL of 3-4


PSI-catalyst system Rate of H2 production

[mol H2 (mol PSI)-1 s

-1]

TON (time hours)

PSI-nanoclusters photoprecipitated long liveda 49

0002 ndc (2000)

PSI-[NiFe]-hydrogenase genetic fusion 41

001 ndc (3)

PSI-nanoclusters photoprecipitated short-liveda 49

013 ndc (2)

PSI-[FeFe]-hydrogenase-PetF in vitro complexb 50

031 ndc (05)

PSI-Ni diphosphinea 51

073 (3)

PSI-[FeFe]-hydrogenase-Fd protein complexb 50

107 ndc (1)

PSI-molecular wire-Pt nanoparticlea 52

11 (12)

PSI-NiApoFd protein deliverya 51

125 (4)

PSI-cobaloximea 27

283 (15)

PSI-Pt nanoparticlea 45

583 (4)

PSI-molecular wire-[FeFe]-hydrogenasea 48

524 ndc (3)

a Redox mediator Cyt c6

b Redox mediator PC

c nd not determined

37

Researchers have generated a hybrid photocatalyst system capable of splitting water to produce hydrogen

and oxygen and capable of reducing carbon dioxide by rational design The system uses a semiconductor as

the light harvester and a biomimetic complex mimicking photosystem I as a molecular catalyst37

This work

highlights that the understanding of artificial photosynthetic systems is increasing as rational design can now

be used to construct biomimetic artificial photosynthetic systems (TRL 2)

Unicellular organisms such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii are a type of green algae that can produce

hydrogen light-dependently using the enzyme [FeFe]-hydrogenase However hydrogen production rates in

photoactive organisms are limited by a number of physiological constraints This is due to electrons

generated by PSI being used in a number of reactions other than hydrogen production5354

Most photoactive

organisms will contain a form of photosynthetic electron transport ferredoxin (PETF) protein which provides

photosynthetic electrons generated by PSI for a number of metabolic pathways All of these pathways

compete for electrons with [FeFe]-hydrogenase Researchers recently genetically modified the affinity PETF

has for PETF-dependent ferredoxin-NADP+-oxidoreductase (FNR) without comprising the affinity PETF has

for [FeFe]-hydrogenase In this modified system PETF is still able to supply [FeFe]-hydrogenase with

electrons that it used to produce hydrogen but is less able to supply electrons to FNR which means that fewer

carbon dioxide fixation reactions occur Hydrogen production rates increased by nearly 5x in wild type cells

that had modified PETF53

(TRL 3)

Microbial biocathodes consist of an electrode that has electrochemically active microorganisms immobilised

onto its surface which are capable of reducing protons to hydrogen These systems offer a number of

advantages in that the cathode can be constructed from cheap materials and the microorganisms can self-

regenerate55

The first microbial biocathode consisted of three phases (1) acetate and hydrogen are oxidised

at a bioanode that has been inoculated with a mixed culture of electrochemically active microorganisms to

release carbon dioxide (2) only hydrogen is fed into the bioanode (3) the polarity of the cells is reversed

(direction of electron flow) and hydrogen production begins at the cathode55

Initially after the polarity is

reversed methane was produced at the biocathode and not hydrogen (TRL 4)

Bio-catalysed electrolysis is a microbial fuel cell-based technology that is capable of generating hydrogen and

other reduced products from electron donors (acetatewastewater) however these systems require an

external power source56

In this system acetate is oxidised at the anode by microorganisms in the presence of

high concentrations of ammonium and the electrons are transferred to a platinum catalyst (cathode) where

they reduce protons to hydrogen56

(TRL 3)

A recent paper has reported the reduction of carbon dioxide to acetate and methane using a water-splitting

reaction to produce hydrogen and sodium bicarbonate as the carbon source using microbial electrosynthesis

(MES)57

This system used an assembly of graphite felt and a stainless steel cathode This paper is important

because it presents the use of electrode materials derived from earth-abundant elements showcasing them

as particularly suitable for industrial scale-out due to their low cost (TRL 3)

Researchers at the University of Oxford developed a biological tool called ldquoSimCellrdquo A SimCell is a simple

non-replicating cell that has no well-defined function until a plasmid containing DNA coding a specific

function is inserted into the cellrsquos genome The inserted DNA could potentially provide all of the genetic

information needed by the cell to produce the proteins and enzymes required to produce specific fuel

molecules The SimCell has been optimised to be simple so that most of the energy the cell is using will go

towards carrying out the function of the newly inserted gene instead of maintaining numerous intracellular

processes5859

The SimCell could allow researchers to insert genetic information that codes the production of

target fuels thereby greatly increasing the number of potential fuel targets and the efficiency with which they

can be produced It is possible that this technology could be patented once it reaches a higher level of

maturity and a working system is demonstrated (TRL 1)

38

313 Future development main challenges

Synthetic biology amp hybrid artificial photosynthetic systems primarily focus on producing hydrogen however

research focused on the production of hydrocarbons using technologies such as MES is gaining momentum

Although these technologies are currently at the laboratory research and development stage (TRL 1-4) they

are improving quickly At a very small laboratory scale the systems are becoming efficient enough to produce

hydrogen at a rate that is comparable to that which occurs in natural photosynthesis although some

researchers have reported even faster production rates

Synthetic biology amp hybrid systems need to address a number of specific challenges before they can be

considered as commercially viable options for producing solar fuels Below some preconditions and

challenges regarding certain such systems are described

Protein Hybrid Systems

For proteins to be active their primary amino acid sequence must fold and adopt the correctly folded

structure Misfolded proteins can exhibit severely diminished activities

Proteins (and enzymes) are inherently unstable and sensitive to the pH temperature pressure and buffer

components and will often degrade over time which limits their use

Most hydrogenases are sensitive to oxygen so they must be kept under anaerobic conditions

Biological molecules can be produced at a large scale as shown by the biopharmaceutical industry

However the amount of biological molecules needed to produce the amount of fuel required to support

mankind would be huge and has not been calculated

One of the strongest properties of enzymes is that they exhibit a high level of specificity they are able to

produce specific molecules of high purity

Enzymes can be redesigned to give them new or improved functions within different environments60

However modifying protein and enzyme function is not trivial it is often a time-consuming process that

requires thorough understanding of the system although predictive tools for protein engineering are

improving

Enzymes are often very large molecules in which only a small percentage of the amino acid residues are

actively involved in catalysis Researchers could reduce the complexity of biological systems drastically if

they focused on stripping the enzyme down so it contains only the residues and cofactors needed for

catalytic activity on a simplified base framework of amino acids

Microorganisms

In a recent paper researchers investigated how hydrogen production can be enhanced and suppressed in

vitro They state that the main limitations of hydrogen production in microorganisms are the systemrsquos

sensitivity to oxygen and the competition between hydrogenases and NADPH-dependent carbon dioxide

fixation If these issues can be solved the technologies would be closer to commercialisation50

It should be

noted that microorganisms are capable of producing a number of fine chemicals on a commercial scale (these

are often produced in smaller amounts)

Microorganisms are highly complex in that a multitude of chemical reactions must take place so that the

organism can continue to function at the most basic level These extra reactions are major drawbacks if

these organisms are to be used to produce fuel molecules as most of the absorbed energy cannot be

used to produce the fuel molecules

To overcome this problem various aspects of the organismsrsquo genetic information can be modified to

minimise energy loss through side reactions

SimCells are simplified cells in that number of chemical reactions needed to sustain the organism are

minimised this means that more energy can dedicated to fuel production However these technologies

are currently in early stages of research and development and are not close to being produced on an

industrial scale

39

It is likely that fuel-producing microorganisms will have to be capable of expelling the fuel molecules

otherwise the fuel-producing cells will have to be destroyed to obtain the molecules

A major advantage of bacterial systems is that their genetic information can be modified so that they

produce a number of different fuel molecules However this is not a trivial task and the microorganisms

may not be able to survive when large concentrations of the fuel molecules are present

Bacterial cells can survive in a number of harsh conditions and they do not have to be in an ultra-clean

environment

Synthetic biology and hybrid systems face a unique challenge in that these systems are made by or are

genetically modified organisms (GMOs) GMOs are often subject to negative media attention and are often

portrayed and viewed to be unsafe by the public which means that the public may not want their fuel coming

from this source Some of the concerns surrounding the use of GMOs are valid and need to be investigated

One of the main concerns about the use of GMOs pertains to whether the GMO could have a severe effect on

the environment if it managed to migrate into the wild However this issue could be addressed by only using

GMOs that are not able to replicate (ie they are obtained from a secured parent cell) However most of the

concerns the public may have regarding GMOs could be solved by educating about GMOs and providing a

large body of scientific evidence that supports their safety

It should be noted that the authors could find no relevant patents for artificial photosynthetic technologies that

utilise synthetic biology amp hybrid systems

In conclusion synthetic biology amp hybrid systems that produce solar fuels are currently in the laboratory

research and development stage and it is too early to determine whether they would be a commercially viable

option However current research is promising and shows that they could be a valuable part of generating

solar fuels due to their high level of specificity and ability to be reengineered to carry out new and specialised

chemistry



This pathway aims to develop efficient photovoltaics and photoelectrocatalysts that utilise earth-abundant

metals capable of generating oxygen and hydrogen by splitting water38

The water-splitting (water oxidation)

reaction is one of the most advanced areas of artificial photosynthesis These systems that directly produce

fuel molecules from sunlight are currently in the early researchproof-of-concept stage (TRL 2-4) This means

that they are a number of years away from being a commercially viable method to produce synthetic fuels31

Water oxidation involves the removal of 4e- and 4H

+ to generate molecular oxygen (O2) and molecular

hydrogen (H2) In nature water oxidation is carried out by photosystem II in natural photosynthetic systems

The water-splitting reaction has the potential to provide a clean sustainable and abundant source of

hydrogen that could be used as energy or to reduce carbon dioxide to higher order hydrocarbons which is

why a considerable amount of time and money has been spent trying to improve the process

Photovoltaic cells (PVs) also known as solar cells utilise semiconductor materials that are capable of directly

generating electrical currents when exposed to certain wavelengths of light Light absorption by the

semiconductor promotes an electron from the low energy valence band to the higher energy conduction band

This creates an electron-hole pair that can be transported through the electrical device to provide power

Research focusing on PVs has focused on improving their efficiencies Initially efficiencies lt1 were

obtainable but the most recent generation of PVs can achieve efficiencies gt45 Research has shown that

the efficiencies of PVs can be greatly improved by using multi-junction instead of single-junction devices60

Efficiencies of different PV models have increased over the last 40 years this plot is courtesy of the National

Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden CO The most recent PVs have long lifespans (gt20 years) low

40

pollution levels and low operating costs30

However PVs do have some drawbacks in that they are expensive

to manufacture can only be used during the day in areas that receive a lot of sunlight utilise a fraction of the

available spectrum and it is problematic to store the energy in batteries3360

Problems associated with long-

term storage of energy could be overcome by storing the energy in chemical bonds of molecules such as

hydrogen alcohols and hydrocarbons which is why the research in the following section is of importance It

should also be noted that PVs have a TRL of 9 as they have been successfully commercialised and can

provide power on a megawatt scale

Photoelectrochemical cells (PECs) are capable of producing fuel molecules when exposed to certain

wavelengths of light or paired with a semiconductor (PV) Hydrogen can be produced by the water-splitting

reaction Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of a PEC which is capable of conducting water oxidation in

two separate chambers Currently there are two primary methods by which solar fuels can be generated from

the water-splitting reaction in PECs The first is by direct photoelectrocatalysis at the semiconductor-

electrolyte interface (occurring at a solid-liquid junction) and the second is by coupling the electrochemical

(PEC) reaction directly to a buried p-n junction PV230

Both of these approaches require the generation of a

photovoltage sufficient to split water (gt 123 V)30

Photoelectrodes in PECs must have high surface stability

good electronic properties and suitable light absorption characteristics Water-splitting cells require

semiconductors that are able to support rapid charge transfer at the semiconductoraqueous interface have

long-term stability in aqueous environments and are capable of utilising a range of photon wavelengths30

These functions are obtained by using multi-junction configurations that use p- and n-type semiconductors

with different band gaps and surface-bound electrocatalysts The brief description of PVs has been included

because they are an essential component for a number of systems that photocatalytically split water

Illustration

Figure 34 The illustration below shows a photoelectrochemical cell capable of water oxidation using solar energy consisting of

separated titanium dioxide (TiO2) and platinum (Pt) electrodes Water oxidation occurs at the TiO2 electrode where oxygen

is formed during which process protons (H+) and electrons (e

-) are released H

+ pass through an ion transport membrane to

a compartment containing the Pt electrode where electrons are used to reduce H+ to hydrogen After this hydrogen can be

stored as an energy source or it can be used to reduce carbon dioxide to higher order hydrocarbon compounds

Explanations

According to the National Renewable Energy Laboratory the greatest gains in efficiency have been made with

the multi-junction PV cells The first single-junction GaAs cells developed in the mid-1970s and had

efficiencies of ca 22 (which is better than most of the more recent PV cells that have been developed) The

most recent multi-junction technologies have achieved efficiencies of up to 46 It should also be noted that a

41

greater number of p-n junctions a PV has the greater its efficiency This is because each p-n junction is made

from a different semiconductor material that can absorb light at a different wavelength increasing the amount

of the spectrum that can be utilised PVs based on crystalline silicone cells have shown a slow increase in

efficiency over the last 40 years starting from 14 and increasing up to 276 PVs utilising thin-film

technologies now achieve efficiencies up to 223 Thin-film technologies are a particularly promising branch

of PV due to them being lightweight and the potential to manufacture them by printing which would decrease

their production and installation costs

Figure 3 shows a schematic diagram of a PEC cell that was developed by Honda and Fujishima in 1972 and

was capable of the water-splitting reaction using a TiO2 electrode in tandem with a platinum electrode61

PEC

cells consist of three basic components a semiconductor a reference electrode and an electrolyte The

principles of PEC cell operation are simple a photon is absorbed by the semiconductor (TiO2) material which

causes electron excitation and the excited electrons move to the reference electrode (Pt) through a metal

wire The movement of electrons between the two materials generates a positive charge (holes) at the

semiconductor which combines with electrons in the oxygen molecules of water to form molecular oxygen

and hydrogen ions At the reference electrode the electrons can combine with hydrogen ions to form

molecular hydrogen In this study oxygen was generated at the TiO2 electrode and hydrogen was generated at

the platinum electrode

Since the initial study by Honda and Fujishima researchers have spent much time developing new materials

for anodic and cathodic processes that are capable of carrying out the same process with greater efficiency

and ability to produce more products3061

Currently the cost-effectiveness of using solar energy systems to

generate power and fuels is constricted by the low energy density of sunlight which means low cost materials

need to be developed so that enough sunlight can efficiently be captured Sunlight availability is intermittent

which means that the captured energy needs to be efficiently stored The efficiency of PEC water-splitting

devices is determined by measuring their solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency this is defined as the amount of

chemical energy produced in the form of hydrogen divided by the solar energy input without the use of any

external bias10


Currently there are two main approaches that are used to photocatalytically split water into oxygen and

hydrogen The first method utilises a single-visible-light photocatalyst (this is essentially a PV) with a narrow

band gap capable of absorbing photons in the visible spectrum has a suitable thermodynamic potential for

water splitting and is stable enough to avoid photocorrosion4 The drawbacks of this system include that it is

only capable of utilising a small region of the spectrum and the collection of oxygen and hydrogen is difficult

due to them being produced in the same region2 The second method uses a two-step mechanism which

utilises two photocatalysts (photoanode and photocathode) in tandem similar to the Z-scheme present in

natural photosynthetic systems2 This setup enables the system to utilise a larger range of visible light

because the free energy required to drive each photocatalyst can be tuned compared to the one-step system

(one photon is needed for each photocatalyst) In this system the oxygen and hydrogen generated via water

oxidation can be separated more efficiently from each other because they are produced at different sites

(oxygen is produced at the anode and hydrogen is produced at the cathode) this also reduces the likelihood

of charge recombination462

This second system is more desirable as the oxygen and hydrogen evolution

sites can be contained in separate compartments62

Theoretical calculations have highlighted that the

maximum efficiency of a single absorber PEC system could reach 29-31 whereas a tandem PEC system

could reach 40-41 further highlighting the advantages of using tandem devices106364

Efficiency calculations

for three different PEC configurations a single photoabsorber system a dual stacked photoabsorber system

and a dual side-by-side photoabsorber system were reported to be 112 228 and 155 respectively

These systems differ in the spatial distribution and number of photoabsorbers which will affect the range of

wavelengths that can be absorbed and therefore the materialsrsquo STH efficiency10

It should be noted that the

practical efficiencies of these devices will often be much lower due to the inefficiencies associated with the

catalysts and reaction overpotentials10

These calculations show that the best way to achieve higher

efficiencies in PEC devices is to use a dual stacked photoabsorber system

42

Recently four PEC reactor types were conceived to represent a range of systems that could be used to

generate hydrogen from solar energy Each system design can be seen in Figure 31062

Types 1 and 2 are

based on relatively simple photoactive nanoparticle suspensions whereas types 3 and 4 are based on more

complex planar arrays a brief discussion of each system is given below It should be noted that quoted STH

efficiencies are optimised values and do not take into account material lifetimes

Figure 35 The figure below shows four PEC reactor types including a (a) Type 1 reactor showing the plastic bags containing the

suspended hydrogen- and oxygen-evolving photoactive particles (b) Type 2 reactor showing the plastic bags containing

separated suspensions of photoactive particles capable of separately evolving hydrogen and oxygen (c) Type 3 reactor

showing a sun-orientated panel containing a layered PEC cell capable of producing hydrogen and oxygen and (d) Type 4

reactor the design of which consists of a similar layered PEC cell to Type 3 with an added parabolic receiver that is able to

concentrate light onto the PEC cell throughout the day These figures were originally constructed by Pinaud et al 201310

Type 1 This reactor has the simplest design It consists of a transparent plastic bag that contains a

suspension of photoactive particles in 01 M potassium hydroxide that are capable of simultaneously

evolving hydrogen and oxygen by the water-splitting reaction Photons at a variety of different wavelengths

are able to penetrate the plastic bag whereas the electrolyte evolved gases and photoactive particles are

held within the bag The authors modelled the photoactive particles as spherical cores coated with

photoanodic and photocathodic particles The authors calculated that this reactor type could achieve a

realistic STH efficiency of 10 however it should be noted that the hydrogen and oxygen evolved in this

system would need to be separated1062

43

Type 2 The design of this reactor is very similar to that of Type 1 in that it consists of photoactive

nanoparticles suspended in an electrolyte contained within clear plastic bags The main difference

between the two systems is that the hydrogen- and oxygen-evolving particles are contained within

separate bags which reduces the need for a gas separation step and increases the safety of the system

However the bag design has to be more complicated in that a redox mediator is required along with a

porous bridge between the hydrogen- and oxygen-evolving bags The STH efficiency of this system was

calculated to be 51062

Type 3 This reactor is composed of a layered planar electrode consisting of multiple photoactive layers

(multi-junction PVsemiconductor) that is submerged within an aqueous solution containing 01 M

potassium hydroxide encased within a clear plastic case Multiple photoactive materials are used so that

more of the solar spectrum can be utilised The anode (oxygen evolution) is at the top of the cell where it

absorbs photons of a certain wavelength and allows others to pass through to the cathode where they are

absorbed into another layer to drive hydrogen evolution Due to the fixed orientation of these cells they

have to have a large surface area to ensure they can absorb the maximum amount of photons1062

Type 4 This reactor is similar to Type 3 in that it consists of a flat PEC cell of a similar design (gas

evolution occurs in a similar manner) The main difference is that a solar tracking concentrator system is

used to focus sunlight onto the PEC cell This means that smaller and more efficient PEC devices can be

used to reduce costs The STH efficiency of this system was calculated to 12-181062

The costs of hydrogen production for a power plant consisting of each reactor type were assessed (it should

be noted that costs for Type 3 and 4 plants were considered to be more accurate due to availability of PV

pricing)10

Type 1 $160 H2kg

Type 2 $320 H2kg

Type 3 $1040 H2kg

Type 4 $400 H2kg

During early work with PEC cells researchers were able to achieve efficiencies of 124 for hydrogen

production over 20 hours using a p-GaInP2(Pt)rsquoTJGaAs electrode However it should be noted that current

density decreased from 120 mAcm2 to 105 mAcm

2 over the course of the experiment which was caused by

damage to the PEC cell65

Therefore although this device was able to achieve high efficiencies its lifetime

was too low

Water oxidation in the presence of a photocatalyst that has been combined with a co-catalyst has been

reported2 The role of the co-catalyst is to provide extra reaction sites and decrease the activation energy for

oxygen and hydrogen evolution Researchers must carefully choose the type of co-catalyst to use this is

because although some noble metal catalysts like platinum and rhodium are good for enhancing hydrogen

production they also catalyse the reverse reaction (convert oxygen and hydrogen back to water)66

To

circumvent this issue transition-metal oxides are often used as co-catalysts instead of noble metals as these

do not catalyse water reformation However these compounds are often more susceptible to degradation

when they are exposed to the reactive environments found in PECs4

The first example of a metal oxide being used to split water into oxygen and hydrogen was carried out by a

dinuclear ruthenium complex (the blue dimer)34

Electrochemical and in situ spectroscopic measurements

were used to measure hydrogen production when platinum and rhodium plates deposited with chromia

(Cr2O3) were used as the water-splitting material4 Coreshell-structured nanoparticles that have a noble metal

or noble metal oxide core and a Cr2O3 shell have been shown to be capable of acting as a co-catalyst for the

water-splitting reaction This presents a mechanism by which noble metals could be used as co-catalysts the

Cr2O3 shell has been shown to supress the water reformation reaction when coated onto palladium and

platinum cores4 Multiple transition metal oxides such as NiOx RuO2 and TiO2 can be used as co-catalysts

when they are treated with appropriate chemicals (TRL 3-4)

44

Researchers recently reported a catalyst that was formed upon the oxidative polarization of an inert indium tin

oxide electrode immersed in a solution containing 100 mM potassium phosphate and 05 mM cobalt (II) ions at

pH 70 Upon initiation of electrolysis at 129 V oxygen production was shown to increase linearly over 12

hours to reach a maximum of 100 microM h-1

(after 12 hours electrolysis was stopped)67

The catalytic activity of

the reaction was also shown to be pH-dependent which suggests that the hydrogen phosphate ion is the

proton acceptor (TRL 3)

In a recent publication a multi-junction design was used to absorb light and provide energy for the water-

splitting reaction Multi-junction PVs are more efficient as they are able to absorb enough solar energy to

provide the free energy for water splitting The researchers developed a device based on an oxide

photoanode (Fe2O3 or WO3) and a dye-sensitized solar cell which performs unassisted water splitting with an

efficiency of up to 31 STH Incoming light was absorbed by the photoanode where the water-splitting

reaction and oxygen evolution takes place Electrons were transported to a platinum cathode where hydrogen

formation occurred68

(TRL 4)

Recently researchers demonstrated water splitting using tandem PEC cells where PtCdSCGSACGSe was

used as the photocathode (hydrogen evolution) and NiOOHFeOOHMoBiVO4 as the photoanode (oxygen

evolution) The cell was able to sustain a stable water-splitting reaction for 2 hours with an STH efficiency of

06769

(TRL 3)

Photochemical hydrogen production by nanowire arrays has been shown to be advantageous to more

traditional system designs because they use less precious material to produce7071

Researchers recently

showed that photoelectrochemical hydrogen production from water was possible using InP nanowire arrays In

these systems the chosen nanowire compound has a layer of silicone oxide (SiO2) deposited onto its surface

and then a co-catalyst deposited onto the surface of Efficiencies of 52 and 64 were obtained when the

InP nanowires were deposited with platinum and MoS3 respectively7072

Silicon is an abundant low-cost

semiconductor commonly used in PV devices and photoelectrochemical hydrogen generation at the

Sielectrolyte interface has been extensively studied for decades Hydrogen is evolved slowly at the

Sielectrolyte interface which has led to research efforts to modify the surfaces with electrocatalysts such as

platinum and ruthenium which are showing good activities and efficiencies71

(TRL 2-3)

323 Patents

Patents have been filed for systems based on nanoparticle suspensions and PECs some of which are

discussed below

A patent was filed in 2012 detailing a suspension of photoactive nanoparticles consisting of metallic cores and

semiconductor photocatalytic shells that can photocatalytically split water to directly obtain hydrogen The

efficient and unassisted photocatalytic splitting of water by the nanoparticles is based on resonant absorption

from surface plasmon in the metal coresemiconductor shell hybrid nanoparticles which can extend the

absorption spectra towards the visible-near infrared range This increases the solar energy conversion

efficiency When the photoactive nanoparticles are used in combination with scintillator nanoparticles the

hybrid photocatalytic nanoparticles can be used to convert nuclear energy into hydrogen73

(TRL 3-4)

A patent was recently filed for a PEC cell consisting of melanin melanin precursors melanin derivatives

melanin variants melanin analogues natural or synthetic pure or mixed with organic or inorganic compounds

metals ions drugs that act as the water electrolyzing material This technology uses solar energy as the sole

or main source of energy to produce hydrogen from water The system integrates a semiconductor material

and a water electrolyser inside a monolithic design that produces hydrogen directly from water using light

between 200 to 900 nm as the main or sole source of energy The technology aims to meet two criteria (i) the

system or light-absorbing compound should generate enough energy for the water-splitting reaction to be

45

completed and (ii) the materials need to be cheap to source and exhibit high stability in water and the reactive

environment The authors claim that all of these requirements can be met by melanin and related compounds

which represents a significant advancement in PEC design The technology can be used to generate

hydrogen oxygen and high energy electrons It can also be used to perform the opposite reaction and

generate water from electrons protons and oxygen and can be coupled to other processes generating a

multiplication effect It can also be used for the reduction of carbon dioxide nitrates and sulphates or others74

(TRL 2-3)

In 2008 a patent was filed describing a PEC system that could produce hydrogen from water The device was

comprised of (i) an electrolytic bath containing an electrode for catalytic oxidation an electrode for catalytic

reduction and an ion separation film disposed between the two electrodes immersed in an aqueous

electrolyte solution and (ii) a photoelectrode positioned outside the electrolytic bath and electrically connected

to the two electrodes This PEC system is characterised by disposing a photoelectrode at a position which

does not contact the electrolyte solution preventing the lowering of the photoelectrode activities and which

maximises hydrogen production efficiency75

(TRL 3)

In 2014 a patent was filed describing an invention that was able to generate hydrogen by

photoelectrocatalytic water splitting The system also incorporated an analysis-detection system The system

was composed of a photoelectrocatalytic water-splitting hydrogen generation device constructed from TiO2

nanorods (water splitting) a platinum cathode and a AgAgCl reference electrode submersed in a 05 M

Na2SO4 solution Results from five tests of the system were reported After the first hour the device produced

17-20 micromolh hydrogen for four hours as determined by the inbuilt detector76

(TRL 3)


The generation of electricity from solar energy by PVs has been successfully commercialised with the most

recent solar projects being able to produce electricity at a cost of 015 ndash 035 $kWh on a megawatt scale31

Facilities such as the Solar Star Power Station and the Topaz Solar Farm in the USA are examples of facilities

that use PV technologies that are capable of producing electricity (TRL 8-9) These facilities can now be

constructed because the cost of PVs has dramatically decreased and their efficiencies have increased over

the last few years Laboratory research is currently focused on further increasing the efficiency of PVs and

combining these systems with catalysts that are capable of generating higher order hydrocarbon fuels

However the reduction of carbon dioxide to liquid fuels is a complicated multi-electron process still in the

proof-of-concept stage (TRL 2-3) It is also recommended that the new materials PVs are constructed from

should ideally be cheap abundant lightweight flexible and robust If all of these requirements are met the

costs associated with manufacturing PVs as well as transporting installing and maintaining them may

continue to fall

There are a number of general challenges facing PEC technologies (including suspensions of photoactive

nanoparticles and PECs) that are associated with

Effectively designing facilities

Developing methods to store the generated energy

Developing transportation networks to distribute the energy

A major drawback of these facilities is that they can only be used during daylight hours when there is a clear

sky This highlights the importance of being able to store large amounts of energy at these facilities that can

be used outside of daylight hours It has been proposed that the energy generated from these facilities could

be stored in new types of batteries or as chemicals such as hydrogen and hydrocarbons Storing the energy

in the form of hydrocarbons would be particularly useful as these have a much higher energy density than

batteries and hydrogen The infrastructure to store and transport these already exists for them to be used as a

fuel However as previously mentioned the ability to convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide into high order

hydrocarbons using PVs and PECs is still in the proof-of-concept stage10

46

There are also a number of challenges related to the materials used to construct photoactive nanoparticles

and PECs This is particularly problematic because the most useful semiconductors are not stable in water

and the metal oxides that are stable in water often have band gaps that are too large for light absorption1065

There are three main processes that cause electrodes to degrade over long periods of time and inhibit their

activity

The first is corrosion which occurs with all materials over long periods of time

The second is catalyst poisoning which is caused by the introduction of solution impurities and it has

been shown that low concentrations of impurities can have a huge impact on electrode efficiency77

Finally changes to the composition and morphology (structurestructural features) of the electrode can

decrease their efficiency30

As well as exhibiting high stability the materials have to be highly efficient However there is a relationship

between device complexity cost and efficiency Water-splitters using triple-junction amorphous silicon or IIIndashIV

semiconductors have good efficiencies (5-10) but have high costs and device complexities Simpler

approaches using oxide-based semiconductors in a dual-absorber tandem approach have reported STH

conversion efficiencies up to 0368

This highlights the need to find cheaper and efficient semiconductor

materials that can be used for the water-splitting reaction

The US Department of Energy has determined that the price of hydrogen production delivery and dispensing

must reach $2-3 kg-1

before it can compete with current fuels2 It is also important to take into account the

infrastructural changes that would be required if we were to adopt a hydrogen fuel economy To meet the

current power demands of the US with PVs that have an efficiency of 10 a total area of 58000 miles2 would

be required The cost of semiconductors capable of these efficiencies amounts to tens of trillions of dollars

not taking into account the huge costs associated with the required changes to the infrastructure32

These

facilities would only be viable in areas where there is an abundance of sunshine (such as deserts) which also

proposes large fuel transportation issues In the majority of areas the sun is intermittent and only provides

about 6-10 hours of sunshine per day This further highlights the need to be able to store the energy in the

form of chemical bonds that can be used at any time as well as be more easily stored as batteries can only

store a relatively small amount of the energy required and can produce large quantities of toxic materials when

manufactured

It has been calculated that for the water-splitting reaction to provide one third of the energy required by the

human population in 2050 10000 solar plants each covering a 5 km x 5 km area (250000 km2 = 1 of the

Earthrsquos desert area) and with an overall efficiency of 10 would be required Each plant would be capable of

generating ca 570 tonnes of hydrogen from 5100 tonnes of water per day which together could provide up to

33 of the energy needed by mankind in 2050 The hydrogen could be transported directly to on-site

chemical plants where other organic compounds can be manufactured4 Figure 3 shows two diagrams of one

of these sites that could be capable of producing 570 tonnes of hydrogen per day24

The amount of each

material needed to generate methane from hydrogen and carbon dioxide is given in the formula below in

tonnes The US Department of Energy has set a target for hydrogen-producing PEC devices to have an STH

efficiency of 10 and a 5000 hour durability by 201878

120784119815120784 + 119810119822120784 rarr 119810119815120786 + 119822120784

120784(120784120790120787) + 120788120784120789120782 rarr 120784120784120790120782 + 120786120787120788

According to these calculations 6270 tonnes of carbon dioxide would be required by each of these plants per

day to use all of the hydrogen generated to produce 2280 tonnes of methane and 4560 tonnes of oxygen

The amount of carbon dioxide required increases linearly as the hydrocarbon chain length increases The cost

of manufacturing the number of PEC cells required to carry out this amount of water splitting would be in the

tens of trillions of euros taking into account the current costs of the associated technology62

The energy

required to power these facilities would be obtained from renewable sources such as wind wave and PVs

47

Figure 36 Potential schemes for the large-scale production of H2 using solar water-splitting photoelectrochemical cells H2 generated

on-site could be used to reduce CO2 to higher order hydrocarbon fuel molecules These figures were constructed by Maeda

et al 2010 and Tachibana et al 2012

33 Co-electrolysis


Electrolysers capable of conducting the water-splitting reaction have existed for centuries Water electrolysers

are capable of converting water and DC electricity into gaseous hydrogen and oxygen according to the

equation below879

High-pressure (30 bar) water electrolysers have been commercially available since 1951

In 2012 there were at least 13 manufactures that produce low temperature water electrolysers (3 using

polymer electrolyte membranes (PEM) and 3 using alkaline electrolysers)79

Electrolysers that use solid oxide

electrolysers cells (SOECs) under high temperatures were first developed in the 1980s in the HotElly project

Currently SOEC technologies are still in the research and development stage It should also be noted that the

water splitting thermodynamics are more favourable at the higher temperatures used in SOECs as compared

to alkaline electrolysers PEMs and PECs ΔG = 237 kJ mol-1

(123 eV) at ambient temperatures ΔG = 183 kJ

mol-1

(095 eV) at 900 oC

8397980

120784119815120784119822 + 119811119810 rarr 120784119815120784 + 119822120784

Co-electrolysis is a technique that can be used to produce fuel molecules directly from electricity water and

carbon dioxide Interest in the electrolysis of water and carbon dioxide originated in the 1960s where it was

thought that the process could be used to supply oxygen for submarines and spacecraft81

Unlike electrolysis

co-electrolysis aims to simultaneously split water and reduce carbon dioxide to form a mixture of carbon

monoxide (CO) hydrogen and oxygen this process is highlighted in the equation below The term ldquosyngasrdquo

(synthesis gas) refers to a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen and not the oxygen component

Producing fuels by co-electrolysis consists of three main stages carbon dioxide capture syngas synthesis

and storage of the renewable energy as chemical bond energy (hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels)80

This

chemical reaction is achieved by using high temperature solid oxide cell electolysers3982-84

Co-electrolysis

offers a number of advantages over solar and wind power farms Solar and wind power farms have to be built

in site-specific areas to maximise their power output which limits the number of countries that would be able

to host these technologies (solar power is only viable for countries that have high levels of sun year-round)

Solar and wind power farms are only able to generate power intermittently which makes them unsuited to

coping with sudden large power demands (solar farms can only generate power during daylight hours) It has

been suggested that batteries and thermal fluids could be used to store energy for peak times However

48

these storage methods are currently unable to store large amounts of energy suffer from short lifetimes and

generate large amounts of harmful waste during production531

Technologies capable of co-electrolysing

water and carbon dioxide to syngas and hydrocarbons are at an early stage of development TRL 2-4

119810119822120784 + 119815120784119822 rarr 119810119822 + 119815120784 + 119822120784

It is also important to note that all electrolysers require a large input of electrical energy which would have to

be from renewable sources if this technology is to relieve its dependence on fossil fuels The major cost

associated with solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOEC) comes from the electricity required to operate them and

the feedstock while the cost of the electrolyser material makes up a smaller proportion of the total cost39

If

SOECs were designed to utilise wind and solar energy (PVssemiconductors) to generate the electricity they

require their operating costs would decrease significantly However this also decreases the number of

countries that could host electrolysers as their operation is again dependent on solar and wind energy It

would also be advantageous to incorporate a Fischer-Tropsch process that is capable of generating synthetic

hydrocarbons from the resulting syngas that can be used in the existing infrastructure3985

Syngas can be used to generate simple intermediate compounds that can be used as feedstock for more

complicated chemicals such as fertilisers pharmaceuticals plastics and synthetic liquid fuels Methanol is an

example of a simple molecule that can be made from syngas The dehydration of methanol can be used to

generate the cleaner fuel dimethyl ether which is being considered as a future energy source40

The most

common feedstocks for the production of hydrocarbon fuels are fossil fuels and biomass However it is hoped

that sustainable feedstocks such as carbon dioxide and water can be used to generate syngas which can be

converted into hydrocarbon fuels through Fischer-Tropsch synthesis39

Illustrations

Figure 37 A schematic diagram of water electrolysis being conducted in an alkaline electrolyser (left) and a polymer electrolyte

membrane electrolyser cell (right) to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and DC electricity This figure was originally

produced by Carmo et al 20138

49

Figure 38 A schematic diagram of water electrolysis being conducted in a solid oxide electrolysis cell that produces hydrogen and

oxygen from water and DC electricity the reactions that occur at the electrodes are also shown This figure was adapted

from Meng Ni et al 20085

Explanations

Alkaline water electrolysis has been a mature technology for over 100 years (there were over 400 units in

operation by 1902) They have high efficiencies (47-82) and long lifetimes (15 years)1186

A recent

publication by Ursuacutea et al 2012 compiled a list of the main manufacturers of alkaline water electrolysers which

is shown in Table 3211

A number of advancements have been made regarding alkaline electrolysers over the last few years which

have focused on improving their efficiency to reduce operating costs and have increased the operating

current densities11

Other advancements include

Minimising the space between the electrodes to reduce the ohmic losses and allow the cell to operate at

current densities

Developing new materials to replace older diaphragms which exhibit higher stability and are better at

facilitating ion transport

Developing high-temperature (ca 150 oC) alkaline water electrolysers to increase the electrolyte

conductivity and promote the kinetics of the electrochemical reactions at the electrodesrsquo surface

Developing new electrocatalytic materials to reduce the electrode over-potentials this present a particular

difficulty for the anode because the oxidation half-reaction is most demanding

Alkaline electrolysers (Figure 3 left) consist of two electrodes that are separated by a gas-tight diaphragm

submersed in an electrolyte solution containing a high concentration of potassium hydroxide (20-30 wt) It

should be noted that electrolytes such as sodium hydroxide and sodium chloride can also be used in some

systems and they usually operate between 40-90 oC

11 Water is reduced at the cathode to generate hydrogen

gas and hydroxide ions (OH-) which diffuse through the diaphragm to the anode where they recombine to

generate oxygen and water811

The hydrogen and oxygen produced by alkaline electrolysers have purities

gt99

In PEM electrolysers (Figure 3 right) the electrolyte is constructed from a polymeric membrane with a cross-

linked solid structure permitting a compact system with greater structural stability (able to operate at higher

temperatures and pressures)8 The electrodes used in PEM electrolysers are usually constructed from noble

metals such as platinum and iridium which limits the scope of this technology as noble metals are of limited

abundance and expensive The unit consisting of the electrodes and polymer membrane is submersed in

water Water oxidation occurs at the anode where oxygen is formed and protons are transferred through the

50

polymer membrane to the cathode where they are reduced to hydrogen PEM electrolysers are able to

produce hydrogen and oxygen of even higher purity than alkaline electrolysers at ca 9999

It should be noted that the materials needed for the electrolyte and electrodes have to be cheap and easy to

manufacture on a large scale5 Water in the gas phase diffuses into the porous cathode where it dissociates

into hydrogen and oxygen at reaction sites81

At this point the hydrogen diffuses out of the cathode and is

collected The oxygen ions are transported through the electrolyte solution to the porous anode where they

are oxidised to oxygen and collected this process is demonstrated in Figure 35 The material chosen for the

cathode has to be able to support the diffusion of steam the reduction of steam and the diffusion of hydrogen

These requirements limit the number of suitable materials that can be used to noble metals such as platinum

and gold and non-precious metals such as copper and nickel However like the artificial photosynthetic

systems previously discussed the use of noble metals is unfavourable due to their rarity and high costs The

anode has to be chemically stable under similar conditions to the cathode which means that noble metals are

again candidate materials along with electronically-conducting mixed oxides5

Electrolyte This must be a chemically stable dense gas-tight material with good ionic conductivity and

low electronic conduction The electrolyte has to be stable enough to withstand the high temperatures

associated with the chemical reactions taking place It has to be gas-tight to limit the recombination of

protons and O- to hydrogen and oxygen respectively The electrolyte should also be as thin as possible so

as to minimise the ohmic overpotential5

Electrodes It should be noted that the following properties are the same for both the anode and cathode

The electrodes have to be porous enough to allow the transportation of hydrogen and oxygen and need to

have a similar thermal expansion coefficient to the electrolyte so as to limit the amount of mechanical

stress the components exert on each other They must also be chemically stable in highly

oxidisingreducing environments and high temperatures5

To ensure that the SOEC is operating at its maximum efficiency a number of parameters need to be

quantified this is often done through modelling the system Some of the parameters measured include the

composition of the cathode inlet gas cathode flow rate and cell temperature39

When generating syngas in a

SOEC the carbon dioxide is fed into the cathode side of the device where the hydrogen is generated

51

Table 32 The main manufacturers of alkaline and polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysers with the performance data for each device This table was originally constructed by Ursua et al 201211

Manufacturer

Technology

(configuration)

Production

(Nm3h)

Rated Power

(kW)b

Energy

Consumption

(kWhNm3)c

Efficiency

()d

Maximum

Pressure

H2 purity

(vol)

Location

AccaGen Alkaline (monopolar) 1-100 67-487 6-487 528-727 10 999 Switzerland

Avalance Alkaline (bipolar) 04-36 2-25 543-5 652-708 448 na USA

Claind Alkaline (bipolar) 05-30 na na na 15 997 Italy

ELT Alkaline (bipolar) 3-330 138-1518 46-43 769-823 1 998-999 Germany


Erredue PEM (bipolar) 06-213 36-108 6-51 59-698 25-4 993-998 Italy

Giner Alkaline (bipolar) 37 20 54 655 85 na USA

Hydrogen Technologies Alkaline (bipolar) 10-500 43-2150 43 823 1 999 Norway

Hydrogenics PEM (bipolar) 10-60 54-312 54-52 655-681 10 999 Canada

Hydrogenics Alkaline (bipolar) 1 72 72 492 79 9999 Canada

H2 Logic Alkaline (bipolar) 066-4262 36-213 545-5 649-708 4 993-998 Denmark

Idroenergy Alkaline (bipolar) 04-80 3-377 75-471 472-752 18-8 995 Italy

Industrie Haute Technology Alkaline (bipolar) 110-760 5115-3534 465-43 761-823 32 998-999 Switzerland

Linde Alkaline (bipolar) 5-250 na na na 25 999 Germany

PIEL division of ILT Technology Alkaline (bipolar) 04-16 28-80 7-5 506-708 18-8 995 Italy

Proton OnSite PEM (bipolar) 0265-30 18-174 73-58 485-61 138-15 99999 USA

Sagim Alkaline (bipolar) 1-5 5-25 5 708 10 999 France

Teledyne Energy Systems Alkaline (bipolar) 28-56 na na na 10 99999 USA

Tredwell Corporation PEM (bipolar) 12-102 na na na 75 na USA

52


This section will focus on the advancements that have recently been made in regards to SOECs Much of the

research being conducted on SOECs is focused on increasing the efficiency and stability of the electrolyte and

electrodes by changing the temperature the SOECs operate at gas mixtures and the materials the cells are

constructed from

The most common electrolyte material used in SOECs yttria-stabilised zircona (YSZ) due to it having a high

thermal stability high oxygen ion conductivity and low cost To generate YSZ zirconia (ZrO2) can be doped

with compounds such as Y2O3 and Yb2O3 to improve the stability and conductivity Sc2O3 can also be used to

generate scandia-stabilised zirconia (ScSZ) Other co-dopants such as TiO2 and Al2O3 can be added to

further enhance the stability587

Scandium stabilised zirconia (ScSZ) has a higher conductivity than YSZ but

is not as widely used due to the high costs associated with it It should also be noted that the dopant

concentration has to be of a specific amount in order to ensure the conductivity is at its maximum It has been

shown that different dopant concentrations change the lattice structure of the ZrO2 over time which leads to

the decrease in conductivity5 The dopant chosen for the SOEC is also dependent on the temperature the cell

will have to operate at as the dopant will change the conductivity of the electrolyte at different temperatures

Researchers recently investigated the effect temperature (550 oC ndash 750

oC) had on the performance of SOEC

cells with the following layout a Ni-YSZ support layer (680 microm) a Ni-ScSZ cathode-active layer (15 microm) a

ScSZ electrolyte layer (20 microm) and a LSM-ScSZ anode layer (15 microm) The performance of the cell was

observed to decrease with decreasing temperature when the same gas composition was used (143 CO

286 H2O and 571 Argon) As the temperature decreased the ionic conductivity of the electrolyte layer

decreased The mass transfer was the rate-determining step for the electrodes at temperatures lt750 oC

Methane was only detected in the gas products when the input gas composition was the same as above the

cell temperature was lt700 oC and the operating voltage was gt 2 V

81 (TRL 3)

Electrolyte materials such as ceria- and LaGaO3-based electrolytes are showing promise at intermediate

temperatures when they are doped with other compounds that increase their ionic conductivity79

Recently

researchers developed SOEC capable of steam and carbon dioxide co-electrolysis The cell was constructed

from Ni-YSZ (nickel-yttria-stabilized zirconia) solid oxide cell with a bi-layered ScSZGDC electrolyte structure

and a LSCF (lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite) oxygen electrode When the device was operated at 800 oC

the cell exhibited a high electrolysis current density of about 22 A cm2 and 19 Acm

2 in steam and carbon

dioxide electrolysis respectively The structural integrity of the cell was checked after the experiment and no

cracking or delamination of the electrolyte or the electrolyteelectrode was observed88

(TRL 4)

Researchers were recently able to directly synthesise methane by co-electrolysing carbon dioxide and water

to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen then conducting Fischer-Tropsch synthesis in tubular solid oxide

electrolysis cells7 As previously discussed the reduction of water in SOECs requires very high temperatures

(ca 800 oC) however with the Fischer-Tropsch process lower temperatures (ca 250

oC) are required Using

the experimental setup shown in Figure 3 researchers were able to achieve a methane yield of 1184

which means that 41 of carbon dioxide is converted to methane over the course of the 24-hour test7 The

equipment consists of a SOEC tube with a hole running through its length while the wall of the tube consists

of three layers that are structured in a similar fashion to that shown in Figure 3 it consists of an anode an

electrolyte and a cathode The first section of the SOEC tube is heated to 800 oC to allow syngas to be

generated after which the tube cools over a gradient to 250 oC to allow methane production to take place

(TRL 4)

53

Table 33 The advantages and disadvantages of alkaline polymer electrolyte and solid oxide electrolysis cell electrolysers This table

was originally constructed by Carmo et al 20138

Alkaline Electrolysis PEM Electrolysis SOEC Electrolysis

Advantages

Well-established technology High current densities Efficiency up to 100

Non-noble metal catalysts High voltage efficiency Efficiency gt 100

Long-term stability Good partial load range Non-noble metal catalysts

Relative low cost Rapid response system High pressure operation

Stacks in the megawatt range Compact system design

Cost effective High gas purity

Dynamic operation

Disadvantages

Low current densities High cost of components Laboratory stage

Crossover of gases Corrosive environment Bulky system design

Low partial load range Low durability Low durability

Low dynamics Stacks below megawatt range Little costing information

Corrosive electrolyte

Figure 39 A schematic diagram of co-electrolysis and the Fischer-Tropsch process being conducted in a tubular solid oxide

electrolyser that is able to produce CH4 This figure was originally generated by Chen et al 20147

333 Patents

The cell was composed of separate anode and cathode chambers separated by a membrane that allows the

transport of sodium ions (Na+) the anode and cathode chambers are in contact with water Oxygen is

collected in the anode chamber and hydrogen is collected in the cathode chamber following which hydrogen

and carbon dioxide are reacted together to generate syngas and oxygen as by-products that need to be

separated The electrode materials were described as being ceramic that could be doped with a catalyst

material such as cobalt cerium europium or cadmium combinations of these elements were also permitted89

(TRL 3)

A patent was filed in 2011 detailing a design for SOEC that could co-electrolyse steam and carbon dioxide to

produce syngas The cell consisted of a cathode composed of nickel-zirconia an anode consisting of

strontium doped lanthanum manganite and the electrolyte between the two electrodes was composed of

yttria-stabilised zirconia the whole cell was designed to operate between 800-1000 oC The authors stated

that the electrical power to run the device would be sourced from nuclear power however it should also be

possible to run this device off solar energy This device operated with the carbon dioxide being fed into the

cathode section where the hydrogen is generated90

(TRL 4)

54

A patent was filed in 2013 detailing a modified anodeelectrolyte structure for a solid oxide electrochemical

cell where the role of the anode is to react with fuel (steamhydrocarbons) The cathode (when in SOEC

mode) consisted of a backbone of electronically conductive perovskite oxides selected from the group

consisting of niobium-doped strontium titanate vanadium-doped strontium titanate and tantalum-doped

strontium titanate mixtures were also permitted The electrolyte material consisted of a scandia and yttria-

stabilised zirconium oxide91

(TRL 2-3)


Technologies that are capable of electrolysing water cover a variety of TRLs wherein alkaline and PEM

electrolysers used to generate hydrogen by the water-splitting reaction have TRLs 7-8 as they have been

commercialised can be purchased and can produce power at the low megawatt scale However they are

currently not a viable option to generate power at the megawatt scale Newer SOEC technologies currently

being developed have lower TRLs (3-5) but are showing great promise in that their efficiencies are high and

they are cheap to produce

Technologies capable of co-electrolysing water and carbon dioxide to syngas are at an early stage of

development - TRLs 2-4 Research is still focused on studying how cell conditions can be manipulated to

optimise the production of syngas and hydrocarbons Research is also focused on improving the long-term

stability of the electrolytes and electrodes used in SOECs by investigating new materials and cell designs that

are cheap and easy to construct It will also be necessary to conduct duration experiments In terms of their

commercial viability they are far behind PVs at roughly the same stage as PEC technologies and ahead of

synthetic biology systems

SOECs could prove to be an efficient method by which electrical energy generated from renewable sources

(wind and solar) could be stored in the form of chemical bonds To date it has been proven that syngas can

be generated from SOECs and that methane can also be generated within the same system through a

Fischer-Tropsch process More research is needed that aims to improve the efficiency by which methanol can

be generated and to determine whether more complex hydrocarbons can be synthesised

The success of this technology is likely to be dependent on how well systems that generate electricity from

renewable sources can be integrated within it It has been suggested that nuclear wind and solar power

stations could be used to provide the electrical power required This would help to lower the cost of this

technology as sourcing the electricity needed is one of the major costs It should be noted that one of the

most commonly cited advantages of this technique over solar and wind power is that it is not site-specific

However if solar and wind power were to be used to generate the electricity needed for this technology then

it becomes a site-specific technology again This is also a problem for PEC-cell-based technologies

34 Summary

The aim of this brief literature review was to highlight the advancements that have been made across the main

technologies within artificial photosynthesis discuss some of the most recent technological solutions that have

been developed in these areas and identify the main challenges that need to be addressed for each

technology before they can be commercialised


Synthetic biology amp hybrid artificial photosynthetic systems are currently capable of producing small amounts

of fuel molecules such as hydrogen and simple hydrocarbons The majority of the technologies in this

category are at the research and development stage (TRL 1-4) To date there are no large scale plans to

produce solar fuels at a commercial level using this technology It should be noted that synthetic biology amp

hybrid systems are currently used to produce fine chemicals at the commercial level but these are not needed

55

in the large quantities in which solar fuels are required It is currently too early to comment on the long-term

commercial viability of this technological pathway however the research in this area is progressing quickly

and as our fundamental understanding of biological systems increases progression is promising It should be

noted that these systems are becoming efficient enough to produce hydrogen at a rate that is comparable to

that which occurs in natural photosynthesis on a small laboratory scale

Photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting)

PVssemiconductors are the most advanced technology discussed in this report as they have been

commercialised and are able to generate electricity on a MW scale at facilities such as the Solar Star Power

Station and the Topaz Solar Farm31

PVssemiconductors are used in PEC technologies where they are

incorporated into the cell design and act as light absorbers Instead of the energy gained from light absorption

being used to generate electricity directly it is used to generate fuel molecules such as hydrogen from the

water-splitting reaction The hydrogen generated from this process can then be stored and used at a later time

to provide energy This is useful because PVs are only able to generate power intermittently during daylight

hours There are many examples of photoelectrocatalysis being carried out by PECs as well as suspensions

of photoactive nanoparticles and the majority of the technologies have a TRL 2-4 However it should be noted

that PVsemiconductor technologies that generate electrical power have TRL 8-9 The main challenges facing

this technology involve developing materials that have high STH efficiencies are cheap to manufacture and

are stable for long periods of time Calculations have been performed to determine the efficiencies associated

with multiple reactor plant designs These have shown that it is theoretically possible to generate large

quantities of hydrogen however that it could cost trillions to generate a significant amount of hydrogen with

current technology

Co-electrolysis

Water electrolysers such as alkaline and PEM electrolysers are considered mature technologies that have

been commercialised and have TRLs 7-8 They can be purchased and can produce power at the low

megawatt scale However they are currently not a viable option to generate power at the megawatt scale

Newer SOEC technologies that are currently being developed have lower TRLs 3-5 but are showing great

promise in that their efficiencies are high and they are cheap to produce Technologies that are capable of

generating syngas and some organic products by a Fischer-Tropsch process are in the research and

development stage (TRL 3-4) Research is currently focused on determining how SOEC conditions can be

manipulated to increase efficiency as well as identifying more stable durable and efficient compounds to

incorporate into the cell design The incorporation of SOECs into large scale solar and wind farms could prove

to be an efficient method by which electrical energy can be stored as chemical energy

The technologies discussed above show great potential in being able to convert solar energy into solar fuels

They are still in the early research phase but all technologies made significant improvements in efficiencies

lifetimes and the number of products they can produce other than hydrogen It is likely that PVs will be used to

absorb solar energy to generate electricity for SOECs or forms part of a PEC cell that generates fuel

molecules It should be noted that wind power could be used to provide the electricity needed for SOECs to

operate which would allow these systems to be used outside of desert regions Biological systems currently

look to be less suitable for producing large quantities of fuel molecules partly due to their early research stage

but may prove to be useful in generating highly complicated molecules once the understanding of protein

engineering has increased

All of these technologies seek to improve device lifetimes increase efficiency lower manufacturing costs and

increase the scope of synthetic fuels that can be produced Switching to a hydrogen economy will require

large and expensive infrastructure changes Using hydrogen to generate more complex fuel molecules will

require more research however ultimately fewer infrastructure changes

57

4 Mapping research actors

41 Main academic actors in Europe

In Europe research on AP is conducted by individual research groups or in research networks or consortia

Most of the research groups are located in Germany the Netherlands and Sweden The largest country-based

networks are also in Sweden and in the UK Most of Germanyrsquos research groups are part of the pan-European

AP network AMPEA The number of research groups has increased substantially since the 1990s when the

field became more prominent coupling with the (exponential) rise of publications in AP3

411 Main research networkscommunities

In this section we describe the main research networkscommunities on artificial photosynthesis in Europe

Under networks we indicate co-operations with multiple universities research organisations and companies

Instead of focusing strictly on major integrated research on specific AP topics the networks mostly have a

broad research and collaboration focus Larger joint programmes exist but are more focused on various key

priorities in Europe for different research areas such as AMPEA (Advanced Materials and Processes for

Energy Application) which is one of the joint programmes of EERA (European Energy Research Alliance) of

which artificial photosynthesis is one of the three identified applications The first national research network

dedicated to artificial photosynthesis was the Swedish Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis (CAP)

following which a number of other national and pan-European networks emerged in the past few years

Research networks and communities play an important role in facilitating collaboration across borders and

among different research groups The development of AP processes needs expertise from molecular biology

biophysics and biochemistry to organometallic and physical chemistry Research networks provide the

platform for researchers and research teams from those diverse disciplines to conduct research together to

create synergistic interactions between biologists biochemists biophysicists and physical chemists all

focusing on questions relevant for AP and solar fuels This need for research coordination is reflected by the

fact that the Swedish Consortium for AP was a bottom-up initiative by university-based scientists4

Furthermore networks are effective for promoting AP research and raising public awareness and knowledge

about AP5

Networks and consortia with industrial members also play an important role with respect to the goal of turning

successfully developed AP processes into a commercially viable product Research and innovation in

materials and processes of AP can be backed up by private innovation and investments Feedback on the

applicability of research outputs can be incorporated and shape further research efforts and application

possibilities in the business sector can be discovered

The advantages and synergy effects of network membership for research groups are reflected in the fact that

more than 50 of European research groups are part of a research network in Europe The consortia vary in

their membership and their funding sizes whereas about 400 researchers are affiliated with the pan-European

consortium AMPEA the Swedish CAP unites about 80 scientists Furthermore it is apparent that only AMPEA

is a truly pan-European consortium member research groups come from various European countries such as

Austria France Czech Republic Germany Italy the Netherlands Norway Spain Sweden Switzerland and

3 V Artero F Chandezon D Co B Dietzek (forthcoming) European and international initiatives in the field of artificial photosynthesis rdquo in

ldquoArtificial Photosynthesisrdquo B Robert (Ed) Elsevier (in press) conducted a bibliometric analysis using key words related to the field of artificial photosynthesis showing that only a few papers were published before the 1990s reaching more than 900 publications in 2014

4 httpwwwsolarfuelse

5 httpsolarfuelsnetworkcomoutreach

58

the UK Most of the other consortia discussed below are based in a specific country which is reflected in their

affiliations among research groups

EU - AMPEA

The European Energy Research Alliance (EERA) has launched the Joint Programme ldquoAdvanced Materials

amp Processes for Energy Applicationsrdquo (AMPEA) to foster the role of basic science in Future Emerging

Technologies and artificial photosynthesis became the first energy research subfield to be organised within

AMPEA The goal of this joint programme which was launched at the end of 2011 is to set up a thorough and

systematic programme of directed research which by 2020 will have advanced to a point where commercially

viable artificial photosynthetic devices will be under development in partnership with the industry Its goal to

boost research on a pan-European basis is reflected in the fact that to date more than 40 European scientific

institutions participate Many institutes in different Member States are associated with AMPEA (31 full

members for example CEA DIFFER TU Delft JKU Max Planck Institute)6 The research efforts of the

AMPEA participants aim at advancing all of the three identified pathways of artificial photosynthesis Due to

the low availability of efficient molecular catalysts based on earth-abundant elements the search for those

elements and the development of such catalysts constitute the early research focus

Italy ndash SOLAR-CHEM

In 2009 the universities of Bologna Ferrara and Messina founded SOLAR-CHEM the Italian inter-university

centre for the chemical conversion of solar energy7 Later on other universities in Italy also joined SOLAR-

CHEM The research efforts of the centre aim to foster research in solar fuels through a multidisciplinary

approach and coordination activities eg through the organisation of dedicated events and through short-term

exchanges of staff in the network

Netherlands ndash BioSolar Cells

The Dutch BioSolar Cells public-private partnership was established in 2010 BioSolar Cells is a cooperation

of 10 knowledge institutions such as Leiden University Delft University of Technology and the University

of Twente8 as well as 45 private industries

9 The programme is funded by FOMALWNWO the Dutch

ministry of Economic Affairs Agriculture and Innovation many companies and a number of Dutch universities

and research organisations The BioSolar Cells programme has three themes artificial photosynthesis

photosynthesis in cellular systems and photosynthesis in plants These three research themes are

underpinned by a fourth theme education and societal debate where educational modules are developed to

equip and inspire future researchers policy makers and industrialists and where the societal consequences

of new solar-to-fuel conversion technologies are debated10

Sweden - CAP

Founded in 1994 the Swedish Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis carries out integrated basic

research with the goal to produce applicable outcomes such as fuel from solar energy and water Their

projects integrate two topics artificial photosynthesis in man-made systems to make hydrogen from sun and

water and photo-biological fuel production in living organisms They focus on photoelectrocatalysis as the

technology pathway yet are also building on their research on the principles of natural photosynthesis for

energy production A unique component in the consortium is hence the synergistic interactions between

biologists biochemists biophysicists and physical chemists all focusing on questions relevant for solar

fuels11

The academic partners come from Uppsala University Lund University and the KTH Royal

Institute of Technology in Stockholm

6 httpwwweera-seteueera-joint-programmes-jpsadvanced-materials-and-processes-for-energy-application-ampea

7 httpswwwsocchimitsitesdefaultfileschimindpdf2012_6_88_capdf

8 httpwwwbiosolarcellsnlover-biosolar-cellsnew_page_1html

9 httpwwwbiosolarcellsnlover-biosolar-cellsbedrijvenhtml

10 httpwwwbiosolarcellsnlonderzoek

11 httpwwwsolarfuelsesolar-fuels

59

UK ndash SolarCAP

The SolarCAP Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis is a consortium of four UK academic research groups

funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council The groups based in the Universities

of East Anglia Manchester Nottingham and York12

are specifically exploring the solar conversion of

carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide in tandem with the conversion of methane or alkanes to useful oxygen-

containing products such as alcohols They are exploring the second technological pathway of

photoelectrocatalysis

UK ndash Solar Fuels Network

Solar Fuels Network brings together academic and industrial researchers in solar fuels and artificial

photosynthesis It aims to develop an effective community of solar fuels researchers from both academia and

industry to raise the profile of the UK solar fuels research community nationally and internationally Through

this it aims to promote collaboration and co-operation with other research disciplines industry and

international solar fuels programmes and to contribute towards the development of a UK solar fuels

technology and policy roadmap The networkrsquos management team is based at Imperial College London and

is led by Prof James Durrant Partner organisations encompass the Royal Society of Chemistry the Energy

community of the Knowledge Transfer Network (KTN) the Solar Fuels Institute (SOFI) and the Foreign and

Commonwealth Officersquos Science and Innovation Network13

In other countries across Europe national initiatives have emerged in the last few years and more are

expected to in the future For example the Photoelectrochemistry Competence Center (PECHouse and

PECHouse2)14

under coordination of the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (prof Michael Graumltzel)

has been created in Switzerland while in France artificial photosynthesis is being researched by laboratories

of excellence (LabEx Arcane15

and LabEx Charmatt16

)

412 Main research groups (with link to network if any)

A list of the main research groups in Europe has been established The list is not exhaustive and the

subsequent descriptive statistics are based on the list and do not necessarily describe the entire Artificial

Photosynthesis community Taking that into account the numbers presented below may provide an indication

of the AP research sector as a whole

Table 41 Number of research groups and research institutions in European countries

Country Number of research

groups

Number of research

institutions

Average size of a research

group

Austria 1 1 15

Belgium 1 1 -

Czech Republic 1 1 -

Denmark 3 2 -

Finland 1 1 6

France 5 3 14

Germany 31 17 16

Ireland 1 1 7

Italy 5 5 29

Netherlands 28 9 18

Norway 1 1 -

12

httpwwwsolarcaporgukresearchgroupsasp 13

httpsolarfuelsnetworkcommembership 14

httppechouseepflchpage-32075html 15

httpswwwlabex-arcanefrencontentlaboratoires-excellence-arcane 16

httpwwwcharmmmatfrindexphp

60


groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Spain 4 4 11

Sweden 13 5 17

Switzerland 5 5 10

UK 13 9 10

Total 113 65 15

Note The average size of a research group is calculated only for groups where the information on the size is available If no

information on size is available the research group was excluded from the calculation refers to the groups where no

information is available on the size of it

Source Ecorys

We identified 66 main research institutions and universities working on artificial photosynthesis in Europe

Those research institutions contain 113 individual research groups with an average size of about 15

people17

The sizes of research groups can vary widely from for example 80 members of a research group at

Imperial College London to only two persons in the research group of Klaus-Dieter Weltmann at the Leibniz

Institute for Plasma Science and Technology The country with both the highest number of involved institutions

and research groups is Germany where 32 individual research groups in 17 research institutions are active

Germany is followed by the Netherlands with nine institutions and 28 research groups and by Sweden with

five institutions and 13 research groups Almost half (47) of the research groups focus on the second

pathway ie photoelectrocatalysis whereas 36 research the first pathway ie the usage of synthetic

biology and hybrid systems to produce fuel molecules and about 17 follow the third pathway in their

research which is co-electrolysis A bulk of the research in most countries is done on the second pathway

except for in Sweden and Finland which seem to specialize in exploring the first pathway Table 42 provides

an overview of some of the key statistics the number of research groups and research institutions in AP per

country and the number of research groups focusing on each of the three technological pathways

respectively

Table 42 Number of research groups per research area (technology pathway)

Country Total Synthetic biology

amp hybrid systems

Photoelectrocatalysis Co-electrolysis

Austria 1 1 1 0

Belgium 1 1 1 0

Czech Republic 1 0 1 0

Denmark 3 0 2 2

Finland 1 1 0 0

France 5 2 5 0

Germany 31 14 15 9

Ireland 1 1 1 0

Italy 5 0 5 0

Netherlands 28 12 17 9

Norway 1 0 1 0

Spain 4 2 3 1

Sweden 13 10 7 0

Switzerland 5 1 5 3

UK 13 8 5 1

Total 113 53 69 25

Source Ecorys

17

The average group size is derived from survey responses and available information on the websites of the groups

61

In the following section our findings have been illustrated by presenting some of the main research institutions

and their research groups

Germany - Helmholz Zentrum Berlin

The Institute for Solar Fuels of the HZB is led by Prof Roel van de Krol The institute pursues a strategy to generate

hydrogen via the second technology pathway they combine the energy conversion of light into electrical energy via

photonic stimulation of the semiconductor directly with the catalytic procedures on the electrolyte-electrode-interface for

the conversion into storable chemical energy (hydrogen) The generated hydrogen can then be stored by means of

already known methods (compressed gas liquid-H2 metal hydride conversion to methanol) Their approach combines

research and insights from photo-physics surface- and material chemistry photoelectrochemistry interface- and

surface sciences as well as system alignment18

Therefore they collaborate closely with the University of Messina in

Italy and the Leiden University in the Netherlands Moreover the HZB is also part of the European research network

AMPEA

Germany ndash Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy

The Department of Biophysical Chemistry at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy focus on the water-oxidizing

enzyme of oxygenic photosynthesis and hydrogenases Their research uses a variety of different physical techniques

to gain insight into enzymatic processes such as into photosynthetic water splitting and (bio)hydrogen production

which can be used for biomimetic chemistry ie to develop catalytic systems in energy research19

They hence focus

on the first and second technology pathways The Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy also contributes to the

European research network AMPEA

The Netherlands - The Dutch Institute for Fundamental Energy Research

Part of the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) the DIFFER institute has since its initiation in 2012

grown to an activity of about 65 Meuroyear (about 75 fte) all directed at the production of chemicalsfuels from electrons

and photons In particular as part of its solar fuels research DIFFER investigates the splitting of water into hydrogen

and oxygen using electricity and the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide As they are located at TUe

campus in Eindhoven they can easily collaborate and share knowledge with universities universities of applied

sciences and industry The DIFFER institute also contributes to AMPEA

Sweden ndash Uppsala University

Various research teams at Uppsala University cover all three relevant technology pathways for artificial

photosynthesis20

Moreover in 2006 the Swedish Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis (CAP) founded in 1994 by

three researchers from Uppsala University and one researcher from the University of Stockholm created a new

scientific environment at the Aringngstroumlm laboratory at Uppsala University becoming the base for this consortium

Switzerland ndash ETH Zurich

The Professorship of Renewable Energy Carriers21

performs RampD projects in emerging fields of renewable energy

engineering operates state-of-the-art experimental laboratories offers advanced courses in fundamentalapplied

thermal sciences and produces qualified scientists and engineers with expertise in renewable energy technologies

Regarding solar fuels they focus on solar splitting of H2O and CO2 via thermochemical Redox cycles which

corresponds to the third technology pathway of artificial photosynthesis They are partners in several EU projects

concerning solar-driven hydrogen production such as SOLARJET ndash Solar Production of Jet Fuel from H2O and CO2

and HYCYCLES ndash Solar Water-Splitting Thermochemical Cycle22

18

httpswwwhelmholtz-berlindeforschungoeeesolare-brennstoffeindex_enhtml 19

httpwwwcecmpgderesearchbiophysical-chemistryoverviewhtmlL=1 20

httpwwwkemiuuseresearchmolecular-biomimeticphotosynthesis 21

httpwwwprecethzch 22

httpwwwprecethzchresearchsolar-fuelshtml

62

UK ndash Imperial College London

The research of various research teams of the Imperial College London encompasses the first and second technology

pathways It ranges from research on the oxidising enzyme Photosystem II which has become the focus of attention

because cheap water-splitting catalysts are urgently needed in the energy sector to the development of

photoelectrodes and nanoparticles for solar-driven fuel synthesis based on water splitting of water into hydrogen and

oxygen Collaborations across the Imperial College London are complemented with co-operations across the UK as

part of the UK Solar Fuels Network with the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL) UCL and

Cambridge University

The density of research group per country in Europe is presented schematically in Figure 41

Figure 41 Research groups in Artificial Photosynthesis in Europe

Source Ecorys

42 Main academic actors outside Europe

Also outside of Europe research on AP is conducted by individual research groups or in research networks or

consortia Most of the research groups and networks are located in the US and in Japan Whereas US-based

networks sporadically have ties to European research groups the Japanese consortia have exclusively

Japanese members both academic and industrial


Outside of Europe the main networks can be found in the US and in Japan The biggest network is the US

network JCAP (Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis) with more than 190 persons linked to the

programme and a budget of $122 million for five years Next in line is the Japanese ARPChem which has

roughly the same budget available for a time span of 10 years

63

Japan ndash ARPChem

The Japanese Ministry of Economy Trade and Industry (METI) and the Ministry of Education Culture Sports

Science and Technology jointly launched the Japan Technological Research Association of Artificial

Photosynthetic Chemical Process (ARPChem) in November 2012 The aim is to bundle efforts for the next

decade to develop innovative catalysts and other materials that could be used for manufacturing fundamental

chemical substances from water and carbon dioxide by making use of solar power Such substances can be

used as raw materials of plastics synthetic fibres synthetic rubber solvents and other products and are

applicable in all areas of peoples everyday lives The expected budget for the coming decade between 2012

and 2021 amounts to 15 billion yen (euro 122 million)23

The utilisation of catalyst technology requires long-term

involvement and entails high risks in development but is expected to have a huge impact on Japans

economy and society The aim is to achieve independence from fossil resources used as raw materials for

chemical substances while overcoming resource and environmental challenges The consortium consists of

partners from academia industry and the government seven universities amongst them the University of

Tokyo the Tokyo University of Science and the Kyoto University companies such as Mitsubishi

Chemicals Mitsui Chemicals Fuji Films and TOTO and governmental research organizations such as the

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)

Japan ndash All Nippon Artificial Photosynthesis Project for Living Earth (AnApple)

The All Nippon Artificial Photosynthesis Project for Living Earth (AnApple) is one of the Scientific

Researches on Innovative Areas receiving strong financial support from the Ministry of Education Culture

Sports Science and Technology It was set up in 2012 as a five-year national project Although it is not a

consortium in a narrow sense its scope and research impact are substantial as more than 40 Japanese

leading scientific groups are part of this project It is led by Prof Haruo Inoue from the Tokyo Metropolitan

University further academic partners are amongst others the Tokyo University of Science the Tokyo

Institute of Technology Ibaraki University Ritsumeikan University and Hokkaido University

South Korea ndash KCAP

The Korean Centre for Artificial Photosynthesis (KCAP) was launched at Sogang University in 200924

set up

as a ten-year programme with 50 billion won (about euro40 million)25

It aims to secure a wide range of

fundamental knowledge necessary materials and device fabrication for the implementation of artificial

photosynthesis ie generating liquid fuel and oxygen from water and carbon dioxide using solar energy

through collaborative research with a number of research organisations and companies The Korean partners

comprise 14 professors from 8 universities including Sogang University Yonsei University and the Ulsan

National Institute of Science and Technology and one industry partner Pohang Steel Company26

Foreign academic partners are the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory California Institute of

Technology and University of California Berkeley The Centre has ties to other AP networks such as SOFI

and JCAP

US ndash JCAP

In 2010 the Department of Energy created the Energy Innovation Hubs and among them a Joint Centre for

Artificial Photosynthesis (JCAP) was established between the California Institute of Technology and the

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California27

JCAP draws on the expertise and capabilities of key

collaborators from the University of California (UCI and UCSD) and the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory

operated by Stanford University The initial funds in 2010 amounted to $122 million JCAP is the largest

artificial photosynthesis network in the US with more than 190 persons linked to the programme The research

foci encompass electro-catalysis photo-catalysis and light capture materials integration and numerical

23

httpwwwmetigojpenglishpress20121128_02html 24

httpwwwk-caporkrenginfoindexhtmlsidx=1 25

httpwwwsogangackrnewsletternews2011_eng_1news12html 26

httpswwwicef-forumorgannual_2015speakersoctober8cs2appdfcs-2_20058_kyung_byung_yoonpdf 27

httpsolarfuelshuborgwho-we-areoverview

64

modelling test-bed prototyping and benchmarking The funds for the next five-year period (2016-2020)

amount to $75 million and are subject to congressional appropriation

US ndash SOFI

In 2012 the Solar Fuels Institute (SOFI) based at Northwestern University was launched This institute is a

research consortium of universities government labs and industry united around the goal of developing and

commercialising a liquid solar fuel within 10 years Core members include the Northwestern University and

Uppsala University A process of exchanges is instituted which encompasses six different universities in four

countries Industry partners are ILampFS (India) Total (France) and Shell28

This list is not exhaustive and increasing interest in the field of artificial photosynthesis would certainly lead to

the launch of new national and international programmes


A list of the main research groups outside Europe has been established The list is not exhaustive and the

subsequent descriptive statistics are based on the list and do not necessarily describe the entire AP

community outside of Europe We are confident however that it provides an accurate indication about the AP

sector outside of Europe

Table 43 Number of research groups and research institutions in non-European countries

Country Number of research groups Number of research institutions Average size of a

research group

Australia 1 1 18

Brazil 1 1 5

Canada 1 1 -

China 12 5 13

Israel 1 1 6

Japan 16 15 15

Korea 4 4 16

Singapore 1 1 14

US 40 32 18

Total 77 61 5




Source Ecorys

We identified 61 main research institutions or universities working on artificial photosynthesis outside of

Europe most of which are based in the US and in Japan Those research institutions contain 77 individual

research groups with an average group size of 8 people29

Yet the sizes of research groups can vary widely

from 26 members at the University of Tokyo to only two persons at Kobe University The country with both the

highest number of involved institutions and research groups is the US where 40 individual research groups in

32 research institutions are active Hence the US is a world leader in terms of research groups working on

AP Japan follows with 16 institutions and 15 research groups which lies below the numbers for Germany

and the Netherlands Almost 80 of the research groups (77) focus on the second pathway

(photoelectrocatalysis) whereas about 39 research the first pathway (synthetic biology amp hybrid

systems) The remaining 18 focus their activities on the third pathway (co-electrolysis) Table 44

28

httpwwwsolar-fuelsorgabout-sofi 29

The average group size is derived from survey responses For more information please refer to Annex I

65

provides an overview of some of the key statistics such as the number of AP research groups and institutions

per country and their respective focus on one of the three technology pathways


Country Technology

pathway

Total Synthetic biology

and hybrid systems


Australia 1 1 1 0

Brazil 1 0 1 0

Canada 1 0 1 1

China 12 4 6 2

Israel 1 1 0 1

Japan 16 7 15 1

Korea 4 0 4 0

Singapore 1 0 1 0

US 40 17 30 9

Total 77 30 59 14

Note a research group might focus on multiple technology pathways

Source Ecorys

In the following section our findings are illustrated by presenting some of the main research institutions and

their research groups

China ndash Dalian University of Technology

In 2011 the Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy (DNL) based at the Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics

(DICP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) was established It integrates research into clean energy and the

efficient use of fossil fuels to meet Chinas sustainable energy development strategy It is led by Li Can

Israel - Weizmann Institute of Science

To meet the challenge of providing clean sustainable energy the Weizmann Institute has established the Alternative

Sustainable Energy Initiative (AERI) The goal of this initiative is to create the conditions conducive to alternative

energy research and to identify promising avenues of research With the help of AERI the Weizmann institute hopes to

encourage its scientists to conduct basic research relevant to the future development of alternative sustainable energy

and to nourish the next generation of scientists in this field around the world in Israel and at the Weizmann Institute

The researchers at the Weizmann Institute of Science and at AERI preliminarily focus on the third pathway

Japan ndash University of Tokyo

The Domen Laboratory at the University of Tokyo is a research group focused on the second technological pathway

Their challenge is to find out novel photocatalysts that effectively work on water splitting under visible light by studying

different new materials

US ndash Arizona State University

The multidisciplinary team of the Center for Bio-inspired Solar Fuel Production of the Arizona State University aims to

design a complete system for solar water oxidation and hydrogen production Therefore they are focusing on five

specific subtasks (i) The total system analysis of the solar water-splitting device (ii) water oxidation (iii) fuel

production (iv) the artificial reaction center-antenna which relates to light collection and (v) the development of

functional nanostructured transparent electrode materials Their focus lies hence on the first and second AP technology

pathways

The density of research groups per country in the world is presented schematically in Figure 42 Please note

that in this figure (as opposed to Figure 41) we do not count each European country individually but

aggregate the numbers for all of Europe

66

Figure 42 Research groups active in the field of AP globally

Source Ecorys

43 Level of investment

In this section the level of investment is discussed in further detail The level of research investment in the EU

is based on the total budget of the projects whenever available In addition information is given on the time

period of the research projects

Information on the investment related to or funding of artificial photosynthesis research programmes and

projects at the national level is generally difficult to find especially for academic research groups Most budget

numbers found relate to the budget of the institution andor the (research) organisation in general and are not

linked to specific artificial photosynthesis programmes in particular unless the institute or research

programme is completely focused on artificial photosynthesis

Table 45 presents an overview of the investments made by a number of organisations

Table 45 Investments in the field of artificial photosynthesis

Country Organisation Budget size Period

Research investments in Europe

EU European Commission (FP7 and previous

funding programmes) euro 30 million 2005 - 2020

France CEA euro 43 billion 2014 covers not only AP

Germany

German Aerospace Centre (DLR) and the

Helmholtz Zentrum euro 4 billion

Annual budget covers

not only AP

Germany

Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy

Conversion euro 17 billion 2015 covers not only AP

Germany

BMBF ldquoThe Next Generation of

Biotechnological Processesrdquo euro 42 million 2010 - present

Germany Government of Bavaria euro 50 million

2012-2016 covers not

only AP

Members of AMPEA AMPEA (EERA) euro 60 million 2010 - present

Netherlands Biosolar Cells euro 42 million 2010-present

Sweden Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis euro 118 million 2013

UK SolarCAP and other initiatives in UK euro 92 million 2008-2013

67


UK

University of East Anglia Cambridge and

Leeds euro 1 million 2013

Research investments outside Europe

China Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy euro 40 million Annual budget since

2011

Israel AERI euro 13 million 2014-2017

Japan ARPChem euro 122 million 2012 - 2021

Korea KCAP euro 385 million 2009 - 2019

UK US Plug-and-play photosynthesis euro 44 million 2014 - 2017

US JCAP euro 175 million 2010 - 2020

US SOFI euro 1 billion 2012 - 2022

Source Ecorys

431 Research investments in Europe

In Europe national researchers research groups and consortia are generally funded by European funds (such

as the ERC Grant from the European Commission) national governments businesses and universities In this

section special attention is paid to the EU FP7 projects These projects are mainly funded by European

contributions Further information is provided on AMPEA BioSolar Cells CAP SolarCap and some other AP

initiatives

Investments range between euro10 million for the national consortia (UK - SolarCap and Sweden - CAP) and euro42

million for the Dutch consortium to smaller budgets for local projects The projects at the European level are

more extensive The funds for all twenty FP7 projects related to artificial photosynthesis amount to a total

value of euro30 million AMPEA consists of around 400 professionals and an investment of approximately euro60

million contributed by the participants and associates themselves

Funding of AP research programmes and research consortia

EU ndash FP6 and FP7 projects

The FP6 and FP7 projects (6th

and 7th Framework Programmes for Research and Technological

Development) were undertaken in seven years between 2002 and 2013 and had a total budget of over euro60

billion30

Within FP7 around two thirds of the overall budget was aimed for the Cooperation programme of

which energy is one of the ten key thematic areas Investment in energy research under EU FP7 has been

around euro25 billion Various projects on artificial photosynthesis solar-powered hydrogen production by means

of water splitting have been completed under the EUrsquos Seventh Framework Programme Projects include

inter alia Solhydromics Solar-H Directfuel and H20Split FP7 is the key tool to respond to Europersquos needs in

terms of jobs and competitiveness and to maintain leadership in the global knowledge economy31

The

successor programme of FP7 has a number of projects in the field of artificial photosynthesis For example

PECDEMO project32

aims to develop a hybrid photoelectrochemical-photovoltaic tandem device with a solar-

to-hydrogen efficiency of 8-10 This illustrates the trend to move from fundamental research of materials and

processes (that was the main focus in FP6 and FP7 programmes) to the development of prototypes to reach

higher TRL levels (that is the main focus in H2020 programme)

An overview of the EU FP6 and FP7 projects on AP is presented in the table below

30

httpseceuropaeuresearchfp6pdffp6-in-brief_enpdf httpseceuropaeuresearchfp7understandingfp7inbriefwhat-is_enhtml 31

httpseceuropaeuresearchfp7understandingfp7inbriefwhat-is_enhtml 32

httppecdemoepflchpage-113311-enhtml

68

Table 46 EU FP6 and FP7 projects on artificial photosynthesis

EU FP7 project Technology pathway Total budget EU contribution to

the total budget

Time

period

(months)

ARTIPHYCTION Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 3594581 euro 2187040 36

DIRECTFUEL Synthetic Biology amp Hybrid Systems euro 4977781 euro 3729519 48

CO2PHOTORED Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 176053 euro 176053 24

COFLeaf Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 1497125 euro 1497125 60

EWOCS Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 168896 euro 168896 24

FAST MOLECULAR

WOCS

Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting )

euro 100000 euro 100000 48

H2OSPLIT Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 100000 euro 100000 48

HJSC Research for fundamental understanding euro 337094 euro 337094 36

NANO-PHOTO-

CHROME

Synthetic Biology amp Hybrid Systems euro 218731

euro 218731 17

HyMap Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 2506738 euro 2506738 60

PCAP Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 190800 euro 190800 36

PHOTOCATH2ODE Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 1500000 euro 1500000 60

PHOTOCO2 Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 50000 euro 50000 24

PS3 Synthetic Biology amp Hybrid Systems euro 1997944 euro 1997944 60

SOLAR-H Synthetic Biology amp Hybrid Systems euro 2316000 euro 1800000 36

SOLAR-JET Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 3123950 euro 2173548 48

SOLHYDROMICS Synthetic Biology amp Hybrid Systems euro 3655828 euro 2779679 42

SUSNANO Catalysts can be either used for hybrid

systems or the water splitting category euro 100000

euro 10000 54

TRIPLESOLAR Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 2493585 euro 2493585 60

light2hydrogen Photolectrocatalysis (Water Splitting ) euro 900000

Total euro 30005106 euro 24016752 821

Source FP7 Project list

In total euro30 million of which 80 were based on European contributions have been spent on 20 projects

related to artificial photosynthesis Most projects were completely funded by the European Union On average

the time period of these projects was around 43 months the shortest project lasting only 17 months and the

longest one 60 months Almost all funding related to the topics of photoelectrocatalysis (55) and synthetic

biology amp hybrid systems (44) Some additional funding was spent on research for fundamental

understanding (the HJSC project) and catalysts which are useful for either hybrid systems or water splitting

(the SUSNANO project)

Table 47 Total EU budget on artificial photosynthesis per technology pathway

Technology pathway TRL Total budget

Synthetic biology amp hybrid systems 1-2 euro 13166284

Photoelectrocatalysis (water splitting ) 1-4 euro 16401728

Catalysts that can be used for both categories above 1-4 euro 100000

Research for fundamental understanding - euro 337094

Total - euro 30005106

69

Based on the monthly funding of the FP7 projects33

it may be observed that annual investments in artificial

photosynthesis have been increasing over the years (Figure 43) There were no projects on artificial

photosynthesis in 2008 therefore no investments were made The highest investment was made in 2014 with

euro45 million spent on projects After that investments have been decreasing It is however expected that

from 2016 more projects on artificial photosynthesis will be conducted therefore investment will rise

Figure 43 Funding of FP6 and FP7 projects per year 2005 ndash 2020

Note It is assumed that the funding of the projects is evenly distributed over months Thus annual expenditures are

calculated as a sum of the monthly expenditures Project lsquolight2hydrogenrsquo is excluded from the calculation since there is no

information available on the number of months the project is running

Source Ecorys

EU ndash AMPEA (EERA)

EERA is an alliance of leading organisations in the field of energy research comprising more than 150

participating organisations all over Europe The primary focus of EERA is to accelerate the development of

energy technologies to the point that they can be embedded in industry-driven research Activities of EERA

are based on the alignment of own resources while over time the Joint Programmes can be expanded with

additional sources including from Community programmes34

In EERA approximately 3000 FTE (equivalent

of 3000 professionals) are involved which makes for a budget of around euro450 million35

AMPEA is one of the

programmes under EERA focusing on AP in which roughly 400 professionals are involved This would then

make for an investment of approximately euro60 million for AMPEA

The Netherlands ndash BioSolar Cells

The total budget of BioSolar Cells is around euro42 million based on public and private funds The Ministry

contributed euro25 million the NWO (The Dutch organisation on Scientific Research) euro35 million and Dutch

universities and research centres around euro7 million Private organisations invested euro65 million The specific

research programme Towards Biosolar Cells in which the Delft University of Technology is involved is

being allocated a budget of euro25 million by the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture Nature and Food Quality A

benefit of funding partly by private funding is the focus on building infrastructure and retaining key

33

It is assumed that funding is spread evenly over the months that the project is being implemented This means that if a project is running 36 months with a total budget of euro1 million it is assumed that monthly investments are euro83000 (1 million 12) If a project started in May 2010 then investment over the whole year 2010 is calculated as 8euro83000 After annual investment is calculated for all projects yearly total investment is calculated as a sum across projects

34 httpssetiseceuropaeuimplementationtechnology-roadmapeuropean-energy-research-alliance-eera

35 httpwwwapreitmedia168877busuoli_eneapdf

70

researchers Public funding of artificial photosynthesis is mostly for the short term facilitating the entry of new

groups36

Swedish ndash CAP

The Swedish Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis connecting the universities of Lund Stockholm and

Uppsala is chaired by Stenbjoumlrn Styring There are 80 persons linked to the consortium In 2013 the Swedish

Energy Agency distributed the amount of euro118 million (SEK 108 million) in total to lsquosome of Swedenrsquos best

research groupsrsquo Out of this amount euro87 million went to three research groups at Uppsala University euro37

million to research on artificial photosynthesis to generate solar fuels euro32 million for research on dye-

sensitised solar cells and euro18 million to research on thin film solar cells (TFSC) It is the largest one-time

investment in solar energy ever in Sweden37

The Swedish Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis ndash Stenbjoumlrn Styring

The project Molecular Solar Energy Sciences is funded by the KampA Wallenberg Foundation with euro5 million The main

research activities related to artificial photosynthesis include mechanistic studies on synthetic molecular and

moleculesemiconductor systems for the light-driven reduction of protons and CO2 and oxidation of water Furthermore

research is conducted on cyanobacteria systems for photo-biological fuel generation synthetic biology molecular

biology and metabolic engineering A second project on artificial photosynthesis is funded by the Swedish Energy

Agency (euro4 million) An additional four projects are funded by Swedish and European sources with a total of euro5

million38

UK ndash SolarCAP and others

The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) in the UK supports several AP-related

projects through the Towards a Sustainable Energy Economy programme39

The total amount of funding is

approximately euro92 million

New and Renewable Solar Routes to Hydrogen is led by Imperial College London and is targeting both

artificial and natural photosynthetic routes to solar-derived hydrogen (euro5 million)40

Artificial Photosynthesis Solar Fuels is led by the University of Glasgow (euro2 million)41

The SolarCAP consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis is a consortium of five UK academic research

groups (based at the Universities of East Anglia Manchester Nottingham and York) they are working to

develop solar nanocells for the production of carbon-based solar fuels (euro22 million)

Funding of other AP initiativesprojects

Germany ndash German Aerospace Centre (DLR) and the Helmholtz Zentrum

The Helmholtz Zentrum is Germanyrsquos largest scientific organisation with more than 38000 employees and an

annual budget of more than euro4 billion42

It consists of 18 scientific technical biological and medical research

centres The research institutes of the German Aerospace Centre (DLR) are affiliated with the Helmholtz

Zentrum One of the Institutes of DLR the Institute of Solar Research forms part of the Helmholtz Zentrum

programme for renewable energies This programme focuses on projects on cost reduction in solar thermal

power plants the thermo-chemical generation of solar fuels in the period 2015-2019 the solar tower in Juumllich

the bioliq pilot plant and the Gross Schoumlnebeck geothermal research platform43

Research institutes submit

their research projects for evaluation by an international panel in order to qualify for funding under the

Renewable Energies Programme based on the outcome the Helmholtz Zentrum makes funding

recommendations for a five-year period

36

httpbiomassmagazinecomarticles2883towards-biosolar-cells-program-receives-government-funding 37

httpwwwuuseennewsnews-documentid=2282amptyp=artikelamparea=2amplang=en 38

Information is based on the survey responds 39

httpwwwrscorgglobalassets04-campaigning-outreachrealising-potential-of-scientistsresearch-policyglobal-challengessolar-fuels-2012pdf

40 httpgowepsrcacukNGBOViewGrantaspxGrantRef=EPF00270X1

41 httpgtrrcukacukprojectsref=EPF0478511

42 httpwwwdlrdesfendesktopdefaultaspxtabid-888515347_read-37692

43 httpwwwhelmholtzdeno_cacheenresearchenergyrenewable_energies

71

Germany ndash The Max Planck Institute for Chemical Energy Conversion (MPI CEC)

The MPI CEC was founded in 2012 to focus on the issue of energy conversion Its researchers analyse the

basic processes of energy storage and conversion within three research departments which encompass 200

employees44

The MPI CEC is for the most part financed by public funds from both the German state and

regions The MPI CEC is part of the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science which is a formally

independent non-governmental and non-profit association of German research institutes The budget of the

entire society amounted to euro17 billion in 2015

Germany ndash Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF)

In 2010 the BMBF launched the initiative ldquoThe Next Generation of Biotechnological Processesrdquo45

Part of this

initiative were deliberations directed toward simulating biological processes for material and energy

transformation A funding amounting euro42 million is available for the first 35 projects on microbial fuel cells

artificial photosynthesis and universal production46

Germany ndash SolTech (Solar Technologies Go Hybrid)

The Government of Bavaria initiated SolTech an interdisciplinary project to explore innovative concepts for

converting solar energy into electricity and non-fossil fuels The project brings together research by chemists

and physicists at five different Bavarian Universities and is funded with euro50 million for the period 2012-201647

The SolTech network covers all fields of research on solar energy use such as the conversion of solar energy

to electricity for immediate use and the conversion of solar energy into chemical energy for storage and future

use

France - Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA)48

CEA is a public government-funded research organisation active in four main areas low-carbon energies

defence and security information technologies and health technologies The CEA is the French Alternative

Energies and Atomic Energy Commission The CEA had a total budget of euro43 billion and around 16000

permanent staff On photovoltaic cell technology CEA is collaborating with Photowatt Pechiney and Appolon

Solar and on photovoltaic modules and systems with TOTAL Energie

UK - University of East Anglia (UEA) Cambridge and Leeds

A specific research programme by the UEA on the creation of hydrogen with energy derived from

photocatalysts designed to replicate photosynthesis is funded by the Biotechnology amp Biological Sciences

Research Council (BBSRC) The total amount of funding is approximately euro1 million (pound800000)49

432 Research investments outside Europe

The main research programmes and consortia discussed are JCAP (US) SOFI (US) ARPChem (Japan)

AnApple (Japan) and KCAP (Korea) In contrast to Europe the use of energy innovation hubs ie major

integrated research centres drawing together researchers from multiple institutions and varied technical

backgrounds is more common in the US and Asia Also partnerships between the government academia

and industry seem to be more common in those areas than they are in Europe The idea of developing new

energy technologies in innovation hubs is very different compared to the approach of helping companies scale

up manufacturing through grants or loan guarantees50

The information on the budgets from the large

networks is generally available

44

httpwwwcecmpgdeinstitutdaten-faktenhtml 45

httpswwwbiotechnologiedeBIONavigationENrootdid=164934htmlview=renderPrint 46

httpswwwbmbfdepubBiooekonomie_in_Deutschland_Engpdf 47

httpwwwsoltech-go-hybriddeabout-soltech 48

httpenglishceafrenglish-portal 49

httpwwwwiredcouknewsarchive2013-0122artificial-photosynthesis 50

httpswwwtechnologyreviewcoms429681artificial-photosynthesis-effort-takes-root

72


Japan ndash ARPChem

In Japan the Ministry of Economy Trade and Industry (METI) and the Ministry of Education Culture Sports

Science and Technology (MEXT) launched a large artificial photosynthesis project that will tackle the study for

the coming decade between 2012 and 2021 with an expected budget of about euro122 million (15 billion yen)

The main organisation to conduct the project is the Japan Technological Research Association of Artificial

Photosynthetic Chemical Process (ARPChem)51

Japan ndash AnApple

All Nippon Artificial photosynthesis Project for Living Earth (AnApple) is a five-year research programme

(2012-2017) joined by more than 40 Japanese leading scientific groups In this strong collaboration they aim

at achieving breakthroughs for the realisation of artificial photosynthesis AnApple hosted The International

Conference on Artificial Photosynthesis (ICARP)rdquo in 2014 and receives strong financial support52

from the

Ministry of Education Culture Sports Science and Technology

Korea ndash KCAP

The Korea Center for Artificial Photosynthesis (KCAP) at Sogang University was established in September

2009 through complementary and collaborative research with the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab (LBNL) in

the US to build the foundation for the realisation and commercialisation of artificial photosynthesis KCAP

receives a grant of euro385 million (50 billion won in 10 years) from the Ministry of Education Science and

Technology (MEST) through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF)

US - JCAP

JCAP (Joint Centre for Artificial Photosynthesis) was established in 2010 by the Department of Energy as one

of the Energy Innovation Hubs with a fund of euro108 million ($122 million) for five years Additional funding for

the next five years amounts to euro67 million ($75M) but is still subject to congressional appropriation53

JCAP

is the largest artificial photosynthesis research programme in the world There are 190 persons linked to the

research programme

US ndash SOFI



commercialising a liquid solar fuel within 10 years SOFI (Solar Fuels Institute) is focused on light capture

water splitting CO2 catalysis and photoelectrochemical cells SOFI relies on a community of member

institutions and individual supporters who believe strongly in a clean energy future54

The solar fuel created

using catalysts and technology shared by global members of SOFI is funded by crowdfunding campaigns

(Kickstarter campaign) Furthermore SOFI partnered with TSRC to raise by means of a bold campaign one

billion dollars over the next ten years to fund the research55


US ndash Plug-and-play photosynthesis CAPP (combining algal and plant photosynthesis)

Three UKUS-funded projects received funding to improve photosynthesis The three research teams (each

comprised of scientists from the United Kingdom and the United States) have been awarded a second round

of funding to build on their research findings and develop new ways to improve photosynthesis Projects

include plug-and-play photosynthesis by the Arizona State University Multi-level Approaches for Generating

Carbon Dioxide (MAGIC) led by the Pennsylvania State University and Combining Algal and Plant

Photosynthesis (CAPP) led by the Stanford University received in 2014 a new round of funding of euro44 million

51


httpartificial-photosynthesisnetICARP2014scopehtml The concrete funding figures are not available 53

httpenergygovarticlesenergy-department-provide-75-million-fuels-sunlight-hub) httpsolarfuelshuborgresearchoverview 54

httpwwwsolar-fuelsorgdonate 55

httpstelluridescienceorgsofi-brochurepdf

73

(pound5 million) in total over three years from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council

(BBSRC) and the National Science Foundation56

Israel ndash Projects funded by AERI

AERI is providing a pool of funds to try out new ideas and jump-start research projects that are not applicable

for conventional grants Since 2006 already 8 cycles of AERI-funded projects took place Projects under the

20132014 cycle include lsquoNew Options for Solar Energy Conversion to Biofuel and Electricity ndash Biofuels ndash

Photovoltaics and Opticsrsquo57

Funding is provided by the Canadian Center for Alternative Energy Research the

Helmsley Energy Program the Helmsley Charitable Trust (providing euro13 million ($15 million) over three

years) the Burk Fund for Alterative Energy Studies the Eisenberg Foundation and individuals58

China ndash Funding of the Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy

The Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy was established in 2011 The investments into this lab

amount to more than euro40 million (289 million RMB) a year (over 50 of annual research of the Dalian

University of Technology within which the laboratory functions)59

In addition to this laboratory Haldor Topsoe

opened an RampD Center60

at the same university to join forces in the research of clean energy Haldor Topsoe

is also going to sponsor RampD projects however the size of the investments is not revealed Prior to that

Topsoe already established a scholarship with a value of around euro400 a month (3000 RMB)61

44 Strengths and weaknesses

This section presents the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the research community in the field of

artificial photosynthesis The findings are based on the results of the survey conducted during March 2016

and are supplemented by desk research Firstly we outline the main strengths and weaknesses with regard to

global AP research Secondly the strengths and weaknesses of the European community compared to the

non-European community are presented

441 Strengths and weaknesses of AP research in general

Table 48 below summarises the strengths and weaknesses of research in AP taking a global perspective

Table 48 Summary of strengths and weaknesses of research globally

Strengths Weaknesses

A diverse community of researchers bringing together

experts in chemistry photochemistry electrochemistry

physics biology catalysis etc

Researchers focus on all technology pathways in AP

Existing research programmes and roadmaps in AP

Available financial investments in several countries

Limited communication cooperation and collaboration

at an international level

Limited collaboration between academia and industry


Transfer from research to practical applications is

challenging

Note International level refers not only to EU countries but all around the world

Globally there is a wide variety of RampD institutes (and researchers) focused on AP forming a diverse

community of researchers Research in AP requires interdisciplinary teams The experts working together

on this topic often have backgrounds in chemistry physics and biology

56

httpwwwbbsrcacuknewsfood-security2014140602-pr-bbsrc-and-nsf-funding-photosynthesis 57

httpwwwweizmannacilAERIresearch 58

httpwwwweizmannacilresdevsitesweizmannacilresdevfilesenergy_booklet_lo_res_2012pdf 59

httpwwwnaturecomnews2011111031fullnews2011622html 60

httpwwwtopsoecomnews201602topsoe-establishes-rd-center-dalian-institute-chemical-physics-china 61

httpwwwdnlorgcnshow_enphpid=776

74

A diverse community of researchers is focusing on all the pathways in AP which ensures diverse

approaches an exchange of different views a dynamic research community and avoids lock-ins into one

specific pathway This broad and inclusive research approach is the best way to maximise the probability of

AP research being successful in developing efficient and commercially viable AP processes

Several countries have dedicated programmes andor roadmaps to the topic of AP The US Japan the

Netherlands and South Korea have invested in large-scale interdisciplinary research programmes (specifically

on solar fuels) China and Japan have dedicated centres for renewable energy research where solar fuels are

an area of substantial effort For example the Department of Energy of the US sponsors Energy Innovation

Hubs aiming to overcome scientific barriers to develop a complete energy system with the potential to turn into

a transformative energy technology62

One of such innovation hubs is the Joint Center for Artificial

Photosynthesis established in 2010 In the Netherlands a public private partnership was established to form

BioSolar Cells of which one of the main focal themes is AP Globally several hundreds of millions of euros

are being spent this decade on AP research and this research seems to be intensified further

Despite the intensification of global research efforts the communication cooperation and collaboration at

an international level remains limited Many AP consortia link different research groups but operate only at

a national level63

Yet a higher level of institutionalised international or global cooperation going beyond

international academic conferences could spur innovative research in the field and enhance knowledge

exchange and spill-overs A number of survey respondents indicated that the lack of coordination

communication and cooperation at an international level is one of the main weaknesses in current AP-related

research activities

Several research institutions are working together in close cooperation as well as in cooperation with industrial

partners The BioSolar Cells consortium for instance has 45 industrial partners conducting research

including research on artificial photosynthesis In Japan the industry is involved in AP research to a greater

degree64

Nevertheless although companies are participating in local consortia such as ARPChem and

BioSolar Cells there seems to be a lack of cooperation between academia and industry at an

international level

The transfer of research to industrial application in artificial photosynthesis remains challenging In order

to attract the attention of the private sector artificial photosynthetic systems must be cost-effective efficient

and durable An active involvement of industrial parties could help bringing research prototypes to

commercialisation This step towards commercialisation requires a sufficient critical mass and funding

however which cannot be borne by a single country

442 Strengths and weaknesses of AP research in Europe

Table 49 below summarises the strengths and weaknesses of research in artificial photosynthesis in Europe

as compared to non-European research

62

httpscienceenergygovbesresearchdoe-energy-innovation-hubs 63

The only exception is AMPEA with its pan-European reach 64

The Korean Centre for Artificial Photosynthesis (KCAP) collaborates with a number of companies Toshiba and Panasonic made some advances in artificial photosynthesis research (httpasianikkeicomTech-ScienceScienceHow-artificial-photosynthesis-could-cut-emissions) ARPChem has a few corporate members on board (httpwwwmetigojpenglishpress2012pdf1128_02bpdf)

75

Table 49 Summary of strengths and weaknesses of research in Europe


A strong diverse community of researchers

RampD institutions research capacity and facilities

Existing research programmes and roadmaps for AP in

several MS

Available financial investments in MS

Ongoing and conducted FP7 projects at EU level

Close collaboration of research groups in consortia

Limited communication cooperation and collaboration at

a pan-European level


within Europe

Limited funding mostly provided for short-term projects

focusing on short-run returns

National RampD efforts in AP are scattered

Europe has a diverse research community working on artificial photosynthesis research covering all the

technology pathways Europersquos universities have many highly educated researchers in the fields of chemistry

physics and biology at their disposal There is a solid foundation of RampD institutions research capacity

and facilities such as specialised laboratories which work together at a national level

National research programmes and roadmaps for AP exist in several Member States an indication that

AP research is on the agenda of European governments65

Therefore also financial investment for AP

research is available in several MS such as in Germany66

and other countries European-level

collaboration between different research groups and institutes from different countries has been achieved in

the framework of FP7 projects67

as well as predecessors of it

Five main consortia in Europe ensure that research groups and research institutes are collaborating

closely68

such as in Sweden where the Consortium for Artificial Photosynthesis (CAP) is active and in the

Netherlands where researchers work in close cooperation within the BioSolar Cells consortium Nevertheless

there is still much room to expand globally as well as within Europe most consortia are operating within and

collaborating with research groups in countries where they are based themselves

The level of cooperation and collaboration at a pan-European level hence seems to be limited There

are a few pan-European and cross-country initiatives such as AMPEA and partnerships under FP7 projects

but many research groups are operating locally and are funded by national governments Several survey

respondents reported a low degree of collaboration among different research groups which typically results in

a duplication of efforts and a lack of generalised standards Synergies which could potentially boost research

in artificial photosynthesis are being overlooked Creating for example a communication platform to facilitate

the exchange among researchers could more easily promote the development of knowledge and increase the

speed of discovery and exploitation of new robust (effective and durable) photocatalysts innovative processes

and devices etc Moreover another indicated weakness is the lack of collaboration between already existing

and ongoing projects

While industrial companies are present in a few consortia there is limited collaboration between European

academia and industry Improved collaboration could result in the development of more advanced AP

processes and AP process devices and it might improve the probability of APrsquos successful commercialisation

in the foreseeable future

65

For example Strategic Energy Technology (SET) Plan European Biofuels Technology Platform (EBTP) and European Industrial Bioenergy Initiative (EIBI) JCAP scientific programme For more information please refer to Deliverable 1 Chapter 32

66 By now research funded by the government of Germany in the field of artificial photosynthesis amounts to euro 42 million (httpswwwbmbfdepubBiooekonomie_in_Deutschland_Engpdf)

67 See Deliverable 1

68 httpswwwleopoldinaorgenpolicy-adviceworking-groupsartificial-photosynthesis

76

The long-term focus of AP research is a hurdle for both gaining cooperation with industry and for obtaining

funding Compared to that of its non-European counterparts European funding focuses on the short

term69

While in the USA and Japan funding is dedicated for about 5-10 years European parties often get

funding for about 4 years at the most Although several MS also have dedicated RampD programmes focusing

on AP the amounts provided by non-European counterparts exceed those of the European70

Furthermore

these national programmes are fragmented ie lacking a common goal and perspective hence the funding

of research is also fragmented and scattered71

The European community of researchers could benefit

from an integrated programme which clearly indicates research goals and objectives In addition a common

funding scheme set up to support fundamental research in artificial photosynthesis and to promote

collaboration with industry could advance the research in artificial photosynthesis

A number of survey respondents indicated that there is currently little focus of EU-funded research on

technologies with low TRL within H2020 At the moment there is a strong emphasis on the projects and

technologies which already have a rather high TRL expecting returns in the near future while research in the

area of low TRL technologies requires some attention and funding Several respondents mentioned that there

exist still quite some barriers regarding the design of low-cost materials with low TRL and with higher stability

and activity (eg performance of devices when it comes to a discontinuous supply of energy)72

45 Main industrial actors active in AP field

451 Industrial context

The idea behind artificial photosynthesis is that solar fuels could solve worldwide energy problems by using

water and carbon dioxide and converting them into the fuels we need Artificial photosynthesis can convert

sunlight directly into chemical fuels which makes it possible to harvest and store energy However there are

still many obstacles to make this technology commercially viable Only if artificial photosynthesis can be

provided efficiently stably safely and cheaply will it be beneficial for the public This means inter alia that an

efficient light absorber and catalysts need to be created to convert sunlight into fuel Even though there are

rapid developments in the field of artificial photosynthesis there are many obstacles to overcome in order to

reach mass production Currently the positioning of the fields of artificial photosynthesis and solar fuels is at

around a 3 on the technology readiness level

452 Main industrial companies involved in AP

At the moment the number of companies active in the field of AP is limited Based on our analysis of the main

AP actors in the industry only several tens of companies appear to be active in this field Moreover industrial

activity is limited to research and prototyping as viable AP technologies have not (yet) been commercialised

35 companies active in the field of AP have been identified comprising 16 European companies and 19 non-

European companies (Table 410) Seven of these are in Germany eight in the Netherlands eight in Japan

and 10 in the US The following table summarises the countries in relation to one or more of the technology

pathways

69

Already in 2013 it was indicated that much of public funding of basic AP research remains short term For more information see Thomas FaunceStenbjorn Styring Michael R Wasielewski Gary W Brudvig A William Rutherford et al (2013) Artificial Photosynthesis as a Frontier Technology for Energy Sustainability Energy amp Environmental Science Issue 4 2013

70 A number of respondents indicated that the available funding is not sufficient to finance research facilities and equipment

71 This weakness is indicated by several respondents

72 This is also mentioned as one of the areas of attention in Artero F Chandezon D Co B Dietzek (forthcoming) European and international initiatives in the field of artificial photosynthesis rdquo in ldquoArtificial Photosynthesisrdquo B Robert (Ed) Elsevier (in press)

77

Table 410 Overview of the size of the industrial community number of companies per pathway

Country Synthetic biology amp

hybrid systems

Photoelectrocatalysis Co- electrolysis Total number of

companies

European companies

France 1 1 0 1

Germany 2 2 0 4

Italy 0 1 0 1

Netherlands 3 4 1 8

Switzerland 0 1 0 1

Total 6 9 1 15

Non-European companies

Japan 0 8 0 8

Saudi Arabia 0 1 0 1

Singapore 0 0 1 1

US 3 2 4 8

Total 3 11 5 19

Note a company can be active in multiple technology pathways

Source Ecorys

With respect to the industry largely the same countries stand out as in the research field namely Japan the

US and north-western Europe The industry in Japan appears to have the most intensive research activities

in AP as several large Japanese multinationals have set up their own AP RampD laboratoriesresearch

departments

With respect to the three technology pathways (i) synthetic biology amp hybrid systems (ii) photoelectrocatalysis

and (iii) co-electrolysis we have observed that most industrial (research) activity is being performed

concerning photoelectrocatalysis (19 companies) although there are also companies active in the two other

pathways

We have also identified a number of companies active in the area of carbon capture and utilisation that might

potentially be involved in the research of artificial photosynthesis

453 Companies active in synthetic biology amp hybrid systems

The pathway involving synthetic biology amp hybrid systems is still at an early stage on the TRL scale (TRL 1-2)

The challenges industries face relate mostly to efficiency obstacles Enzymes and proteins need to be

modified by genetic engineering Another barrier relates to the fact that the modifications and protein

production are still very time-consuming in terms of cell growthprotein purification Furthermore it is

necessary to improve protein stability and solubility by rational design directed evolution and modifying

sample conditions since currently proteins are unstable It would probably take about 10-20 years until

technologies reach TRL 7

The companies involved in this pathway range from chemical and oil-refining companies companies working

on bacteria companies producing organic innovative catalysts to others The following table lists the

organisations identified within this pathway

78

Table 411 Organisations in synthetic biology amp hybrid systems

Country Organisation (in EN)

France PhotoFuel

Germany Evonik Industries AG

Germany Brain AG

Italy Hysytech

Netherlands Biomethanol Chemie Nederland BV

Netherlands Photanol BV

Netherlands Tendris Solutions

Netherlands Everest Coatings

US Joule Unlimited

US Phytonix

US Algenol

Source Ecorys

Chemical and oil-refining companies

Biomethanol Chemie Nederland BV a Dutch company that produces and sells industrial quantities of high

quality bio-methanol focusing on synthetic biology amp hybrid systems is also a partner of the BioSolar Cells

programme The BioSolar Cells programme focuses its research on artificial photosynthesis photosynthesis in

cellular systems and photosynthesis in plants

Companies working on bacteria

Another group of companies in the pathway of synthetic biology amp hybrid systems focus on CO2 to fuel

processes that use cyanobacteria to convert CO2 into targeted fuels or chemicals (biological conversion)

Examples of such companies are Joule Unlimited Phytonix and Algenol all based in the US Algenol is

commercialising its patented algae technology platform for the production of ethanol using proprietary algae

sunlight carbon dioxide and saltwater The Dutch company Photanol uses cyanobacteria to turn CO2 into

certain predetermined products

Companies producing organic innovative catalysts

Many of the smaller companies currently active in developing AP originate from a specific research group or

research institute and focus on specific AP process steps andor process components Some companies

focus on the further development of both chemical and organic innovative catalysts which are earth-abundant

non-toxic and inexpensive Brain AG (Germany) is an example of such a company

Other companies

Hysytech is an Italian company experienced in technology development and process engineering applied to

the design and construction of plants and equipment for fuel chemical processing energy generation and

photoelectrocatalysis Hysytech is involved in an FP7 project to develop a fully artificial photoelectrochemical

device for low temperature hydrogen production

Other companies in the field of synthetic biology amp hybrid systems are Tendris Solutions (Netherlands) and

Everest Coatings (Netherlands) involved in the EET-Kiem project which focused on increasing the

absorption of visible light in the TiO2 photocatalyst by incorporating other elements in the structure and to

construct a photoelectrochemical reactor Photofuel in France and Phytonic in the US focus on synthetic

biology amp hybrid systems and photoelectrocatalysis Evonik Industries AG invests in synthetic biology amp

hybrid systems as well as carbon capture technologies which convert waste CO2 into products and fuels

79

454 Companies active in photoelectrocatalysis

The pathway of photoelectrocatalysis is relatively low on the TRL scale as well (TRL 1-4)

Photoelectrocatalysis would make it possible to use photovoltaic cells that absorb photons to facilitate water

splitting Research on photoelectrocatalysis using photoelectrochemical cells in particular is still at a very early

stage

Technologies pertaining to the photoelectrocatalysis pathway are not yet commercially viable with the main

challenges relating to the design of devices that are efficient stable and durable Further potential obstacles to

be taken into account relate to the incorporation of these technologies with other technologies that can

generate fuel molecules other than hydrogen

Most companies are involved in this pathway ranging from automotive manufacturers and electronic

companies to chemical and oil-refining companies The following table lists the organisations identified within

this pathway

Table 412 Organisations in the field of photoelectrocatalysis


France PhotoFuel

Germany Bauhaus Luftfahrt eV (Bauhaus Luftfahrt Research)

Germany ETOGAS

Italy Hysytech

Japan Toyota (Toyota Central RampD Labs)

Japan Honda (Honda Research Institute - Fundamental Technology Research Center)

Japan Mitsui Chemicals

Japan Mitsubishi (Mitsubishi chemicals Setoyama Laboratory)

Japan Sumitomo Chemicals (Energy amp Functional Materials Research Laboratory)

Japan INPEX Corporation

Japan Toshiba (Corporate Research and Development Center)

Japan Panasonic (Corporate Research and Development Center)

Netherlands InCatT BV

Netherlands Shell (Shell Game Changer Programme)

Netherlands Hydron

Netherlands LioniX BV

Saudi Arabia Saudi Basic Industries Corporation

Switzerland SOLARONIX SA

US HyperSolar

Source Ecorys

Companies in the automotive sector

Several automotive manufacturers are active in the field of AP mostly relating to the field of

photoelectrocatalysis In 2012 Honda opened a hydrogen station in Saitama Japan that converts sunlight

into hydrogen that could be used to power fuel-cell electric vehicles The station is focusing on

photoelectrocatalysis and turning sunlight into hydrogen via a high-pressure water electrolysis system that

was developed by Honda itself Since then there seems to be little activity from Honda73

73

httpworldhondacomworldnews20124120327Solar-Hydrogen-Stationindexhtml

80

Figure 44 Hondarsquos sunlight-to-hydrogen station

Source httpworldhondacomworldnews20124120327Solar-Hydrogen-Stationindexhtml

Toyota succeeded (in 2011) to generate organic compounds via artificial photosynthesis without using any

external energy andor material sources The system is focused on producing formic acid (which could be

used as a raw material in industry) In February 2016 Toyota Central RampD Labs announced that they

achieved the worldrsquos highest energy conversion efficiency rate of 46 with artificial photosynthesis using

water and carbon dioxide as raw materials and sunlight as energy to produce useful materials Toyota is also

researching new chemical reactions to generate more valuable organic compounds as a final product such as

methanol Toyota is primarily focused on photoelectrocatalysis The companyrsquos 2020 goal is to complete basic

testing for the creation of primary CO2-absorbing materials (material or fuel)74

Electronic companies

In addition to car manufacturers also electronic companies are involved in photoelectrocatalysis In December

2014 Toshiba announced its focus on producing a catalyst made of gold The company indicated that they

found a way to modify gold at the atomic level using nanotechnology which allows carbon dioxide to change

into other compounds at a lower voltage (with a record of 15 energy efficiency rate)75

In September 2015 Toshiba made public that the company developed a prototype of a new highly efficient

molecular catalyst (consisting of an imidazolium salt) that converts carbon dioxide into ethylene glycol without

producing other and unwanted by-products Most artificial photosynthesis technologies use a two-electron

reduction conversion process producing carbon monoxide and formic acid Others can achieve direct multi-

electron reduction but tend to produce many by-products and their separation can be problematic Toshibas

new molecular catalyst converts carbon dioxide into ethylene glycol via multi-electron reduction The long-term

goal of Toshibarsquos research work is to develop a technology compatible with carbon dioxide capture systems

installed at facilities such as thermal power stations and factories utilising carbon dioxide to provide (storable)

energy To this end Toshiba focuses on photoelectrocatalysis and further improvement of the conversion

efficiency by increasing catalytic activity and aims at practical implementation in the 2020s76

Panasonics artificial photosynthesis system is also focused on photoelectrocatalysis in particular on highly

efficient CO2 conversion which can utilise direct sunlight or focused light In 2012 Panasonic found that a

nitride semiconductor has the capability to excite the electrons with enough high energy for the CO2 reduction

reaction to take place Nitride semiconductors have attracted attention for their potential applications in highly

74

httpwwwtytlabscom and httpswwwasiabiomassjpenglishtopics1603_01html 75

httpwwwjapantimescojpnews20150412nationalscience-healthlab-photosynthesis-begins-to-bloomVw1YZP5f3IV 76

httpswwwtoshibacojprdcrddetail_ee1509_01html

81

efficient optical and power devices for energy saving However its potential was revealed to extend beyond

solid devices more specifically it can be used as a photoelectrode for CO2 reduction By making a devised

structure through the thin film process for semiconductors the performance as a photoelectrode has greatly

improved77

In September 2014 Panasonic Corporation managed to achieve a conversion efficiency rate of

0378

and not long after that the company announced to having achieved the first formic acid generation

efficiency of approximately 10 as of November 201479

According to Panasonic the key to achieving an

efficient artificial photosynthetic system lies in improved photoelectrodes and oxidation-reduction electrodes


The developments with respect to solar fuels are also being supported by several chemical and oil-refining

companies Artificial photosynthesis has been an academic field for many years However in the beginning of

2009 Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings reported to be undergoing its own artificial photosynthesis research by

using sunlight water and carbon dioxide to create the carbon building blocks from which resins plastics and

fibres can be synthesisedrdquo80

In 2014 Mitsubishi established the research organisation Setoyama Laboratory

The Laboratory focuses on the development of artificial photosynthesis for chemical processes which is the

synthesis of raw materials such as ethylene propylene butenes etc by means of solar hydrogen obtained by

catalytic water splitting under visible light and CO2 emitted at a plant site81

The laboratory is also participating

in the ldquoArtificial Photosynthetic Chemical Processrdquo project (denoted ldquoARPChemrdquo) granted by NEDO (New

Energy Development Organization) In this project the following three programmes are conducted through

collaboration with academia and industry

1 Design of a photo semiconductor catalyst for water splitting

2 A membrane separation system for H2 from gas mixtures composed of H2 and O2 and

3 A catalytic process for the synthesis of lower olefins from H2 and CO2

The Japanese chemical companies Sumitomo chemicals and Mitsui Chemicals focusing on carbon

capture and photoelectrocatalysis are also participating in the ARPChem programme Sumitomo has its

own Energy amp Functional Materials Research Laboratory and is conducting research and development in a

broad range of fields Mitsui created the Mitsui Chemicals Catalysis Science Award and the Mitsui Chemicals

Catalysis Science Award of Encouragement in order to award recognition to national and international

researchers that have made substantial contributions to the field of catalysis science In 2014 it was the fifth

time that Mitsui has given these awards

Royal Dutch Shell cooperated with Bauhaus Luftfahrt in the EU-funded Solar-Jet project (2011-2015) in the

area of photoelectrocatalysis aimed at demonstrating an innovative process technology using concentrated

sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into synthesis gas (syngas) The syngas a mixture of hydrogen

and carbon monoxide is ultimately converted into kerosene by means of the commercial Fischer-Tropsch

technology With the first ever production of synthesised ldquosolarrdquo jet fuel the SOLAR-JET project has

successfully demonstrated the entire production chain for renewable kerosene obtained directly from sunlight

water and carbon dioxide (CO2)82

Royal Dutch Shell and Total are partners of the Solar Fuels Institute (SOFI) at Northwestern University (US)

SOFI leads a global consortium that brings together universities from Rutgers University in New Jersey to

Uppsala University in Sweden83

SOFI focuses on both the water-splitting process (production of hydrogen)

and the CO2 reduction process (the reduction of carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide which in combination

77

httpnewspanasoniccomglobalpressdata201207en120730-5en120730-5html 78

httpswwwasiabiomassjpenglishtopics1603_01html 79

httpwwwpanasoniccomglobalcorporatetechnology-designtechnologyphotosynthesishtml 80

httpwwwdigitalworldtokyocomindexphpdigital_tokyoarticlesmanmade_photosynthesis_looking_to_change_the_world 81

httpwwwmcrccojpenglishrdsetoyama_laboratoryhtml 82

httpwwwsolar-jetaeropagepostsartsunlight-to-jet-fuel-european-collaboration-solar-jet-for-the-first-time-demonstrates-the-entire-production-path-of-ldquosolarrdquo-kerosene-4php

83 httpappsnorthbynorthwesterncommagazine2015springsofi

82

with hydrogen can be processed into eg methanol or synthetic gasoline) Total is also a partner of the

BioSolar Cells programme

INPEX Corporation is a Japanese oil company established in February 1966 as North Sumatra Offshore

Petroleum Exploration Co In addition to Mitsubishi Chemicals Sumitomo Chemicals and Mitsui Chemicals

INPEX also participates in the ldquoJapan Technological Research Association of Artificial Photosynthetic

Chemical Processrdquo (ARPChem) programme and engages in RampD projects with the aim to produce chemical

products like plastics and hydrocarbon fuel from photochemical catalysis INPEX Corporation is focused on


Other companies

Other companies include Etogas (Germany) which develops builds and selects Power-to-Gas plants and

products related to Power-to-Hydrogen Power-to-SNG and Hydrogen-to-SNG LnCatT BV (Netherlands)

Hydron (Netherlands) Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (Saudi Arabia) and Hyper Solar () all focus on

photoelectrocatalysis LioniX BV (Netherlands - photoelectrocatalysis) and Solaronix SA (Switzerland -

photoelectrocatalysis) are focused on the further development of photoelectrochemical cells Hysytech and

Photofuel are in addition to the first pathway also involved in the second

455 Companies active in co-electrolysis

Even though co-electrolysis is the pathway at the highest levels of technical readiness compared to the other

two pathways not many companies are involved in it There are three electrolyser types capable of producing

hydrogen gas eg alkaline electrolysis polymer electrolyte membrane electrolysis and solid oxide electrolysis

cells (SOECs) Multiple designs are commercialised although SOECs using Fischer-Tropsch synthesis are

not yet commercially viable The companies involved in this pathway are mainly from the US Industries

combine co-electrolysis and the field of carbon capture Fuel cell products are used in the automotive

telecom defenceaerospace and consumer product sectors

The following table summarises the organisations in the field of co-electrolysis

Table 413 Companies in co-electrolysis



Singapore Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies

US Catalytic Innovations

US Opus 12

US LanzaTech

US Proton onsite

Source Ecorys

Companies include Proton onsite (US ndash PEM electrolysis) which manufactures hydrogen nitrogen and zero

air generators in a safe reliable and cost-effective way Horizon Fuel Cell Technologies (Singapore)

focuses on commercially viable fuel cells starting by simple products which need smaller amounts of

hydrogen The technology platform of horizon fuel cell technology is focused on three main topics PEM fuel

cell systems hydrogen supply and hydrogen storage Catalytic Innovations (US) Opus 12 (US) Lanzatech

(US) and Shell (NL) are also involved in the second pathway

83

456 Companies active in carbon capture and utilisation

The technology in the carbon capture and storage pathway can capture up to 90 of the CO2 and allows for

the separation of carbon dioxide from gases produced in electricity generation and industrial processes by

means of combustion capture and oxyfuel combustion The most advanced technologies are at TRL 7 eg

carbon capture in a coal plant

The following table shows the organisations active in the field of carbon capture and utilisationre-use

Table 414 Organisations active in carbon capture and utilisation


Denmark Haldor Topsoe


Germany Siemens (Siemens Corporate Technology CT)

Germany Sunfire GmbH

Germany Audi

Switzerland Climeworks

UK Econic (Econic Technologies)

Canada Carbon Engineering

Canada Quantiam

Canada Mantra Energy

Iceland Carbon Recycling International

Israel NewCO2Fuels


US Liquid light


US Opus 12

US LanzaTech

US Global Thermostat

Source Ecorys

Twelve companies currently only focus on carbon capture and utilisation These companies are therefore

technically not considered to be companies involved in artificial photosynthesis However they can potentially

be involved in AP research in the future Such companies include automotive manufacturers as well as

electronics companies Five companies are involved in carbon capture and one of the pathways

Automotive manufacturers

Audi is working together with the American company Joule Unlimited in order to research and produce lsquoe-

ethanolrsquo Joule optimised a production process in which microorganisms are able to produce and excrete

either ethanol or alkanes from carbon dioxide (CO2) and sunlight Audi and Joule opened a joint

demonstration plant in September 2012 where e-ethanol is produced in transparent plastic tubes (see Figure

45)

84

Figure 45 Demonstration facility of Audi and Joule in Hobbs (New Mexico)

Source httpwwwbest-practicesfrost-multimedia-wirecomjoule2015

In January 2014 Audi e-ethanol underwent its first-ever test cycle in the pressure chamber and glass engine

showing that fewer pollutants are produced in the combustion of e-ethanol than is the case with bio-ethanol84

Since 2011 Audi has also been collaborating with Joule to produce e-diesel Finally in November 2014 Audi

opened a research facility in Dresden with project partners Climeworks and the start-up Sunfire in order to

produce its first batches of synthetic diesel combining two innovative technologies CO2 capture from the

ambient air (Climeworks) and the power-to-liquid process for the production of synthetic fuel (Sunfire)85

Currently Audi is investing in carbon capture and utilisation technologies

Electronics companies

Electronics companies such as Siemens are also investing in carbon capture technologies Developers at

Siemens Corporate Technology (CT) in Munich are currently active in the project CO2-to-value The challenge

of the project is to charge only carbon dioxide with electrons and not the surrounding water molecules

because the latter would merely result in the production of conventional hydrogen Specialists at the University

of Lausanne in Switzerland and materials scientists at the University of Bayreuth are working with Siemens to

develop catalysts on their behalf Siemens takes on a pragmatic approach by focusing on only one step in the

AP process They are not yet trying to capture light Instead they are centring their research activities on

activating CO2 and converting it into products such as (i) ethylene which the chemical industry needs for the

production of plastics (ii) methane the main component of natural gas and (iii) carbon monoxide which can

be used to produce fuels such as ethanol86

Other companies

Figure 46 illustrates the process of NewCO2Fuels (NCF) an Israeli company focused on carbon capture

This is a high-temperature-driven CO2- and water-dissociation process that produces syngas (a mixture of

CO and H2) from which various synthetic fuels and chemicals can be produced

In the short term NCF is focusing on the design and building of a first pilot plant as well as raising the

necessary funds for it

In the mid term NCF plans to offer its technology to the energy intensive industries such as the steel

gasification and glass industries to transform their CO2 waste streams into feedstock

In the long term NCFrsquos vision is to use solar energy to convert CO2 captured immediately from the

atmosphere into valuable products

84

httpwwwaudicomcorporateencorporate-responsibilitywe-live-responsibilityproductsynthetic-fuels-Audi-e-fuelshtml 85


httpwwwsiemenscominnovationenhomepictures-of-the-futureresearch-and-managementmaterials-science-and-processing-co2tovaluehtml

85

Figure 46 Illustration of the co-electrolysis process of NewCO2Fuels

Source httpwwwnewco2fuelscoilproduct8overview

Furthermore some companies focus on chemical or biological CO2-to-fuel production Examples of

companies that focus on direct (co-electrolysis) CO2 to fuels production are Carbon Recycling (Iceland) and

Econic (UK ndash carbon capture) The company Liquid Light (US ndash carbon capture) focuses on the

electrochemical conversion of CO2 to chemicals

Other companies involved in carbon capture are Global Thermostat (US) Quantiam (Canada) Carbon

Engineering (Canada) Evonik Industries AG (Germany) and Haldor Topsoe (Denmark) Besides co-

electrolysis Catalytic Innovations Opus 12 and Lanzatech are also involved in carbon capture Mitsui

Chemical is focusing on carbon capture as well as photoelectrocatalysis

457 Assessment of the capabilities of the industry to develop AP technologies

Although there is a lot of research activity going on in the field of AP both at the academic and industrial level

the technology is clearly not yet ready for commercialisation However concrete test facilities and prototypes

are being developed and solar fuels have already been produced at a laboratory scale The technology is not

yet sufficiently efficient in order to be able to compete with other technologies producing comparable

chemicals and fuels Finding catalysts which are on the one hand Earth-abundant non-toxic and inexpensive

and on the other hand sufficiently efficient seems to be the biggest challenge With respect to the

technological efficiency of the AP processes the main bottlenecks are light capture (whole spectrum) getting

a good photocurrent density and using these charge carriers efficiently87

Although the achieved energy conversion efficiency rates are still low significant progress has been made

during the last decade In September 2014 Panasonic Corporation managed to achieve a conversion

efficiency rate of 03 becoming the first to exceed the rate of 02 for regular plants In November 2014

Toshiba reached 15 which was followed by 20 achieved by the Japan Technological Research

Association of Artificial Photosynthetic Chemical Process (ARPChem) in February 2015 In February 2016

Toyota Central RampD Labs Inc announced that they achieved the worldrsquos highest energy conversion

efficiency rate of 46 with artificial photosynthesis by developing a semiconductor substrates-using iridium

and ruthenium catalyst They succeeded in increasing the efficiency rate a hundred-fold (an efficiency rate of

004 had been in achieved by Toyota in 2011)88

Figure 47 summarizes these efficiency rate developments

Several companies (eg Toshiba) hint at achieving efficiency rates of 10 and the first practical applications

87

httpwwwosa-opnorghomearticlesvolume_24february_2013featuresartificial_photosynthesis_saving_solar_energy_for 88

httpswwwasiabiomassjpenglishtopics1603_01html

86

of AP in the 2020s ARPChem aims to achieve a 10 level of energy conversion efficiency in 2021 (the rate

at which the manufacturing of raw materials for chemicals becomes economically viable)89

Figure 47 Transition of energy conversion efficiency of artificial photosynthesis

Source httpswwwasiabiomassjpenglishtopics1603_01html

It can also be observed that the big industrial investors in AP technology (research) already built interesting

partnerships with research centres and new innovative start-upscompanies For example

Audi works together with the innovative company Joule Unlimited (US) on the development of biologically-

derived e-ethanol and e-diesel and also works together with start-up company Sunfire on the production

of synthetic diesel

Siemens works together with specialists at the University of Lausanne in Switzerland and at the University

of Bayreuth Germany on innovative catalysts

Royal Dutch Shell and Total are partners of the Solar Fuels Institute (SOFI) at Northwestern University

(US) that works on the water-splitting and CO2 reduction process and

Mitsubishi is one of the five industrial partners in the Japanese ARPChem programme (2012-2021)

focusing on artificial photosynthesis research in which various Japanese universities will be involved

(including Waseda University and Tokyo University)

46 Summary of results and main observations

The aim of this report was to gain an understanding and a clear overview of the main European and global

actors active in the field of artificial photosynthesis This has been achieved by

Identifying the main European and global actors active in the field of AP

Providing an assessment of the current level of investments in AP technologies

Assessing the key strengths and weaknesses of the main actors and

Assessing the capabilities of the industry to develop and exploit the AP technologies

Fuelled by the globally perceived need to find a green non-polluting and emission neutral energy source for

the future there has been much development in the field of artificial photosynthesis and considerable progress

has been made In addition the emergence of multiple consortia and governmental programmes and

international conferences in the last 10-15 years suggest that there is a higher awareness of the potential of

89

httpwwwmitsubishichem-hdcojpenglishcsrdownloadpdf13_25pdf

87

AP and that further advances are necessary The analysis has shown that although there have been some

promising developments especially in collaboration with industry much remains to be done for AP

technologies and processes to become commercially viable Milestones which will spur the development and

commercialisation process of AP encompass increased global and industry cooperation and the deployment

of targeted large-scale innovation projects following the example of the US innovation hubs

A summary of the results of the analysis and the main observations concerning the research and industry

actors active in the field of artificial photosynthesis is presented below It should be noted that the academic

and industrial community presented in this report is not exhaustive and especially with increasing interest in

AP more actors are expected to become active in the field

Research community

In general we observe that AP research has been intensified during the last decade given the increasing

number of emerging networks and communities We identified more than 150 research groups on AP

worldwide out of which more than 60 are located in Europe Due to the interdisciplinary character of AP

research combines expertise from biology biochemistry biophysics and physical chemistry The development

of research networks and consortia facilitates collaboration between different research groups and enables

them to benefit from synergies We identified six consortia in Europe and five outside of Europe respectively

Almost all of them are based in a specific country attracting primarily research groups from that country Only

one consortium AMPEA launched by the European Energy Research Alliance is truly pan-European with a

range of members across the EU

Table 415 Summary of findings size of research community

Number of research groups

Total in Europe 113

Number of research groups per pathway

Synthetic biology amp hybrid systems 53

Photoelectrocatalysis 69

Co-electrolysis 25

Total outside Europe 77




Co-electrolysis 14

Source Ecorys

With respect to the three technology pathways (synthetic biology amp hybrid systems photoelectrocatalysis and

co-electrolysis) we observed that almost 85 of the research activities worldwide are focused on the first two

pathways (about 34 on the first pathway and 50 on the second) whereas the third pathway attracts only

about 16 of the research communityrsquos attention Only the Dutch AP consortium BioSolar Cells specifically

focuses on co-electrolysis Other consortia like ARPChem in Japan collaborating with industry prefer to

research artificial photosynthesis via photoelectrochemical catalysis as this pathway is the most mature and

with the highest probability of successful commercialisation

The diversity of the scientists involved is the biggest strength of this global AP research community

Furthermore all of the existing technological pathways in AP are covered which avoids lock-ins into one

pathway and increases the probability of success for AP in general AP is on the research agenda of several

countries which is proven by the existence of dedicated programmes roadmaps and funds Globally several

hundreds of millions of euros are being spent this decade on AP research and these investments seem to be

intensifying further Major shortcomings encompass a lack of cooperation between research groups in

88

academia on the one hand and between academia and industry on the other A more technical challenge is

the transfer of scientific insights into practical applications and ultimately into commercially viable products

The AP sector in Europe exhibits some strengths in comparison to its non-European counterparts but also

some weaknesses Europersquos scientific institutions are strong and its researchers highly educated

Furthermore RampD institutions and research facilities are available providing a solid ground for research

Some individual MS have their own research programmes roadmaps and funds Nevertheless the investment

does not reach the amount of funds available in some non-European countries and is rather short-term in

comparison to that of its non-European counterparts Furthermore both the national research plans and their

funding seem fragmented and scattered lacking an integrated approach with common research goals and

objectives At the European level however collaboration has been successful within several ongoing and

conducted FP7 projects Close collaboration between research groups could also be achieved through the

establishment of consortia Apart from the pan-European consortium AMPEA collaboration between research

groups of different countries is limited the consortia are primarily country-based and attract mostly research

groups from that respective country Lastly the level of collaboration between academia and industry seems

to be more limited in Europe compared to that within the US or Japan

Industrial actors

At this moment the number of companies active in the field of AP is limited AP is still mainly at the laboratory

level Most pathways are still at level 1 or 2 of technology readiness (TRL) implying that research is still being

conducted and used to improve feasibility Only co-electrolysis is at a more advanced stage and most

methods are already commercially viable

Based on our analysis of the main AP actors in the industry only several tens of companies appear to be

active in this field Moreover the industrial activity is limited to research and prototyping as viable AP

technologies are not (yet) in commercial operation The pathways synthetic biology amp hybrid systems and

photoelectrocatalysis are still at the lowest levels of technology readiness Research within the

photoelectrocatalysis pathway is still at an early stage as well however PV devices (semiconductor devices

similar to the ones used in PEC devices) have already been successfully commercialised Co-electrolysis on

the other hand is a technology already available for a longer time period in this pathway various

technologies to convert water and DC electricity into gaseous hydrogen and oxygen are already

commercialised In contrast the technologies producing hydrocarbons by Fischer-Tropsch synthesis

converting for example CO2 H2O and syngas into hydrocarbon fuels are still at an earlier stage of

development Co-electrolysis is therefore at a 1-9 TRL having both already commercialised technologies as

well as the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis

In total we have identified and analysed 33 industrial actors active in the field of AP 15 European and 18 non-

European industrial actors With respect to the industry largely the same countries stand out as in the

research field namely Japan the US and north-western Europe The industry in Japan appears to have the

most intensive research activities in AP as several large Japanese multinationals have set up their own AP

RampD laboratoriesresearch departments With respect to the three technology pathways we can observe that

most industrial (research) activity is being performed concerning photoelectrocatalysis

89

Table 416 Summary of findings size of industrial community

Number of companies

Total in Europe 15

Number of companies per pathway



Co-electrolysis 1





Co-electrolysis 5

Source Ecorys

The main hurdles in the synthetic biology amp hybrid systems pathway relate to the improvement of efficiency

and protein production speeds as well as stability and solubility by rational design With respect to the

technological efficiency of the AP processes relating to photoelectrocatalysis the main bottlenecks are light

capture (whole spectrum) obtaining a good photocurrent density and using these charge carriers efficiently

Co-electrolysis is mainly facing challenges to increase the lifetime of the devices to create concept on a

megawatt scale to search for substitution of noble metal catalysts and to develop technologies that are

capable of supplying the electricity required Furthermore some methods are still at a low TRL like the

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis Finding catalysts which are Earth-abundant non-toxic inexpensive and

sufficiently efficient remains a huge challenge To this end more public and private funding is needed


during the last decade For example between 2011 and 2016 Toyota Central RampD labs made a significant

leap forward from an efficiency rate of 004 towards an efficiency rate of 46 Furthermore several

industrial actors (including Toshiba and ARPChem) have hinted at being able to achieve efficiency rates of

10 and the first practical applications of AP in the 2020s When academia are able to overcome the main

barriers with respect to AP the TRL will increase and the interest in AP from the industries will rise More

interest from the industries is necessary in order to push AP on the market and making it an economically

viable alternative renewable energy source

91

5 Factors limiting the development of AP technology

The overall concept followed in this study is to assess a number of selected ongoing research technological

development and demonstration (RTD)initiatives andor technology approaches implemented by European

research institutions universities and industrial stakeholders in the field of AP (including the development of

AP devices)

Seven AP RTD initiatives have been identified for the assessment of ldquolimiting factorsrdquo addressing the three

overarching technology pathways synthetic biology amp hybrid systems photoelectrocatalysis of water (water

splitting) and co-electrolysis (see Table 51)

The authors are confident that through the assessment of these selected European AP RTD initiatives a good

overview of existing and future factors limiting the development of artificial photosynthesis technology (in

Europe) can be presented However it has to be noted that additional AP RTD initiatives by European

research institutions universities and industrial stakeholders do exist and that this study does not aim to prove

a fully complete inventory of all ongoing initiatives and involved stakeholders

Table 51 Overview of the selected AP research technological development and demonstration (RTD) initiatives

AP Technology

Pathways AP RTD initiatives for MCA

Synthetic biology amp

hybrid systems

Photosynthetic microbial cell

factories based on

cyanobacteria

Biocatalytic conversion of CO2

into formic acid ndash Bio-hybrid

systems


of water (light-driven

water splitting)

Direct water splitting with bandgap absorber materials and

catalysts

Dye-sensitised

photoelectrochemical

cells - Molecular

photocatalysis

a) Direct water splitting with III-

V semiconductor ndash Silicon


b) Direct water splitting with

Bismuth Vanadate (BiVO4) -

Silicon tandem absorber

structures

Co-electrolysis

Co-electrolysis of steam and

carbon dioxide in Solid Oxide

Electrolysis Cells (SOEC)

Electrolysis cells for CO2

valorisation ndash Industry

research

51 Cost efficiency lifetimedurability energy efficiency and resource use challenges

Until today much progress has been made in the development of artificial photosynthetic systems

However a number of significant scientific and technological challenges remain to successfully scale-up

existing laboratory prototypes of different AP technology approaches towards a commercial scale

In order to ensure that AP technologies become an important part of the (long-term) future sustainable

European and global energy system and additionally provide high-value and low carbon chemicals for

industrial applications AP based production systems need to be

Efficient so that they utilise as much sunlight as possible to produce fuels andor chemicals The larger

the fraction of sunlight that can be converted to chemical energy the fewer materials and less land would

be needed for AP devices A target efficiency of about 10 (for AP based fuel production) is an initial goal

This is about ten times the efficiency of natural photosynthesis however it should be noted that AP

92

laboratory prototype devices with solar-to-hydrogen efficiencies of 5 and more have already been

developed

Durable so that AP systems can convert a lot of energy in their lifetime relative to the energy required for

the production and installation of the devices This is a significant challenge because some materials

degrade quickly when operated under the special conditions of illumination by discontinuous sunlight

Cost-effective meaning the raw materials needed for the production of the AP devices have to be

available at a large scale and the produced fuels andor chemicals have to be of commercial interest

Resource-efficient so that they minimise the use of rare and expensive raw materials (taking into

account trade-offs between material abundancy cost and efficiency)

Today significant improvements with respect to cost-efficiency lifetimedurability energy efficiency and

resource use are still required for all existing AP technology approaches

Table 52 provides an overview of the current and target performance for the assessed seven AP research

technological development and demonstration (RTD) initiatives within the three overarching technology

pathways of synthetic biology amp hybrid systems photoelectrocatalysis and co-electrolysis

93

Table 52 Overview of the current and target performance with respect to cost-efficiency lifetimedurability energy efficiency and resource use

AP

Technology

Pathways AP RTD Initiatives

(technology approaches)

Cost Efficiency Durability Energy Efficiency Resource Use

Target Current Target Current Target Current Target Current

Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

Nitrogenase

activity wanes

within a few

days

Light energy

conversion

efficiency

gt10

(theoretical

limit ~15)

4 (PAR

utilization

efficiency) on

lab level (200 x

600 mm)

No data No data

Biocatalytic conversion of

CO2 into formic acid ndash Bio-

hybrid systems

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

CO2 reduction

energy

efficiency (full

system) gt10

(nat PS ~1)

NA (CO2

reduction

energy

efficiency for

full system) on

lab level

No data No data

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)

Direct water splitting with

bandgap absorber materials

and catalysts Direct water

splitting with III-V

semiconductor ndash Silicon


Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

gt500 hours

(stability goal)

gt40 hours

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt17

STH efficiency

14

Reduction of

use of noble

metal Rh

catalyst and

use of Si-

based

substrate

material

1kg Rh for

1MW

electrochem

power output

Ge substrate

(for

concentrator

systems)

Si substrate

94

AP

Technology





Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)

Bandgap abs materials




structures

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency ~9

STH efficiency

49

Reduction of

use of rare Pt

catalyst

Pt used as

counter

electrode for

H2 production

Dye-sensitised

photoelectrochemical cells -

Molecular photocatalysis

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt10

IPCE gt90

(efficiency

goal)

IPCE (incident

photon to

electron

conversion

efficiency) of

25

Reduction of

use of rare and

expensive raw

materials

High-cost Ru-

based photo-

sensitizers

used

Co-

electrolysis


carbon dioxide in Solid

Oxide Electrolysis Cells

(SOEC)

SOFC capital

cost target

400 US$kW

Comp of

synthetic fuels

with fossil fuels

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

~50 hours

(high SOEC

cell

performance

degradation

observed)

Power-to-

Liquid system

efficiencies

(full system

incl FT)

gt70

No data No data No data



research

Comp with

fossil chemi

and fuels (eg

CO ethylene

alcohols) 650-

1200 EURMt

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

10000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1000 hours

(laboratory

performance)

System

efficiencies

(full system)

gt60-70

95 of

electricity used

to produce CO

System

efficiencies

(full system)

40

No data No data

95

52 Current TRL and future prospects of investigated AP RTD initiatives

Table 53 presents an overview of the current TRL future prospects and an estimation of future required

investments for the assessed AP research technological development and demonstration (RTD) initiatives

It should be noted that due to the focus on specific selected AP RTD initiatives the investment requirements

listed below do not represent all of the RTD activities conducted by European research institutions

universities and industrial stakeholders within the three overarching technology pathways of synthetic biology

amp hybrid systems photoelectrocatalysis and co-electrolysis

Table 53 Overview of current TRL future prospects and estimated investment needs for investigated AP RTD initiatives

AP RTD Initiatives TRL achieved (June

2016)

Future Prospects Estimated Investment

needed


factories based on cyanobacteria

TRL 3 (pres Init)

TRL 6-8 (for direct

photobiol ethanol prod

with cyanobacteria green

algae)

2020 TRL 4 (pres Init)

Basic RTD applicable to

a variety of RTD fields

TRL 4 5 Mio euro

Biocatalytic conversion of CO2 into

formic acid ndash Bio-hybrid systems TRL 3 2020 TRL 4

Direct water splitting with III-V

semiconductor ndash Silicon tandem

absorber structures (bandgap

absorbers)

TRL 4 (for III-VGe

tandem structures)

TRL 3 (for III-VSi tandem

structures)

2020 TRL 5 (for III-VGe

tandem structures)

2021 TRL 5 (for III-VSi

tandem structures)

Basic RTD 5-10 Mio euro

TRL 5 5-10 Mio euro

Direct water splitting with Bismuth

Vanadate (BiVO4) - Silicon tandem


absorbers)

TRL 4 2020 TRL 5

Dye-sensitised



TRL 3 2020 TRL 4



TRL 4 5 Mio euro




TRL 2-3 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)

2020 TRL 3-4 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)


valorisation ndash Industry research

TRL 4 (for RE assisted

carbon compound

production)

TRL 3 (for full synthetic

photosynthesis systems)

2020 TRL 6 (for RE

assisted carbon

compound production)

2020 TRL 5 (for full

synthetic photosynthesis

systems)

TRL 6 10-20 Mio euro

53 Knowledge and technology gaps of investigated AP RTD initiatives

At present a number of significant scientific and technological challenges remain to be addressed before

successfully being able to scale-up existing laboratory prototypes of different AP technology approaches

towards the commercial scale

Table 54 presents an overview of the identified knowledge and technology gaps focusing on the assessed

AP research technological development and demonstration (RTD) initiatives

96

Table 54 Overview of knowledge and technology gaps of investigated AP RTD initiatives

AP RTD initiatives

(technology approaches) Knowledge gaps identified Technology gaps identified


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Further metabolic and genetic engineering of the strains

Further engineered cyanobacterial cells with respect to increased light

harvesting capacity

Streamlined metabolism toward hydrogen production for needed electrons

proteins and energy instead of being used in competing pathways

More efficient catalysts with higher turnover rates

Simple and reliable production systems allowing higher photosynthetic

efficiencies and the use of optimal production conditions

Efficient mechanisms and systems to separate produced hydrogen from other

gases

Cheaper components of the overall system

Investigation of the effect of pH level on growth rate and hydrogen evolution

Production of other carbon-containing energy carriers such as ethanol

butanol and isoprene

Improvements of the photobioreactor design

Up-scaling of photobioreactor (from present active surface of 200 x 600 mm)

Improvement of operating stability (from present about gt100 hours)

Improvement of PAR utilisation efficiency from the present 4 to gt10

Cost reduction towards a hydrogen production price of 4 US$ per kg



hybrid systems

Further metabolic and genetic engineering of strains

Reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which are detrimental to cell

growth

Development of biocompatible catalyst systems that are not toxic to bacteria

Development of ROS-resistant variants of bacteria

Development of hybrid systems compatible with the intermittent nature of the

solar energy source

Development of strains for CO2 reduction at low CO2 concentrations

Metabolic engineering of strains to facilitate the production of a large variety of



Further optimisation of operating conditions (eg T pH NADH concentration

ES ratio) for high CO2 conversion and increased formic acid yields

Integration of enzymes into the hydrogen evolving part of ldquobionic leafrdquo devices

Mitigation of bio-toxicity at systems level

Improvements of ldquobionic leafrdquo device design

Up-scaling of ldquobionic leafrdquo devices


Improvement of CO2 reduction energy efficiency towards gt10

Cost reduction of the production of formic acids and other chemicals

polymers and fuels

97

AP RTD initiatives








Increased understanding of surface chemistry at electrolyte-absorber

interfaces

Further improvement of functionalization to achieve higher stabilities without

the need for protective layers

Reduction of defects acting as recombination centres or points of attack for

(photo)corrosion

Reduction of pinhole formation leading to reduced mechanical stability of the

Rh catalyst

Reduction of the amount of rare and expensive catalysts by the use of core-

shell catalyst nanoparticles with a core of an earth-abundant material

Reduction of material needed as substrate by employment of lift-off

techniques or nanostructures

Deposition of highly efficient III-V tandem absorber structures on (widely


Development of III-V nanowire configurations promising advantages with

respect to materials use optoelectronic properties and enhanced reactive

surface area

Reduction of charge carrier losses at interfaces

Reduction of catalyst and substrate material costs

Reduction of costs for III-V tandem absorbers

Development of concentrator configurations for the III-V based

photoelectrochemical devices

Improvement of device stability from present gt40 hours towards the long-term

stability goal of gt500 hours

Improvement of the STH production efficiencies from the present 14 to

gt17





splitting with Bismuth

Vanadate (BiVO4) - Silicon


Improvements of the light absorption and carrier-separation efficiency

(currently still at lt60) in BiVO4

Better utilization of the solar spectrum by BiVO4 especially for wavelengths

close to the band edge (eg by plasmonic- andor resonance-enhanced

optical absorption)

Further development of novel water-oxidation catalysts based on for example


Further development of the distributed n+ndashn homojunction concept for

improving carrier separation in high-donor density photoelectrode material

Improvement of the stability and avoidance of mass transport and light

scattering problems in devices based on nanoporous materials and DSSC

(Dye Sensitised Solar Cells)

Further development of Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) for (multi-layered)

WO3 and BiVO4 photoanodes

Although the near-neutral pH of the electrolyte solution ensures that the BiVO4

is photochemically stable proton transport is markedly slower than in strongly

alkaline or acidic electrolytes

Design of new device architectures that efficiently manage proton transport

and avoid local pH changes in near-neutral solutions

For an optimal device configuration the evolved gasses need to be

transported away efficiently without the risk of mixing

The platinum counter electrode needs to be replaced by an earth-abundant

alternative such as NiMo(Zn) CoMo or NiFeMo alloys

Improvement of device stability from present several hours towards the long-

term stability goal of 1000 hours

Scaling up systems to square meter range

Improvement of the STH production efficiencies from the present 49 to ~9


Dye-sensitised



Deep molecular-level understanding of the underlying interfacial charge

transfer dynamics at the SCdye catalyst interface

Novel sensitizer assemblies with long-lived charge-separated states to

Design and construction of functional DS-PECs with dye-sensitised

photoanodes and dye-sensitised photocathodes (tandem DS-PEC structures)

Design and construction of DS-PECs where undesired external bias is not

98

AP RTD initiatives


enhance quantum efficiencies

Sensitizerndashcatalyst supramolecular assembly approach appears as effective

strategy to facilitate faster intramolecular electron transfer for long-lived

charge-separated states

Optimise the co-adsorption for efficient light-harvesting and charge collection

Organometal halide perovskite compounds as novel class of light harvesters

(for absorber applications in DS-PEC)

Encapsulation of perovskite compounds to prevent the dissolution in aqueous

solutions

Semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) as suitable sensitizers for DS-PEC

Exploration of more efficient OERHER catalysts with low overpotentials

Use of a redox mediator analogous to the tyrosine-histidine pair in PSII to

accelerate dye regeneration and thus achieve an increased charge

separation lifetime

One-dimensional TiO2 nanostructures such as TiO2 nanotubes and nanorods

to improved the charge transport properties and thus charge collection

efficiencies

Exploration of alternative SC oxides with more negative CB energy levels to

match the proton reduction potential

Search for alternative more transparent p-type SCs with slower charge

recombination and high hole mobilities

Further studies on phenomena of photocurrent decay commonly observed in

DS-PECs under illumination with time largely due to the desorption andor

decomposition of the sensitizers andor the catalysts

needed

Design and construction of DS-PECs with enhanced quantum efficiency

(towards 90 IPEC)

Ensure dynamic balance between the two photoelectrodes in order to properly

match the photocurrents

Development of efficient photocathode structures

Ensure long-term durability of molecular components used in DS-PEC devices

Reduce photocurrent decay due to the desorption andor decomposition of the

sensitizers andor the catalysts

Ensure active photosensitizer and catalyst for at least millions of cycles in 20ndash

30 years

Ensure long operating lifetimes (such as achieved for DSC) for stable DS-PEC

devices that incorporate molecular components Future work on developing

robust photosensitizers and catalysts firm immobilization of sensitizercatalyst

assembly onto the surface of SC oxide as well as the integration of the robust

individual components as a whole needs to be addressed


Improvement of the STH production efficiencies IPCE (incident photon to

electron conversion efficiency) need to be improved from ~25 to gt90


99

AP RTD initiatives





(SOEC)

Basic understanding of reaction mechanisms in co-electrolysis of H2O (steam)

and CO2

Basic understanding of dynamics of adsorptiondesorption of gases on

electrodes and gas transfer during co-electrolysis

Basic understanding of material compositions microstructure and operational

conditions

Basic understanding of the relation between SOEC composition and

degradation mechanisms

Development of new improved materials for the electrolyte (eg Sr- and Mg-

doped lanthanum gallate (LSGM) and scandium-stabilized zirconia (Sc- SZ))

Development of new improved materials for the electrodes (eg Sr- and Fe-

doped lanthanumcobaltate (LSCF)Sr-doped lanthanum ferrite (LSF)Co-

and Nb-doped barium ferrite (BCFN) and Sr- and Fe-barium cobaltate

(BSCF) perovskites)

Avoidance of agglomeration of Ni-particles and micro-cracks in Ni-YSZ

hydrogen electrodes

Avoidance of mechanical damages (eg delamination of oxygen electrode) at

electrolyte-electrode interfaces

Reduction of carbon (C) formation during co-electrolysis

Optimisation of operation temperature initial fuel composition and operational

voltage to adjust H2CO ratio of the syngas

Replacing metallic based electrodes by pure oxides

Studies of long-term durability


Up-scaling of cells for efficient co-electrolysis of H2O (steam) and CO2

Improvement of stability performance (from present ~50 hours towards the

long-term stability goal of gt1000 hours



Improvement of the co-electrolysis syngas production efficiencies towards

values facilitating the production of competitive synthetic fuels via FT-

processes

Cost reduction towards competitiveness of synthetic fuels with fossil fuels



research

Further research on catalyst development

Investigation of catalyst surface structure (highly reactive surfaces)

Catalyst development for a variety of carbon-based chemicals and fuels

Research on electrolyte composition and performance (dissolved salts current

density)

Research on light-collecting semiconductor grains enveloped by catalysts

Research on materials for CO2 concentration

Careful control of catalyst manufacturing process

Precise control of reaction processes

Development of modules for building facades

Stable operation of lab-scale modules

Stable operation of demonstration facility

Improvement of production efficiencies for carbon-based chemicals and fuels

Cost reduction towards competitiveness of the produced carbon-based

chemicals and fuels

100

54 Coordination of European research

Although RTD cooperation exists between universities research institutions and industry from different

European countries the majority of the activities are performed and funded on a national level Thus at

present the level of cooperation and collaboration on a pan-European level seems to be limited

There are few pan-European and cross-country initiatives such as AMPEA and partnerships under FP7

projects and many research groups that are operating locally and are funded by national governments A low

degree of collaboration among different research groups was reported which results in a duplication of efforts

and a lack of generalized standards Synergies which could potentially boost research in artificial

photosynthesis are being overlooked Creating for example a communication platform to facilitate exchange

among actors could more easily promote the development of knowledge and increase the speed of discovery

and exploitation of new robust (effective and durable) photocatalysts innovative processes and devices etc

Another indicated weakness is the lack of collaboration between the already existing and ongoing projects

The coordination of research at a European level is mainly performed by AMPEA The European Energy

Research Alliance (EERA) has launched the Joint Programme ldquoAdvanced Materials amp Processes for Energy

Applicationsrdquo (AMPEA) to foster the role of basic science in Future Emerging Technologies Artificial

photosynthesis became the first energy research subfield to be organised within AMPEA The goal of this joint

programme which was launched at the end of 2011 is to set up a thorough and systematic programme of

directed research which by 2020 will have advanced the technology to a point where commercially viable

artificial photosynthetic devices will be under development in partnership with industry

Currently AMPEA does not involve biological AP approaches as its main mission focuses on advanced

materials Therefore opportunities for research cooperation in the field of synthetic biology seem limited in the

short term

Furthermore it was stated that the current effectiveness of AMPEA to coordinate research at a European level

is limited also due to budget constraints and limited direct funding provided to AMPEA

Specifically efforts within AMPEA are currently centred on developing a concise RTD roadmap for AP

technologies in Europe The future implementation of this roadmap will require support on both national and

European levels

Table 55 (below) presents a list of European research collaborations within the investigated AP research

technological development and demonstration (RTD) initiatives

101

Table 55 (European) research cooperation within the investigated AP RTD initiatives

AP RTD Initiatives (European) Research cooperation

Photosynthetic microbial

cell factories based on

cyanobacteria

Initiative implemented by Uppsala University Sweden (within CAP) in cooperation with

Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO)

Existing cooperation between Uppsala University and German car manufacturer VW


CO2 into formic acid ndash

Bio-hybrid systems

Initiative implemented by Wageningen UR Food amp Biobased Research and Wageningen UR

Plant Research International The Netherlands (within BioSolar Cells)


bandgap absorber

materials and catalysts


III-V semiconductor ndash


structures

Initiative implemented by TU Ilmenau the Institute for Solar Fuels at the Helmholtz-Zentrum

Berlin and the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE and the California Institute

of Technology (Caltech)

Existing cooperation between TU Ilmenau and epitaxy technology providers Space Solar

Power GmbH and Aixtron SE


bandgap absorber



Bismuth Vanadate

(BiVO4) - Silicon tandem

absorber structures

Initiative implemented by the Institute for Solar Fuels at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin and

two Departments at Delft University of Technology (within BioSolar Cells)

Further RTD at EPFL (Eacutecole Polytechnique Feacutedeacuterale de Lausanne)

Further RTD was done at Repsol Technology Center from Spain in cooperation with

Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC)

Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis

Initiative implemented by KTH Royal Institute of Technology Sweden in cooperation with

Dalian University of Technology China (within CAP)

Further RTD at University of Amsterdam (within BioSolar Cells) University of Grenoble

University of Cambridge and EPFL (Eacutecole Polytechnique Feacutedeacuterale de Lausanne)

Existing cooperation between OMV and University of Cambridge

Existing cooperation between Siemens and EPFL

Co-electrolysis of steam

and carbon dioxide in

Solid Oxide Electrolysis

Cells (SOEC)

RTD performed at Technical University of Denmark Imperial College London University of

Sheffield and in previous years by Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC) in

cooperation with Repsol Technology Center from Spain



Research

Initiative implemented by Siemens Corporate Technology (CT) in cooperation with the

University of Lausanne and the University of Bayreuth Germany

55 Industry involvement and industry gaps

Due to the low TRL (TRL 2-4) of present AP technology pathways in the areas of synthetic biology amp hybrid

systems photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting) and co-electrolysis the direct involvement of industry

in research and development activities in Europe is currently limited

Furthermore detailed information on industry activities in the AP field is difficult to find also due to issues of

confidentiality According to Cefic (European Chemical Industry Council) AP is regarded as a potentially

promising future technology option by the Councilrsquos members however information on industry involvement is

largely kept confidential


partners The BioSolar Cells consortium for instance has 45 industrial partners conducting research including

research in artificial photosynthesis However while companies are participating in local consortia such as

BioSolar Cells there currently seems to be a lack of cooperation between academia and industry at an

international level

102

Industry involvement in the area of synthetic biology amp hybrid systems

There is ongoing cooperation between Uppsala University and the German car manufacturer Volkswagen

within the framework of the European project ldquoPhotoFuelrdquo The project is coordinated by VW and focuses on

the production of butanol using micro-organisms

The European industry end users Volvo and VW are involved in the field of the design and engineering of

photosynthetic microbial cell factories based on cyanobacteria however are not directly involved in the

development of micro-organisms themselves

Furthermore in the USA the company Algenol Biofuels Inc is active in the field and operating a pilot scale

production unit

Industrial partners potentially interested in the development of ldquobionic leavesrdquo include the industry partners of

the Dutch BioSolar Cells programme Currently the coupling of the developed enzymes to the hydrogen-

evolving part of the device (ie the development of a full ldquobionic leafrdquo) is subject to ongoing patent procedures

by researchers of Wageningen UR

Industry involvement in the area of photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting)

The processes used for the deposition and processing of the devices based on two-junction tandem absorber

structures namely the metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy (MOCVD) and the in-situ functionalisation of

surfaces are generally scalable to an industrial level Spray pyrolysis processes used for the deposition of

dense thin films of BiVO4 are well-established industrial technologies and thus generally scalable to an

industrial level

Industrial stakeholders potentially interested in the area of direct water splitting with tandem absorber

structures include industry partners active in the field of epitaxy technology (eg producers and technology

providers such as Azur Space Solar Power GmbH and Aixtron SE which have ongoing long-term cooperation

with TU Ilmenau) suppliers of industrial process and specialty gases (eg Linde Group) and chemical

industries involved in catalytic processes (eg BASF Evonik)

Further interested industrial stakeholders include industry partners of the network Hydrogen Europe

(httphydrogeneuropeeu) and the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU

httpwwwfcheuropaeu) Hydrogen Europe (formerly known as NEW-IG) is the leading industry association

representing almost 100 companies both large and SMEs working to make hydrogen energy an everyday

reality The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) is a unique public-private partnership

supporting RTD activities in fuel cell and hydrogen energy technologies in Europe

The industry player Repsol from Spain was involved (on a research and development level) in the

development of photoelectrochemical water splitting based on metal oxides (WO3 BiVO4) through its Repsol

Technology Center in Spain in cooperation with the Department of Advanced Materials for Energy Catalonia

Institute for Energy Research (IREC) and the Department of Electronics University of Barcelona (UB) The

focus is currently centred on Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) for (multi-layered) WO3 and BiVO4 photoanodes

No full devices for photoelectrochemical water splitting have however yet been reported within this initiative

In the area of dye-sensitised PEC potentially interested industrial partners include the major fuel companies

Shell and Total who are already members of SOFI (Solar Fuels Institute based at Northwestern University)

an international research and innovation organisation with several European members (including the core

member Uppsala University) The Austrian fuel company OMV funds research at the Reisner Lab at the

Department of Chemistry at the University of Cambridge which is involved in both dye and catalyst

development

103

Successful technology transfer has recently been reported by Innovation Exchange Amsterdam (IXA) the

technology transfer office of the University of Amsterdam to the French company PorphyChem Rights were

licensed for the commercialisation of novel molecules for hydrogen generation so-called metalloporphyrins

innovative molecular photosensitizers which enable sustainable sunlight-driven hydrogen production from

water In cooperation with IXA the researchers filed patent applications with the European Patent Office on 26

February 2015 H-C Chen A M Brouwer Photosensitizer Europatent application 2015 EP15156740

The industry player Siemens AG from Germany is funding a project implemented by the Laboratory of

Photonics and Interfaces the Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering the School of Basic Sciences

and the Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (EPFL) for the development of efficient photosynthesis of

carbon monoxide from CO2 using perovskite photovoltaics

Industry involvement in the area of co-electrolysis

Until today the involvement of industry in the research and development of the co-electrolysis of water and

carbon dioxide in Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOECs) in Europe is limited

Activities (on a research and development level) were performed by the industry player Repsol from Spain

through its Repsol Technology Center in cooperation with the Department of Advanced Materials for Energy at

the Catalonia Institute for Energy Research (IREC) The focus of these efforts is the replacement of metallic-

based electrodes by pure oxides offering advantages for industrial applications of solid oxide electrolysers

Thereby the aim is to ensure suitable H2CO ratios of the produced syngas (ie close to two) fulfilling the

basic requirements for synthetic fuel production

At present the focus of industrial engagement (eg sunfire Audi) for the production of synthetic carbon-based

fuels via concepts using (co)electrolysis and FT-processes favours water electrolysis (for the production of H2)

and the separate addition of CO2 in the FT-process over co-electrolysis of water and carbon dioxide

In April 2015 the company sunfire GmbH announced that it succeeded in producing synthetic diesel from air

water and green electrical energy A demonstration rig for power-to-liquids was inaugurated in November

2014 Recently the plant reached its full operating capacity and now produces synthetic diesel fuel Audi the

German car manufacturer and project partner of sunfire exposed the synthetic diesel to laboratory tests with

the result that the fuel was approved A larger plant needs to be developed in order to proceed towards a

commercial application of this process

An industry-driven approach towards the valorisation of carbon dioxide for the production of carbon-based

chemicals and fuels is implemented by Siemens Corporate Technology (CT) in Munich Germany This work is

implemented within the framework of the Siemens corporate project ldquoCO2toValuerdquo where catalyst

development is performed in cooperation with researchers from the University of Lausanne in Switzerland and

materials scientists at the University of Bayreuth

A small-scale lab unit based on an electrolyser cell is currently in operation at Siemens CT and a large-scale

demonstration facility is planned to be operational in the coming years in order to pave the way towards the

industrial application of this synthetic photosynthesis process for the production of carbon-based chemicals

and fuels to be introduced into the market

104

56 Technology transfer opportunities

The transfer of research to industrial application in artificial photosynthesis remains challenging In order to

attract the attention of the private sector artificial photosynthetic systems have to be cost-effective efficient

and durable The active involvement of industrial parties could help bring research prototypes to

commercialisation This step towards commercialisation requires sufficient critical mass and funding however

which cannot be borne by a single country

In the framework of the assessment of the seven AP technology approaches in the areas of synthetic biology

amp hybrid systems photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting) and co-electrolysis a number of ongoing

collaborations between research organisations and the industry as well as future opportunities for technology

transfer have been identified

Technology transfer opportunities in the area of synthetic biology

There are ongoing patent procedures by researchers at Wageningen UR on the coupling of developed

enzymes to the hydrogen-evolving part of the device (ie the development of a full ldquobionic leafrdquo)

Technology transfer opportunities in the area of photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting)

There are several patents filed by the researchers of TU Ilmenau and a patent on full device for direct

water splitting with III-V semiconductor based tandem absorber structures is under development

There are technology transfer opportunities between Repsol and the Catalonia Institute for Energy

Research (IREC) and University of Barcelona (UB)

Successful technology transfer has been achieved by the technology transfer office of the University of

Amsterdam to the French company PorphyChem rights were licensed for the commercialisation of

metalloporphyrins as novel molecules for hydrogen generation which enable sustainable sunlight-driven

hydrogen production from water patent applications have been filed with the European Patent Office

There are technology transfer opportunities between OMV and the University of Cambridge and between

Siemens and EPFL on perovskite PV

Technology transfer opportunities in the area of co-electrolysis


Research (IREC)

There are technology transfer opportunities between Siemens and the University of Lausanne as well as

the University of Bayreuth

Table 56 below provides and overview of industry involvement and technology transfer opportunities

105

Table 56 Overview of industry involvement and technology transfer opportunities

AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives

(technology approaches) RTD institutions involved Industry involvedinterested Technology transfer opportunities

Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Uppsala University Sweden (within

CAP) in cooperation with Norwegian

Institute of Bioeconomy Research

(NIBIO)

Existing cooperation between Uppsala University

and German car manufacturer VW

Interest by end users Volvo and VW



hybrid systems

Wageningen UR Food amp Biobased

Research and Wageningen UR

Plant Research International The

Netherlands (within BioSolar Cells)

Industry partners of BioSolar Cells

Ongoing patent procedures by researchers of

Wageningen UR on the coupling of the developed

enzymes to the hydrogen evolving part of the

device (ie the development of a full ldquobionic leafrdquo)

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)







TU Ilmenau Institute for Solar Fuels

at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin and

the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar

Energy Systems ISE and the

California Institue of Technology

(Caltech)

Existing cooperation between TU Ilmenau and

epitaxy technology providers Space Solar Power

GmbH and Aixtron SE

Interest by suppliers of industrial gases (eg

Linde Group) and chemical industries involved

in catalytic processes (eg BASF Evonik)

Industry partners of network Hydrogen Europe

and the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint

Undertaking (FCH JU)

Several patents filed by researchers of TU

Ilmenau

Patent on full device for direct water splitting with

III-V thin film based tandem absorber structures

under development

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)







Institute for Solar Fuels at the

Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin two

Departments at Delft University of

Technology (within BioSolar Cells)

Further RTD at EPFL (Eacutecole

Polytechnique Feacutedeacuterale de

Lausanne)

Further RTD at Repsol Technology

Center from Spain in cooperation

with Catalonia Institute for Energy

Research (IREC) and University of

Barcelona (UB)

RTD by Repsol Technology Center focus is

currently placed on Pulsed Laser Deposition

(PLD) for (multi-layered) WO3 and BiVO4

photoanodes No full devices for

photoelectrochemical water splitting have

however yet been reported


Chemical industries involved in catalytic

processes (eg BASF Evonik)

Technology transfer opportunities between Repsol

and Catalonia Institute for Energy Research

(IREC) and University of Barcelona (UB)

Dye-sensitised


molecular photocatalysis

KTH Royal Institute of Technology

Sweden in cooperation with Dalian

University of Technology China

Existing cooperation between OMV and

University of Cambridge

Existing cooperation between Siemens and

Successful technology transfer by technology

transfer office of University of Amsterdam to the

French company PorphyChem Rights were

106

AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


(within CAP)

Further RTD at University of

Amsterdam (within BioSolar Cells)

University of Grenoble University of

Cambridge and EPFL (Eacutecole


Lausanne)

EPFL




Fuel companies Shell and Total

licensed for the commercialisation of novel

molecules for hydrogen generation so-called

metalloporphyrins innovative molecular

photosensitizers which enable sustainable

sunlight-driven hydrogen production from water

Patent applications filed with the European Patent

Office

Technology transfer opportunities between OMV

and University of Cambridge and between


Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)

Technical University of Denmark

Imperial College London University

of Sheffield and Catalonia Institute

for Energy Research (IREC) in

cooperation with Repsol Technology

Center from Spain

RTD by Repsol Technology Center focus is the

replacement of metallic based electrodes by

pure oxides offering advantages for industrial

applications of solid oxide electrolysers

Sunfire and Audi (steam electrolysis and FT-

synthesis)



(IREC)



research

Siemens Corporate Technology (CT)

in cooperation with the University of

Lausanne and the University of

Bayreuth Germany

Industry driven approach towards the

valorisation of carbon dioxide for the production

of carbon-based chemicals and fuels by

Siemens CT

Technology transfer opportunities between

Siemens and University of Lausanne University of

Bayreuth

107

57 Regulatory conditions and societal acceptance

The current very low oil prices as well as the low carbon price (ie the fee that must be paid for the right to

emit CO2 into the atmosphere) are hindering the market uptake of the low carbon AP-based production of

chemicals polymers and fuels (carbon-based fuels as well as hydrogen) In addition until today carbon

benefits are only monetised in the energy sector and not for the production of eg low carbon chemicals

Furthermore direct market incentives for solar fuels may be an opportunity for the future development of AP

technologies In addition investments made towards the establishment of a European infrastructure for

hydrogen storage and handling may be beneficial for the future development of AP technologies

Advancements in artificial photosynthesis have the potential to radically transform how societies convert and

use energy However their successful development hinges not only on technical breakthroughs but also on

the acceptance and adoption by energy users

It is therefore important to learn from experiences with other energy technologies (eg PV wind energy

nuclear energy biofuels) and thoroughly involve all societal actors in a discussion on the potential benefits

and drawbacks of the emerging technology already during the very early stages of development

Specifically barriers to social acceptance and issues causing public concern need to be addressed in an open

dialogue and potential measures mitigating concerns need to be discussed and implemented (where

possible) It needs to be kept in mind that the majority of the public is largely unaware of AP technologies

The following main topics are subject to public concern with respect to present AP technology pathways in the

areas of synthetic biology amp hybrid systems photoelectrocatalysis of water (water splitting) and co-

electrolysis

The use of genetic engineering and Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) mainly for synthetic biology

approaches

The use of toxic materials for the production of AP devices which concerns all pathways

The use of rare and expensive raw materials for catalysts and absorber materials also for all pathways

Land use requirements for large-scale deployment of AP technology and land use competition with other

renewable energy options such as PV solar thermal applications and bioenergybiofuels

High societal costs involved in the development of AP technologies (efficiency and competitiveness of AP

technologies)

The importance of societal dialogue within the future development of AP technologies is widely acknowledged

within several national initiatives in Europe Initiatives on public involvement are implemented within the Dutch

BioSolar Cells programme and by the German National Academy of Science and Engineering (acatech)

109

6 Development roadmap

61 Context

611 General situation and conditions for the development of AP

Current energy technologies are unlikely to be sufficient to attain EU ndash and other international ndash long term

targets for the share of renewable energy sources in overall energy supplies beyond 2020 There is therefore

a strategic interest in supporting efforts to develop new energy technologies (and improve existing ones) and

to raise their competitiveness ndash eg in terms of costs efficiency and resource use ndash vis-agrave-vis those that are

currently available Thus from an energy policy perspective the motivation for accelerating the industrial

implementation of AP technologies arises from their potential to expand the available portfolio of competitive

sustainable energy sources thereby contributing to the continuation of the transition away from fossil fuels At

the same time from the perspective of growth and job creation developing and demonstrating the viability and

readiness for industrial deployment of AP technologies can be viewed as part of a wider industrial policy to

develop an internationally competitive European renewable energy technology industry

Processes based on AP have been identified as having the potential to deliver sustainable alternatives to

conventional fuels AP-based lsquowater-splittingrsquo processes may be used for the production of hydrogen or in

combination with lsquocarbon reductionrsquo for the production of carbon-based fuels (lsquosolar fuelsrsquo) and other higher

order carbon-based compounds However although AP technologies show great potential and despite the

significant progress in research in the AP field made in recent years there is still a significant way to go before

AP technologies are ready for industrial implementation

AP covers several technology pathways that are being developed in parallel and which are all at a low overall

level of technology readiness The individual processes sub-systems and components within the different

pathways are however at varying levels of maturity Consequently it is difficult to foresee the eventual

production efficiency costs and material requirements that could characterise future AP-based systems when

implemented on an industrial scale Moreover while it is possible that some AP technologies may end up

competing with each other complementarities and synergies may arise from AP technology development

activities that are currently being conducted largely in isolation from each other

To date application of AP has only been undertaken in small scale in laboratory conditions and the feasibility

of commercial industrial-scale deployment of AP systems has yet to be demonstrated Assuming that this can

be achieved at cost levels that enable AP-based products to be competitive in the marketplace commercial

implementation may raise some more practical issues for example in relation to land-use water availability

and other possible environmental or social concerns that have not as yet been fully explored

To appreciate the possible future role of AP technologies also requires consideration of other developments

shaping the energy supply and technology landscape Although by definition AP is concerned with the direct

conversion of solar energy into fuel technologies for specific processes developed within the context of AP

may eventually be linked to other renewable energy technologies for example if they are combined with

electricity generated from photovoltaics (PV) or other renewable sources such as wind energy Similarly the

production of lsquosolar fuelsrsquo using AP systems requires a source of carbon which may come in the form of CO2

from ambient air or alternatively by linking AP to carbon capture (and storage) systems90

90

See for example DG Research (2015) ldquoProceedings of the scoping workshop Transforming CO2 into value for a rejuvenated European economy Brussels 26th March 2015rdquo

110

Prospects for the future industrial implementation of AP technologies will not only depend on the lsquopushrsquo

provided by technological developments but will also depend on market lsquopullrsquo factors Not least the

commercial viability of fuels produced using AP technologies (and other renewable energy sources) will be

strongly influenced by price developments for other fuels particularly oil Current low oil and carbon

(emissions) prices must be taken into consideration as factors potentially hindering the market uptake of low

carbon AP-based production of chemicals polymers and fuels (including hydrogen) both now and in the

future

The overall market potential of solar fuels will also depend on public policy developments for example in

terms of regulatory frameworks and incentives affecting demand levels and costsprices of renewable energy

sources Similarly a concerted policy framework targeted towards promotion of a lsquohydrogen economyrsquo may

lead to a shift in emphasis for AP technology development towards hydrogen production (lsquowater splittingrsquo) ndash

already the more advanced area of AP research ndash and away from solar fuels Certainly until a higher

technology readiness level of AP is attained care should be taken to ensure that regulatory measures ndash

whether at European and national levels ndash do not impinge upon or hinder developments along the different AP

pathways

Finally in order to truly accelerate the industrial implementation of AP social acceptance and adoption of the

new technology by energy users must be acquired As it stands the majority of the public is largely unaware

of the development and significance of AP while those who are voice concerns about genetic engineering the

use of toxic materials the use of rare and expensive raw materials and the high societal costs involved in the

development along all technology pathways

612 Situation of the European AP research and technology base

Europersquos scientific communities form more than 60 of the 150 or so research groups on AP worldwide

boasting well-educated researchers and a diverse range of scientists - an interdisciplinary approach being

crucial for scientific advancement within this highly innovative field Together these groups cover all of the

identified existing technological pathways along which the advancement of AP might accelerate thus

increasing the likelihood of cooperation between European scientists with possible breakthroughs on any

given path

Significant improvements are still needed with respect to cost-efficiency lifetimedurability energy efficiency

and resource use for all existing AP technologies and progress is being made in addressing these knowledge

and technology gaps Yet while this technological development making strides along multiple pathways

simultaneously shows a considerable amount of potential the scientific community alone cannot accelerate

the development of the industrial implementation of AP Aiding the development from a currently low

technology readiness level and eventually commercialising AP will involve a host of enabling factors

including those of the financial structural regulatory and social nature

As it stands currently European investment into AP technologies falls short of the amounts being dedicated in

a number of non-European countries and it could be argued is rather short-term if not short-sighted Further

stifling the potential of these technologies is the fact ndash significant considering most European research activity

into AP operates at a national level (only one of the six consortia in Europe being pan-European) ndash that both

national research plans and their funding are fragmented lacking a necessary integrated approach Adding to

this fragmentation there appears to be a lack of cooperation between research groups and academia on the

one hand and between academia and industry on the other This suggests that there are some structural

barriers impeding the speed and success of the development and eventual commercialisation of AP in

Europe

111

Accelerating the development of AP requires bringing the best and brightest to the forefront of the research

being carried out in the field which would in turn involve a conscious effort to boost collaboration of the top

contributors across Europe - such an effort has been the cluster of several FP7 projects the good example of

which may well serve as a foundation on which to build in the future Once the divide between research

groups and academia has been breached and the technological advancement of AP technologies has been

given the push needed to be able to climb higher up the TRL scale interest from and in turn collaboration with

the industry should rise

62 Roadmap overview

The assessment of the existing lsquostate of the artrsquo undertaken for this study reveals that AP technologies are in

general currently at relatively low levels of technology readiness levels91

There are many outstanding gaps in

fundamental knowledge and technology that must be addressed before AP can attain the level of development

necessary for industrial scale implementation Moreover there is not as yet any compelling evidence to

suggest that any particular AP pathway or sub-approach therein can currently be identified as clearly lsquomore

promisingrsquo than another Given this situation it seems appropriate at least for the time being to adopt an

lsquoopenrsquo approach to possible support measures for AP-related research efforts which does not single out and

prioritise any specific AP pathway or sub-approach This conclusion corresponds to the broad consensus view

expressed by participants at the workshop on lsquoArtificial Photosynthesis in Horizon 2020rsquo held in May 2016

Notwithstanding the above assessment if AP is to establish a role in the overall portfolio of energy sources

then the longer-term objective must be to develop competitive and sustainable AP technologies that can be

implemented at an industrial scale Thus a technology development roadmap for AP must support the

transition from fundamental research and laboratory-based validation through to demonstration at a

commercial or near commercial scale and ultimately industrial replication within the market Upscaling of

technologies and integration of processes in a complete lsquovalue chainrsquo ie from light harvesting through to

solar fuel (and other AP-based products) will require greater levels of investment and inevitably will imply

making choices on which technology options to prioritise As the general aim (of the roadmap) is to accelerate

industrial implementation these choices should reflect market opportunities for commercial application of AP

technologies while bearing in mind the overarching policy objectives of increasing the share of renewable

energy sources in overall energy supplies

621 Knowledge and technology development

Following from the above in terms of knowledge and technology development activities the outline roadmap

for support for the development of AP technologies consists of three phases as illustrated in Figure 61 and

described in more detail in the following sub-sections

91

Although the situation of with respect to different process varies most are assessed to be only at TRL 3 or 4 (ie corresponding to lsquoexperimental proof of conceptrsquo or lsquotechnology validated in labrsquo)

112

Figure 61 General development roadmap visualisation


Regional MS amp EU

Regional MS EU amp Private

Private amp EU

Private (companies)

FUNDINGSOURCE

TRL 9Industrial

Implementation

TRL 6-8Demonstrator

Projects

Pilot ProjectsTRL 3-6

TRL 1-3Fundamental

Research

RampDampI ACTIVITIES

2017 2025 2035

113

In the following description for convenience the timeline for activities is addressed in three distinct phases It

should be noted however that some AP technologies are more advanced than others and that they

accordingly could already be at or close to readiness for pilot projects (addressed under Phase 2)

Accordingly some laboratory-based validation (TRL 4) and lsquorelevant environmentrsquo validation projects (TRL 5)

may be envisaged within Phase 1 of the Roadmap Conversely as all fundamental knowledge and technology

issues will be not be solved within the 5-7 year time horizon foreseen for Phase 1 the need to support such

development through smaller scale research projects can be expected to continue into Phase 2 of the

Roadmap and possibly beyond

Furthermore in addition to support for fundamental knowledge and technology development the Roadmap

foresees the need to integrate lsquosupporting and accompanying activitiesrsquo (see Section 622) These activities

should run in parallel to the support for knowledge and technology development with initial activities starting

within Phase 1 of the Roadmap and continuing throughout the entire period of the Roadmap It may be

appropriate that some of the suggested activity areas are addressed as part of the proposed Networking

action (Action 2) and Coordinating action (Action 5)

Phase 1 - Time horizon short term (from now to year 5-7)

This phase will target the continuation of early stage research on AP technologies in parallel with initiation of

the process of scaling-up from laboratory based bench-scale projects towards pilot scale projects (ie to

validate whether bench scale projects are viable at a pilot scale) In keeping with the general status of AP

knowledge and technology development the scope of support during this phase should remain lsquoopenrsquo to all

existing (and potential) AP technology pathways and sub-options therein Such an approach should allow for

continued long-term advances in underpinning rsquogenericrsquo scientific knowledge that may lead to a breakthrough

in terms of newnovel approaches for AP while at the same time pushing forward towards addressing

technology challenges across the broad spectrum of AP pathwaysapproaches Notwithstanding this lsquoopenrsquo

approach eventual support may be directed towards specific topics that have been identified as areas where

additional effort is required to address existing knowledge and technology gaps

Under Phase 1 possible EU funding support should a priori be directed towards multiple small scale projects

(eg euro 3-5 million) that can complement existing regional and national programmes (and existing related EU-

level support)

Phase 1 - Recommendations (specific actions)

Recommendations to support knowledge and technology development (Action 1)

Recommendation Support for multiple small AP research projects

Objective To address outstanding gaps in fundamental knowledge and technology relating to AP

Rationale There are many remaining outstanding gaps in AP-relevant fundamental knowledge and

technology that must be addressed before AP systems can attain the level of development

necessary for industrial scale implementation This requires continued efforts dealing with

fundamental knowledge aspects of AP processes together with development of necessary

technology for the application of AP

Resources needed Project funding indicative cost circa euro 3-5 million per individual project

Actors involved Funding sources EU national (MS) and regional authorities

Funding recipients Research and technology development institutions

Expected impact Strengthen diversify and accelerate knowledge and technology development for

processesdevices for AP-based production of hydrogen (water splitting) and carbon-based lsquosolar

fuelsrsquo

Priority

High

Suggested date of implementation

Short (Phase 1) with possibility to extend implementation over

medium and long term

114


Recommendation Support for enhanced networking for AP research and technology development

Objective To improve information exchange cooperation and collaboration so as to increase efficiency and

accelerate AP-relevant knowledge and technology development towards industrial scale

implementation

Rationale AP research and technology development requires expertise across multiple and diverse

scientific areas both theoretical and applied Notwithstanding existing efforts to support and

enhance European AP research networks (eg AMPEA and precursors) AP research efforts in

the EU are fragmented being to a large extent organised and funded at national levels Further

development of EU-wide (and globally integrated) network(s) would promote coordination and

cooperation of research efforts within the AP field and in related fields addressing scientific

issues of common interest This action ndash offering secure funding for networking activities at a

pan-European level ndash should raise collaboration and increase synergies that potentially are being

currently overlooked

The broader international dimension of AP research and technology development could also be

addressed under this action In particular to develop instruments to facilitate research

partnerships beyond the EU (eg with US Japan Canada etc)

Resources needed Network funding circa euro1-2 million



Expected impact By providing a platform for knowledge exchange the speed of discovery and exploitation of

knowledge and technology developments should be accelerated both within the research

community and with industry

Priority

Medium





Recommendation AP Inducement Prize

Objective To provide additional stimulus for research technology development and innovation in the field

of AP while also raising awareness amongst the public and other stakeholders

Rationale The inducement prize would a priori target ldquoproof of conceptrdquo of AP at a bench-scale that meet

eligibility and award criteria set for the prize Experience suggests that lsquoinducement prizersquo

schemes can be particularly effective in situations corresponding to those of AP (ie where there

are a number of competing emergent technologies in the TRL 2-4 range that can potentially

deliver similar outcomes) The prize should provide an incentive for researchers to accelerate AP

RampD efforts and also potentially extend interest beyond the current AP research base to a wider

range of potential researchersinnovators

Resources needed Financial prize circa euro3 million

Prize organisation etc euro03 million

Actors involved Funding sources EU possible national (MS) contribution

Potential prize recipients Research and technology development institutions and (possibly)

industry

Expected impact Increased research intensity and wider participation resulting in turn to sooner than otherwise

demonstration of bench-scale AP devices This should provide for an earlier transition from

laboratory based research towards pilot projects

Priority

Medium

Suggested date of implementation92

Short (Phase 1)

92

Based on views gathered by the study there appears to be a general consensus that 3-4 years could be sufficient for the inducement prize contest timeframe Extending the timeframe for a longer period risks prize fatigue where contestants lose sight of the original prize aim and interest can start to wane

115

Phase 1 - Milestones

The scope of knowledge and technology development activities envisaged under Phase 1 is potentially very

broad as it covers multiple lsquopathwaysrsquo and a wide array of challengesissues ranging from general to highly

specific These concern each of the main AP steps (eg light harvesting charge separation water splitting

and fuel production) and range from materials issues device design and supporting activities such as process

modelling In general terms key criteria for evaluating overall progress towards the ultimate objective of

commercial implementation will revolve around factors such as efficiency of conversion of light into solar fuels

alongside the durability and potential cost-effectiveness of AP systems Shorter-term targets (lsquomilestonesrsquo)

could be set for minimum performance levels in terms of conversion efficiency (eg 10 conversion of solar

energy to hydrogen or to carbon-based fuels) although given the variation in progress across AP pathways

variable efficiency targets for individual pathways would seem appropriate

However if the purpose of the milestone is to mark the point of transition from Phase 1 to Phase 2 of the

Roadmap then a pragmatic milestone may be defined in terms of the development of an AP devicesystem

able to produce a lsquouseablersquo quantity of solar fuel in laboratory conditions sufficient to warrant further

development towards a pilot projectplant (Phase 2) In this regard it may make sense to a greater or lesser

degree to align the milestones for Phase 1 to the award criteria retained for the proposed inducement prize

Phase 2 - Time horizon medium term (from year 5-7 to year 10-12)

This phase will focus on reinforcing the implementation of pilot scale projects while initiating the process of

scaling up to a demonstration scale The scope of eventual support should focus on a limited number of

projects for the most promising AP technologies in order to demonstrate their viability at a pilot scale In this

context public (EU) funding support should be directed towards a limited number of medium scale projects At

the same time there should be encouragement of private sector participation in technology development

projects



Recommendation Support for AP pilot projects

Objective To develop AP devices and integrated systems moving from laboratory scale up to an

(industrial) relevant scale of production This should enable comparative assessment of different

AP technology approaches at a production scale permitting industrial actors to make a

meaningful assessment of their potential viability for commercial deployment Equally these

projects should serve to identify (priority) areas where additional knowledge and technology

development is required in order to achieve industrial scale implementation

Rationale To reach industrial implementation of AP the feasibility of upscaling from laboratory conditions to

those approaching actual operational conditions needs to be demonstrated Accordingly pilot

projects under this Action item should provide for the testing and evaluation of AP devices to

assess and demonstrate the feasibility of reaching necessary characteristics (eg efficiency

levelstargets durabilitylife-cycle cost effectiveness) for commercial application for the

production of solar fuels The implementation of flexible pilot plants with open access to

researchers and companies should support (accelerated) development of manufacturing

capabilities for AP devices and scaling-up of AP production processes and product supply


Actors involved Funding sources EU national (MS) and regional authorities possible industry support

Funding recipients Research and technology development institutions industry

Expected impact Strengthen and accelerate knowledge and technology development for processesdevices for

AP-based production of hydrogen (water splitting) and carbon-based lsquosolar fuelsrsquo

Priority

High


Medium (Phase 2)

116


Recommendation Support for AP coordination

Objective To enhance efficiency (and effectiveness) of AP research efforts and more broadly to raise

coordination in the fields of solar fuels and energy technology development

Rationale There is a general need to ensure that research budgets are used effectively and to avoid

duplication of research effort In the context of AP there is a need to identify lsquomost promisingrsquo

technologies and set common priorities accordingly Moving to a common European AP

technology development strategy will require inter alia alignment of national research efforts in

the EU and (possible) cooperation at a broader international level Equally with the aim of

accelerating industrial implementation of AP there is a need to ensure cooperation and

coordination between research and technology development activities among the lsquoresearch

communityrsquo and industry

Resources needed Networkcoordination funding circa euro1-2 million



Expected impact Improved coordination of AP research activities at European level (and possibly international

level) and improved priority setting to address knowledge and technology gaps for AP-based

processes and products

Priority

High


Medium (Phase 2) with possibility to extend implementation over

long term


The purpose of the AP pilot projects proposed under Phase 2 is inter alia to develop AP production

devicessystems operating at a sufficient scale to assess their potential viability for commercial deployment

Thus AP devicessystems developed within the pilot projects should attain sufficient performance levels and

fulfil basic operational and other characteristics (eg conversion efficiency lifetimedurability

sustainabilityresource use and cost-effectiveness) that are sufficient to attract the potential interest of private

sector (industry) investors Specific milestones for AP pilot projects may therefore be set in terms of multiple

target technical performance requirements but the overarching target lsquomilestonersquo for pilot projects will relate to

the overall assessment of their potential economic (commercial) viability conditional on further technological

developments (including engineering) and subject to their potential to comply with sustainability and other

social requirements

As a bottom line in terms of marking the point of transition from Phase 2 to Phase 3 of the Roadmap the test

for a lsquosuccessfulrsquo pilot project will be reflected in developing technology solutions able to attract private

investors willing to commit to their next stage of development either through a demonstration project (Phase

3) or directly to industrial implementation (lsquoearlyrsquo commercial projects)

Phase 3 - Time horizon long term (from year 10-12 to year 15-17)

This phase will focus of the development of ndash one or more ndash demonstration projects to assess the viability of

AP technologies at an industrial scale and facilitating the transfer of AP-based production systems from

demonstration stage into industrial production for lsquofirstrsquo markets The scope of eventual support should focus

on the AP technologies identified as most viable for commercialindustrial application However demonstration

level products should be led by the private sector ndash reflecting the need to assess commercial viability of

technologies ndash with co-funding provided by the public sector ndash reflecting the risk and large financial burden of

investments in such projects

117



Recommendation Support for AP demonstrator projects

Objective To develop one or more demonstrator projects to assess the viability of AP technologies at a

close-to industrial scale (ie the project should be of a sufficient size to serve as a platform and

facilitating the transfer of AP-based production systems from demonstration stage into industrial

production for lsquofirstrsquo markets)

Rationale The demonstration project(s) provide a lsquostepping stonersquo between pilot projects and industrial

implementation The projects should not only provide validation of AP devices and systems but

also allow for developing and evaluating the integration of the full AP value chain93

By

demonstration the (commercial) viability of AP the project(s) should promote full industrial

investments that might otherwise be discouraged by the high cost and risk94

At the same time

beyond addressing technological and operational issues the demonstration projects should

address all other aspects ndash eg societalpolitical environmentalsustainability

economiccommercialfinancial legalregulatory geographic etc ndash necessary to evaluate how

AP based production of solar fuels could be implemented in practice

Resources needed To be determined

[Indicative budget envelope circa euro10-20 million per individual project However required funding

will depend on size and ambition of the project and may significantly exceed this amount]

Actors involved Funding sources Industry with EU support


Expected impact The projects should both build investor confidence in the commercial application of AP-based

solar fuel technologies and raise public confidence including in terms of safety and reliability

Priority

Medium


Long (Phase 3)


Given that the primary purpose of the demonstrator projects is to assess the viability of AP technologies at a

close-to industrial scale an initial milestone for such projects would be for the plants to be operational and to

be able to produce solar fuels in commercially significant volumes Ultimately the target lsquomilestonersquo will be to

produce solar fuels that are cost-competitive under actual market conditions and commercial requirements

while complying with other key requirements (eg safety societal acceptance etc)

622 Supporting and accompanying activities

The technological development of AP will throughout its various phases be guided by regulatory and market

measures as well as the degree of social acceptance In order to help secure favourable conditions for the

development and eventual commercialisation of AP technologies support will need to be provided from a very

early stage onwards within both of these spheres The prices of competing fuels and carbon emissions may

need to be regulated as well as incentives affecting the demand for renewable energy sources introduced

while the breadth of technological development regarding AP should not be hindered by regulation within the

current phase of research nor research into an eventual shift to a lsquohydrogen economyrsquo be put on the back

burner Thorough involvement of all societal actors in education and open debate regarding the potential

benefits and drawbacks of AP technologies as well as barriers to social acceptance and issues raising public

concern is also required At the same time the economic and commercial aspects of AP production

technologies and AP-produced solar fuels need to be understood including in terms of the development of

successful business models and the competitiveness of European industry in the field of AP and renewable

energy more generally

93

Where this covers the whole AP supplyvalue chain from upstream supply (eg materials components etc) to downstream demand (markets)

94 For example high cost resulting from accelerated investments to scale-up to industrial scale and high-risk profile resulting from uncertainty over which AP technologies may prove most successful together with uncertainty over operating costs and future market prices and demand for solar fuels etc These factors may otherwise discourage investments in (initial) full scale projects unless some public support is provided

118

There is potentially a wide range of themes ndash beyond purely technological and operational aspects ndash which

require to be better understood and which may be addressed through supporting and accompanying activities

including the following (non-exhaustive) topics

Industry engagement and technology transfer As far as can be ascertained the engagement of

industry in the field of AP technologies has to date been limited although because of its commercial

sensitivity it is difficult to obtain a clear picture of industrycompaniesrsquo interest in AP Nonetheless there is

a general view that a greater engagement of the industry would be beneficial for the development of AP

technologies and will become increasingly important as technologies reach higher TRLs and move closer

to commercial implementation An active involvement of industrial players in cooperative research projects

could facilitate the transfer of technology from the research community to industry (or vice versa) thereby

helping speed up the evolution from research prototypes and pilots to commercial implementation

Intellectual property protection To ensure future development and industrial application European

intellectual property in the area of AP should be adequately protected through patents At the same time

worldwide developments in AP-related patent-protected technologies should be taken into consideration

to ensure that Europe avoids potentially damaging dependences on non-European technologies

Regulatory conditions and support measures As a minimum AP technologies and products entering

the market should face a legal and regulatory environment that does not discriminate against their use and

provides a level playing field compared to other energyfuel types Beyond this there may be a public

policy justification (eg reflecting positive externalities of AP) for creating a specifically favourable

regulatory and legal framework to encourage the take-up and diffusion of AP technologies and products

At the same time other actions for example AP project financing support may be implemented to support

the industryrsquos AP investments these may be both for production investments but also for downstream

users faced by high switching costs (eg from fossil to solar fuels)

Societal aspects and safety AP technologies may potentially raise a number of public concerns that

need to be understood and addressed These may relate to safety aspects of the production storage

distribution and consumption of AP-based products for example there may be concern over the use of

genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in synthetichybrid AP processes Other areas of concern may

arise for example in relation to land use requirements or use of rare materials etc In general both

among the general public and even within the industry there is limited knowledge of AP Accordingly it

may be appropriatenecessary to implement activities to raise public and industry awareness of AP

Market potential relating to the assessment of the potential role and integration of AP energy supply and

demand Here multiple scenarios are possible for example depending on whether advances in AP

technology are targeted towards production of hydrocarbons or of hydrogen The former would require

fewer changes in terms of supporting infrastructure development (eg for fuel storage and distribution) but

is currently lagging behind in terms of AP technological development For the latter future market potential

will depend on the evolution towards a greater adoption of hydrogen-based fuel technologies Better

understanding of the shape and direction of market developments both within the EU and globally will be

important for assessing which AP technology developments offer the best prospects for future industrial

implementation At the same time the sensitivity of future prospects for AP technologies and products to

developments in the costs and market prices of competing (fossil and renewable) fuels should be

assessed

Industry organisation and business development relating to the assessment of future industrial

organisation of AP-technology production including the full supplyvalue chain for solar fuels (ie from

upstream supply of materials components equipment etc through fuel production to downstream market

supply including storage and distribution) Such an assessment will be required to better understand the

potential position and opportunities for the European industry in the area of AP which should also take

account of the business models and strategies for European players within the market

119

The aforementioned topics illustrate the diversity of the dimensions surrounding AP that require to be better

understood In a first instance more detailed economic legalregulatory social and other analyses of these

topics is warranted In turn this may lead to the formulation of more concrete policies and actions to develop

appropriate regulatory frameworks and to shape other market and business conditions in order to ensure a

supportive environment for the development and implementation of AP technologies and products

121

7 References

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American Chemical Society 2014 136 4316

(2) Tachibana Y Vayssieres L Durrant J R Nature Photonics 2012 6 511

(3) Agency I E 2015

(4) Maeda K Domen K The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 2010 1 2655

(5) Ni M Leung M K Leung D Y International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2008 33 2337

(6) Utschig L M Soltau S R Tiede D M Curr Opin Chem Biol 2015 25 1

(7) Chen L Chen F Xia C Energy amp Environmental Science 2014 7 4018

(8) Carmo M Fritz D L Mergel J Stolten D International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2013 38 4901

(9) Fukuzumi S Curr Opin Chem Biol 2015 25 18

(10) Pinaud B A Benck J D Seitz L C Forman A J Chen Z Deutsch T G James B D Baum

K N Baum G N Ardo S Energy amp Environmental Science 2013 6 1983

(11) Ursua A Gandia L M Sanchis P Proceedings of the IEEE 2012 100 410

(12) Nelson D L Lehninger A L Cox M M Lehninger principles of biochemistry Macmillan 2008

(13) Alberts B Johnson A Lewis J Raff M Roberts K Walter P Classic textbook now in its 5th

Edition 2010

(14) Magnuson A Anderlund M Johansson O Lindblad P Lomoth R Polivka T Ott S Stensjouml K

Styring S Sundstroumlm V Hammarstroumlm L Accounts of Chemical Research 2009 42 1899

(15) Smolentsev G Sundstroumlm V Coordination Chemistry Reviews 2015 304 117

(16) Hammarstrom L Hammes-Schiffer S Accounts of chemical research 2009 42 1859

(17) Barber J Chemical Society Reviews 2009 38 185

(18) Gust D Moore T A Moore A L Faraday discussions 2012 155 9

(19) Centi G Perathoner S ChemSusChem 2010 3 195

(20) Hansen J Ruedy R Sato M Lo K Reviews of Geophysics 2010 48

(21) Pearson P N Palmer M R Nature 2000 406 695

(22) Faunce T A Lubitz W Rutherford A B MacFarlane D Moore G F Yang P Nocera D G

Moore T A Gregory D H Fukuzumi S Energy amp Environmental Science 2013 6 695

(23) Gorka M Schartner J van der Est A Rogner M Golbeck J H Biochemistry 2014 53 2295

(24) Gust D Moore T A Moore A L Accounts of chemical research 2009 42 1890

(25) Armaroli N Balzani V Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2007 46 52

(26) House R L Iha N Y M Coppo R L Alibabaei L Sherman B D Kang P Brennaman M K

Hoertz P G Meyer T J Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C Photochemistry Reviews 2015 25 32

(27) Utschig L M Silver S C Mulfort K L Tiede D M Journal of the American Chemical Society 2011

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(28) Listorti A Durrant J Barber J Nature materials 2009 8 929

(29) Styring S Faraday discussions 2012 155 357

(30) Walter M G Warren E L McKone J R Boettcher S W Mi Q Santori E A Lewis N S

Chemical reviews 2010 110 6446

(31) Lewis N S Science 2016 351 aad1920

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of Sciences 2012 109 15560

(33) Barber J Tran P D Journal of The Royal Society Interface 2013 10 20120984

(34) Gersten S W Samuels G J Meyer T J Journal of the American Chemical Society 1982 104

4029

(35) Gust D Moore T A Moore A L Accounts of Chemical Research 2001 34 40

(36) Kalyanasundaram K Graetzel M Current opinion in Biotechnology 2010 21 298

(37) Wen F Li C Accounts of chemical research 2013 46 2355

(38) McCrory C C Jung S Ferrer I M Chatman S M Peters J C Jaramillo T F Journal of the


(39) Alenazey F Alyousef Y Almisned O Almutairi G Ghouse M Montinaro D Ghigliazza F

International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2015 40 10274

(40) Asthana S Samanta C Bhaumik A Banerjee B Voolapalli R K Saha B Journal of Catalysis

2016 334 89

(41) Ihara M Nishihara H Yoon K S Lenz O Friedrich B Nakamoto H Kojima K Honma D

Kamachi T Okura I Photochemistry and photobiology 2006 82 676

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(42) Ihara M Nakamoto H Kamachi T Okura I Maedal M Photochemistry and photobiology 2006 82

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(43) Fukuzumi S Yamada Y Suenobu T Ohkubo K Kotani H Energy amp Environmental Science 2011

4 2754

(44) Vignais P M Billoud B Meyer J FEMS microbiology reviews 2001 25 455

(45) Utschig L M Dimitrijevic N M Poluektov O G Chemerisov S D Mulfort K L Tiede D M The

Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 2011 2 236

(46) Prince R C Kheshgi H S Critical reviews in microbiology 2005 31 19

(47) Brown K A Wilker M B Boehm M Dukovic G King P W Journal of the American Chemical

Society 2012 134 5627

(48) Lubner C E Applegate A M Knoumlrzer P Ganago A Bryant D A Happe T Golbeck J H

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2011 108 20988

(49) Iwuchukwu I J Vaughn M Myers N ONeill H Frymier P Bruce B D Nature nanotechnology

2010 5 73

(50) Yacoby I Pochekailov S Toporik H Ghirardi M L King P W Zhang S Proceedings of the

National Academy of Sciences 2011 108 9396

(51) Silver S C Niklas J Du P Poluektov O G Tiede D M Utschig L M Journal of the American

Chemical Society 2013 135 13246

(52) Grimme R A Lubner C E Bryant D A Golbeck J H Journal of the American Chemical Society

2008 130 6308

(53) Rumpel S Siebel J F Faregraves C Duan J Reijerse E Happe T Lubitz W Winkler M Energy amp

Environmental Science 2014 7 3296

(54) Volgusheva A Styring S Mamedov F Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2013 110

7223

(55) Rozendal R A Jeremiasse A W Hamelers H V Buisman C J Environmental Science amp

Technology 2007 42 629

(56) Clauwaert P Toledo R Ha D v d Crab R Verstraete W Hu H Udert K Rabaey K Water

Science and Technology 2008 57 575

(57) Bajracharya S ter Heijne A Benetton X D Vanbroekhoven K Buisman C J Strik D P Pant

D Bioresource technology 2015 195 14

(58) Li M Canniffe D P Jackson P J Davison P A FitzGerald S Dickman M J Burgess J G

Hunter C N Huang W E The ISME journal 2012 6 875

(59) Zhang D Zhao Y He Y Wang Y Zhao Y Zheng Y Wei X Zhang L Li Y Jin T ACS

synthetic biology 2012 1 274

(60) Blankenship R E Tiede D M Barber J Brudvig G W Fleming G Ghirardi M Gunner M

Junge W Kramer D M Melis A science 2011 332 805

(61) Fujishima A Honda K Nature 1972 238 37

(62) James B D Baum G N Perez J Baum K N Square O V DOE report 2009

(63) Hanna M Nozik A Journal of Applied Physics 2006 100 074510

(64) Ross R T Hsiao T L Journal of Applied Physics 1977 48 4783

(65) Khaselev O Turner J A Science 1998 280 425

(66) Wang X Maeda K Chen X Takanabe K Domen K Hou Y Fu X Antonietti M Journal of the


(67) Kanan M W Nocera D G Science 2008 321 1072

(68) Brillet J Yum J-H Cornuz M Hisatomi T Solarska R Augustynski J Graetzel M Sivula K

Nature Photonics 2012 6 824

(69) Kim J H Kaneko H Minegishi T Kubota J Domen K Lee J S ChemSusChem 2016 9 61

(70) Gao L Cui Y Wang J Cavalli A Standing A Vu T T Verheijen M A Haverkort J E

Bakkers E P Notten P H Nano letters 2014 14 3715

(71) Standing A Assali S Gao L Verheijen M A van Dam D Cui Y Notten P H Haverkort J E

Bakkers E P Nature communications 2015 6

(72) Gao L Cui Y Vervuurt R H van Dam D van Veldhoven R P Hofmann J P Bol A A

Haverkort J E Notten P H Bakkers E P Advanced Functional Materials 2015

(73) Smolyakov G A Osinski M A Google Patents 2011

(74) Herrera A S Google Patents 2013

(75) Joo O S Jung K D Min B K Kim S H Oh J W Google Patents 2008

(76) Google Patents 2015

(77) Liu J Zhang Y Lu L Wu G Chen W Chemical Communications 2012 48 8826

(78) Li J Wu N Catalysis Science amp Technology 2015 5 1360

(79) Laguna-Bercero M A Journal of Power Sources 2012 203 4

123

(80) Graves C Ebbesen S D Mogensen M Solid State Ionics 2011 192 398

(81) Li W Wang H Shi Y Cai N International journal of hydrogen energy 2013 38 11104

(82) Fu Q Mabilat C Zahid M Brisse A Gautier L Energy amp Environmental Science 2010 3 1382

(83) Graves C Ebbesen S D Mogensen M Lackner K S Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

2011 15 1

(84) Christopher K Dimitrios R Energy amp Environmental Science 2012 5 6640

(85) Sun X Chen M Jensen S H Ebbesen S D Graves C Mogensen M international journal of

hydrogen energy 2012 37 17101

(86) Ivy J Summary of electrolytic hydrogen production milestone completion report National Renewable

Energy Lab Golden CO (US) 2004

(87) Haering C Roosen A Schichl H Schnoumlller M Solid State Ionics 2005 176 261

(88) Mahmood A Bano S Yu J H Lee K-H Energy 2015 90 Part 1 344

(89) Jakobsson N B FRIIS P C BOslashGILD H J Google Patents 2014

(90) Stoots C M OBrien J E Herring J S Lessing P A Hawkes G L Hartvigsen J J Google

Patents 2011

(91) JABBAR M HOslashGH J Stamate E BONANOS N Google Patents 2013

[Ca

talo

gu

e n

um

be

r]

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

EUROPEAN COMMISSION

European Commission Directorate-General for Research amp Innovation

E-mail RTD-ENERGY-SR-APeceuropaeu

European Commission

B-1049 Brussels

EUROPEAN COMMISSION


20164960

2016 EUR 27987 EN


Final


November 2016

LEGAL NOTICE








ISBN 978-92-79-59752-7

ISSN 1831-9424

Doi 102777410231






Freephone number ()

00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11


may charge you)

5

Abstract



















technology field

7

Executive Summary





































8























technologies







alliance (EERA)

9


































microorganisms





fuels



competing pathways)




degradation


micro-organisms




systems level



photobioreactors








10









efficiencies







abundant material











structures




engineering


of gt1000 hours




US$ per kg

Co-electrolysis










electrodes






syngas





(steam) and CO2





ratio of the syngas














approach




11


actions


















should be promoted












12


Source Ecorys





TRL 1-3 Fundamental

2017 2025 2035


















13



















products








measures








15

Table of contents

Abstract 5

Executive Summary 7


1 Introduction 21
















323 Patents 44





333 Patents 53


34 Summary 54














16



















61 Context 109






7 References 121

17

List of figures
















19

List of tables


36





















21

1 Introduction










production














23



























coordinated by four
























24














PSII14











ATP12-16










672 kcal mol-1




The efficiency of


25

















This method of






26










Due to








100x1015




27



















Natural




Hydrogen


systems29

















28


























arise from

Low efficiency












29


study



30










utilised)


transfer)








31




































233 Co-electrolysis











energy source40



32



the near future

33















34













For







Illustrations






35












h-1

41-43

(TRL 3)






h-1


Systems



h-1





h-1

46

(TRL 3-4)










36












min-1




27



system27






h-1






The








(TRL 3)








-1]

TON (time hours)


0002 ndc (2000)


001 ndc (3)


013 ndc (2)


031 ndc (05)


073 (3)


107 ndc (1)


11 (12)


125 (4)

PSI-cobaloximea 27

283 (15)


583 (4)


524 ndc (3)


b Redox mediator PC

c nd not determined

37




This work







Most photoactive









(TRL 3)




regenerate55













(TRL 3)



(MES)57










processes5859





38

























improving





Microorganisms





It should be












industrial scale

39







environment
















chemistry
























40


























Illustration




-) are released H




Explanations





41










PEC


















external bias10






























42



Types 1 and 2 are


















43





















pricing)10

Type 1 $160 H2kg

Type 2 $320 H2kg

Type 3 $1040 H2kg

Type 4 $400 H2kg







was too low






To














44
















(TRL 4)




06769

(TRL 3)













(TRL 2-3)

323 Patents


discussed below








(TRL 3-4)








45







(TRL 2-3)








(TRL 3)







(TRL 3)













continue to fall














46





activity




















These






manufactured








The amount of each




120784119815120784 + 119810119822120784 rarr 119810119815120786 + 119822120784

120784(120784120790120787) + 120788120784120789120782 rarr 120784120784120790120782 + 120786120787120788






The energy


47




33 Co-electrolysis




equation below879










mol-1

(095 eV) at 900 oC

8397980

120784119815120784119822 + 119811119810 rarr 120784119815120784 + 119822120784




Unlike electrolysis






This


Co-electrolysis







48





119810119822120784 + 119815120784119822 rarr 119810119822 + 119815120784 + 119822120784





If










The most




Illustrations




49




Explanations



A recent





current densities11



current densities















gt99







50






























51


Manufacturer

Technology

(configuration)

Production

(Nm3h)

Rated Power

(kW)b

Energy

Consumption

(kWhNm3)c

Efficiency

()d

Maximum

Pressure

H2 purity

(vol)

Location




















52





constructed from





















81 (TRL 3)



Recently








(TRL 4)












(TRL 4)

53




Advantages







Dynamic operation

Disadvantages








333 Patents







(TRL 3)








(TRL 4)

54







(TRL 2-3)



























34 Summary











55






















current technology

Co-electrolysis
























57


























about AP5
















58



EU - AMPEA






























Sweden - CAP








fuels11









59

UK ndash SolarCAP




















PECHouse2)14





)








groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Austria 1 1 15

Belgium 1 1 -


Denmark 3 2 -

Finland 1 1 6

France 5 3 14

Germany 31 17 16

Ireland 1 1 7

Italy 5 5 29

Netherlands 28 9 18

Norway 1 1 -

12






60


groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Spain 4 4 11

Sweden 13 5 17

Switzerland 5 5 10

UK 13 9 10

Total 113 65 15




Source Ecorys



people17













respectively



amp hybrid systems


Austria 1 1 1 0

Belgium 1 1 1 0


Denmark 3 0 2 2

Finland 1 1 0 0

France 5 2 5 0

Germany 31 14 15 9

Ireland 1 1 1 0

Italy 5 0 5 0


Norway 1 0 1 0

Spain 4 2 3 1

Sweden 13 10 7 0

Switzerland 5 1 5 3

UK 13 8 5 1

Total 113 53 69 25

Source Ecorys

17


61













AMPEA






They hence focus












photosynthesis20













18






62











Source Ecorys











63

Japan ndash ARPChem



























set up










and JCAP

US ndash JCAP









23






64



US ndash SOFI















research group

Australia 1 1 18

Brazil 1 1 5

Canada 1 1 -

China 12 5 13

Israel 1 1 6

Japan 16 15 15

Korea 4 4 16

Singapore 1 1 14

US 40 32 18

Total 77 61 5




Source Ecorys












28



65




Country Technology

pathway


and hybrid systems


Australia 1 1 1 0

Brazil 1 0 1 0

Canada 1 0 1 1

China 12 4 6 2

Israel 1 1 0 1

Japan 16 7 15 1

Korea 4 0 4 0

Singapore 1 0 1 0

US 40 17 30 9

Total 77 30 59 14


Source Ecorys
























pathways




66


Source Ecorys

















Germany




not only AP

Germany



Germany





only AP





67


UK





2011







Source Ecorys






initiatives











billion30







The


PECDEMO project32






30




68



the total budget

Time

period

(months)






FAST MOLECULAR

WOCS


euro 100000 euro 100000 48



NANO-PHOTO-

CHROME


euro 218731 17











euro 10000 54



Total euro 30005106 euro 24016752 821
















69











Source Ecorys









AMPEA is one of the










33




70


groups36

Swedish ndash CAP















million38


























36









71




employees44







Part of this










use





















44








72


Japan ndash ARPChem






Japan ndash AnApple





from the


Korea ndash KCAP






US - JCAP




JCAP


research programme

US ndash SOFI


















51






73









































challenging





56







74

















a national level63





research activities




degree64



international level









62




75






several MS







within Europe

















closely68



















65





76



term69




Furthermore































pathways

69





77



hybrid systems


companies

European companies

France 1 1 0 1

Germany 2 2 0 4

Italy 0 1 0 1

Netherlands 3 4 1 8

Switzerland 0 1 0 1

Total 6 9 1 15


Japan 0 8 0 8


Singapore 0 0 1 1

US 3 2 4 8

Total 3 11 5 19


Source Ecorys




departments




pathways














78



France PhotoFuel


Germany Brain AG

Italy Hysytech





US Joule Unlimited

US Phytonix

US Algenol

Source Ecorys


















Other companies











79





stage







this pathway



France PhotoFuel


Germany ETOGAS

Italy Hysytech











Netherlands Hydron




US HyperSolar

Source Ecorys







73


80






























74




81




improved77


0378









































77








82









Other companies





















US Opus 12

US LanzaTech

US Proton onsite

Source Ecorys







83













Germany Audi




Canada Quantiam



Israel NewCO2Fuels


US Liquid light


US Opus 12

US LanzaTech


Source Ecorys










45)

84





















Other companies










84




85































87



86









of synthetic diesel



















89


87










Research community












Total in Europe 113




Co-electrolysis 25





Co-electrolysis 14

Source Ecorys














88
















Industrial actors























89


Number of companies

Total in Europe 15




Co-electrolysis 1





Co-electrolysis 5

Source Ecorys


















91





AP devices)










AP Technology



hybrid systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria



systems



water splitting)


catalysts

Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis







structures

Co-electrolysis






research












92


developed













93


AP

Technology





Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

Nitrogenase

activity wanes

within a few

days

Light energy

conversion

efficiency

gt10

(theoretical

limit ~15)

4 (PAR

utilization

efficiency) on

lab level (200 x

600 mm)

No data No data



hybrid systems

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

CO2 reduction

energy

efficiency (full

system) gt10

(nat PS ~1)

NA (CO2

reduction

energy

efficiency for

full system) on

lab level

No data No data

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)







Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

gt500 hours

(stability goal)

gt40 hours

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt17

STH efficiency

14

Reduction of

use of noble

metal Rh

catalyst and

use of Si-

based

substrate

material

1kg Rh for

1MW

electrochem

power output

Ge substrate

(for

concentrator

systems)

Si substrate

94

AP

Technology





Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)





structures

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency ~9

STH efficiency

49

Reduction of

use of rare Pt

catalyst

Pt used as

counter

electrode for

H2 production

Dye-sensitised



Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt10

IPCE gt90

(efficiency

goal)

IPCE (incident

photon to

electron

conversion

efficiency) of

25

Reduction of

use of rare and

expensive raw

materials

High-cost Ru-

based photo-

sensitizers

used

Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)

SOFC capital

cost target

400 US$kW

Comp of

synthetic fuels

with fossil fuels

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

~50 hours

(high SOEC

cell

performance

degradation

observed)

Power-to-

Liquid system

efficiencies

(full system

incl FT)

gt70




research

Comp with

fossil chemi

and fuels (eg

CO ethylene

alcohols) 650-

1200 EURMt

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

10000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1000 hours

(laboratory

performance)

System

efficiencies

(full system)

gt60-70

95 of

electricity used

to produce CO

System

efficiencies

(full system)

40

No data No data

95










2016)


needed



TRL 3 (pres Init)

TRL 6-8 (for direct



algae)




TRL 4 5 Mio euro






absorbers)

TRL 4 (for III-VGe

tandem structures)


structures)


tandem structures)


tandem structures)


TRL 5 5-10 Mio euro




absorbers)

TRL 4 2020 TRL 5

Dye-sensitised



TRL 3 2020 TRL 4



TRL 4 5 Mio euro




TRL 2-3 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)

2020 TRL 3-4 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)




carbon compound

production)



2020 TRL 6 (for RE

assisted carbon




systems)








96


AP RTD initiatives



factories based on

cyanobacteria



harvesting capacity







gases












hybrid systems



growth




solar energy source














polymers and fuels

97

AP RTD initiatives









interfaces




(photo)corrosion


Rh catalyst









surface area









gt17












optical absorption)
























Dye-sensitised









98

AP RTD initiatives










solutions





separation lifetime



efficiencies








needed


(towards 90 IPEC)








30 years










99

AP RTD initiatives





(SOEC)


and CO2




conditions








(BSCF) perovskites)


hydrogen electrodes
















processes




research





density)










chemicals and fuels

100






















short term





European levels



101





cyanobacteria






Bio-hybrid systems




bandgap absorber





structures







bandgap absorber



Bismuth Vanadate


absorber structures






Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis










Cells (SOEC)






Research















international level

102









production unit










industrial level























development

103






































104



























Research (IREC)




105


AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria




(NIBIO)






hybrid systems










Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)












(Caltech)



GmbH and Aixtron SE








Ilmenau



under development

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)













Lausanne)





Barcelona (UB)













Dye-sensitised












106

AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


(within CAP)






Lausanne)

EPFL











Office




Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)






Center from Spain






synthesis)



(IREC)



research




Bayreuth Germany




Siemens CT



Bayreuth

107




















electrolysis


approaches






technologies)




109


61 Context





































90


110







future








pathways












given path
















Europe

111








62 Roadmap overview


























91


112



Regional MS amp EU


Private amp EU

Private (companies)

FUNDINGSOURCE

TRL 9Industrial

Implementation

TRL 6-8Demonstrator

Projects


TRL 1-3Fundamental

Research


2017 2025 2035

113




























level support)















fuelsrsquo

Priority

High




114





implementation



















Priority

Medium



















industry




Priority

Medium


Short (Phase 1)

92


115























projects























Priority

High


Medium (Phase 2)

116



















Priority

High



long term











social requirements













117











By



At the same time












Priority

Medium


Long (Phase 3)





















93



118









































assessed







119






121

7 References




(3) Agency I E 2015












Edition 2010


















133 16334







of Sciences 2012 109 15560



4029









2016 334 89



122


1677


4 2754






Society 2012 134 5627




2010 5 73






2008 130 6308




7223





































123





2011 15 1










Patents 2011


[Ca

talo

gu

e n

um

be

r]

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

EUROPEAN COMMISSION


20164960

2016 EUR 27987 EN


Final


November 2016

LEGAL NOTICE








ISBN 978-92-79-59752-7

ISSN 1831-9424

Doi 102777410231






Freephone number ()

00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11


may charge you)

5

Abstract



















technology field

7

Executive Summary





































8























technologies







alliance (EERA)

9


































microorganisms





fuels



competing pathways)




degradation


micro-organisms




systems level



photobioreactors








10









efficiencies







abundant material











structures




engineering


of gt1000 hours




US$ per kg

Co-electrolysis










electrodes






syngas





(steam) and CO2





ratio of the syngas














approach




11


actions


















should be promoted












12


Source Ecorys





TRL 1-3 Fundamental

2017 2025 2035


















13



















products








measures








15

Table of contents

Abstract 5

Executive Summary 7


1 Introduction 21
















323 Patents 44





333 Patents 53


34 Summary 54














16



















61 Context 109






7 References 121

17

List of figures
















19

List of tables


36





















21

1 Introduction










production














23



























coordinated by four
























24














PSII14











ATP12-16










672 kcal mol-1




The efficiency of


25

















This method of






26










Due to








100x1015




27



















Natural




Hydrogen


systems29

















28


























arise from

Low efficiency












29


study



30










utilised)


transfer)








31




































233 Co-electrolysis











energy source40



32



the near future

33















34













For







Illustrations






35












h-1

41-43

(TRL 3)






h-1


Systems



h-1





h-1

46

(TRL 3-4)










36












min-1




27



system27






h-1






The








(TRL 3)








-1]

TON (time hours)


0002 ndc (2000)


001 ndc (3)


013 ndc (2)


031 ndc (05)


073 (3)


107 ndc (1)


11 (12)


125 (4)

PSI-cobaloximea 27

283 (15)


583 (4)


524 ndc (3)


b Redox mediator PC

c nd not determined

37




This work







Most photoactive









(TRL 3)




regenerate55













(TRL 3)



(MES)57










processes5859





38

























improving





Microorganisms





It should be












industrial scale

39







environment
















chemistry
























40


























Illustration




-) are released H




Explanations





41










PEC


















external bias10






























42



Types 1 and 2 are


















43





















pricing)10

Type 1 $160 H2kg

Type 2 $320 H2kg

Type 3 $1040 H2kg

Type 4 $400 H2kg







was too low






To














44
















(TRL 4)




06769

(TRL 3)













(TRL 2-3)

323 Patents


discussed below








(TRL 3-4)








45







(TRL 2-3)








(TRL 3)







(TRL 3)













continue to fall














46





activity




















These






manufactured








The amount of each




120784119815120784 + 119810119822120784 rarr 119810119815120786 + 119822120784

120784(120784120790120787) + 120788120784120789120782 rarr 120784120784120790120782 + 120786120787120788






The energy


47




33 Co-electrolysis




equation below879










mol-1

(095 eV) at 900 oC

8397980

120784119815120784119822 + 119811119810 rarr 120784119815120784 + 119822120784




Unlike electrolysis






This


Co-electrolysis







48





119810119822120784 + 119815120784119822 rarr 119810119822 + 119815120784 + 119822120784





If










The most




Illustrations




49




Explanations



A recent





current densities11



current densities















gt99







50






























51


Manufacturer

Technology

(configuration)

Production

(Nm3h)

Rated Power

(kW)b

Energy

Consumption

(kWhNm3)c

Efficiency

()d

Maximum

Pressure

H2 purity

(vol)

Location




















52





constructed from





















81 (TRL 3)



Recently








(TRL 4)












(TRL 4)

53




Advantages







Dynamic operation

Disadvantages








333 Patents







(TRL 3)








(TRL 4)

54







(TRL 2-3)



























34 Summary











55






















current technology

Co-electrolysis
























57


























about AP5
















58



EU - AMPEA






























Sweden - CAP








fuels11









59

UK ndash SolarCAP




















PECHouse2)14





)








groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Austria 1 1 15

Belgium 1 1 -


Denmark 3 2 -

Finland 1 1 6

France 5 3 14

Germany 31 17 16

Ireland 1 1 7

Italy 5 5 29

Netherlands 28 9 18

Norway 1 1 -

12






60


groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Spain 4 4 11

Sweden 13 5 17

Switzerland 5 5 10

UK 13 9 10

Total 113 65 15




Source Ecorys



people17













respectively



amp hybrid systems


Austria 1 1 1 0

Belgium 1 1 1 0


Denmark 3 0 2 2

Finland 1 1 0 0

France 5 2 5 0

Germany 31 14 15 9

Ireland 1 1 1 0

Italy 5 0 5 0


Norway 1 0 1 0

Spain 4 2 3 1

Sweden 13 10 7 0

Switzerland 5 1 5 3

UK 13 8 5 1

Total 113 53 69 25

Source Ecorys

17


61













AMPEA






They hence focus












photosynthesis20













18






62











Source Ecorys











63

Japan ndash ARPChem



























set up










and JCAP

US ndash JCAP









23






64



US ndash SOFI















research group

Australia 1 1 18

Brazil 1 1 5

Canada 1 1 -

China 12 5 13

Israel 1 1 6

Japan 16 15 15

Korea 4 4 16

Singapore 1 1 14

US 40 32 18

Total 77 61 5




Source Ecorys












28



65




Country Technology

pathway


and hybrid systems


Australia 1 1 1 0

Brazil 1 0 1 0

Canada 1 0 1 1

China 12 4 6 2

Israel 1 1 0 1

Japan 16 7 15 1

Korea 4 0 4 0

Singapore 1 0 1 0

US 40 17 30 9

Total 77 30 59 14


Source Ecorys
























pathways




66


Source Ecorys

















Germany




not only AP

Germany



Germany





only AP





67


UK





2011







Source Ecorys






initiatives











billion30







The


PECDEMO project32






30




68



the total budget

Time

period

(months)






FAST MOLECULAR

WOCS


euro 100000 euro 100000 48



NANO-PHOTO-

CHROME


euro 218731 17











euro 10000 54



Total euro 30005106 euro 24016752 821
















69











Source Ecorys









AMPEA is one of the










33




70


groups36

Swedish ndash CAP















million38


























36









71




employees44







Part of this










use





















44








72


Japan ndash ARPChem






Japan ndash AnApple





from the


Korea ndash KCAP






US - JCAP




JCAP


research programme

US ndash SOFI


















51






73









































challenging





56







74

















a national level63





research activities




degree64



international level









62




75






several MS







within Europe

















closely68



















65





76



term69




Furthermore































pathways

69





77



hybrid systems


companies

European companies

France 1 1 0 1

Germany 2 2 0 4

Italy 0 1 0 1

Netherlands 3 4 1 8

Switzerland 0 1 0 1

Total 6 9 1 15


Japan 0 8 0 8


Singapore 0 0 1 1

US 3 2 4 8

Total 3 11 5 19


Source Ecorys




departments




pathways














78



France PhotoFuel


Germany Brain AG

Italy Hysytech





US Joule Unlimited

US Phytonix

US Algenol

Source Ecorys


















Other companies











79





stage







this pathway



France PhotoFuel


Germany ETOGAS

Italy Hysytech











Netherlands Hydron




US HyperSolar

Source Ecorys







73


80






























74




81




improved77


0378









































77








82









Other companies





















US Opus 12

US LanzaTech

US Proton onsite

Source Ecorys







83













Germany Audi




Canada Quantiam



Israel NewCO2Fuels


US Liquid light


US Opus 12

US LanzaTech


Source Ecorys










45)

84





















Other companies










84




85































87



86









of synthetic diesel



















89


87










Research community












Total in Europe 113




Co-electrolysis 25





Co-electrolysis 14

Source Ecorys














88
















Industrial actors























89


Number of companies

Total in Europe 15




Co-electrolysis 1





Co-electrolysis 5

Source Ecorys


















91





AP devices)










AP Technology



hybrid systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria



systems



water splitting)


catalysts

Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis







structures

Co-electrolysis






research












92


developed













93


AP

Technology





Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

Nitrogenase

activity wanes

within a few

days

Light energy

conversion

efficiency

gt10

(theoretical

limit ~15)

4 (PAR

utilization

efficiency) on

lab level (200 x

600 mm)

No data No data



hybrid systems

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

CO2 reduction

energy

efficiency (full

system) gt10

(nat PS ~1)

NA (CO2

reduction

energy

efficiency for

full system) on

lab level

No data No data

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)







Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

gt500 hours

(stability goal)

gt40 hours

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt17

STH efficiency

14

Reduction of

use of noble

metal Rh

catalyst and

use of Si-

based

substrate

material

1kg Rh for

1MW

electrochem

power output

Ge substrate

(for

concentrator

systems)

Si substrate

94

AP

Technology





Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)





structures

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency ~9

STH efficiency

49

Reduction of

use of rare Pt

catalyst

Pt used as

counter

electrode for

H2 production

Dye-sensitised



Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt10

IPCE gt90

(efficiency

goal)

IPCE (incident

photon to

electron

conversion

efficiency) of

25

Reduction of

use of rare and

expensive raw

materials

High-cost Ru-

based photo-

sensitizers

used

Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)

SOFC capital

cost target

400 US$kW

Comp of

synthetic fuels

with fossil fuels

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

~50 hours

(high SOEC

cell

performance

degradation

observed)

Power-to-

Liquid system

efficiencies

(full system

incl FT)

gt70




research

Comp with

fossil chemi

and fuels (eg

CO ethylene

alcohols) 650-

1200 EURMt

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

10000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1000 hours

(laboratory

performance)

System

efficiencies

(full system)

gt60-70

95 of

electricity used

to produce CO

System

efficiencies

(full system)

40

No data No data

95










2016)


needed



TRL 3 (pres Init)

TRL 6-8 (for direct



algae)




TRL 4 5 Mio euro






absorbers)

TRL 4 (for III-VGe

tandem structures)


structures)


tandem structures)


tandem structures)


TRL 5 5-10 Mio euro




absorbers)

TRL 4 2020 TRL 5

Dye-sensitised



TRL 3 2020 TRL 4



TRL 4 5 Mio euro




TRL 2-3 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)

2020 TRL 3-4 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)




carbon compound

production)



2020 TRL 6 (for RE

assisted carbon




systems)








96


AP RTD initiatives



factories based on

cyanobacteria



harvesting capacity







gases












hybrid systems



growth




solar energy source














polymers and fuels

97

AP RTD initiatives









interfaces




(photo)corrosion


Rh catalyst









surface area









gt17












optical absorption)
























Dye-sensitised









98

AP RTD initiatives










solutions





separation lifetime



efficiencies








needed


(towards 90 IPEC)








30 years










99

AP RTD initiatives





(SOEC)


and CO2




conditions








(BSCF) perovskites)


hydrogen electrodes
















processes




research





density)










chemicals and fuels

100






















short term





European levels



101





cyanobacteria






Bio-hybrid systems




bandgap absorber





structures







bandgap absorber



Bismuth Vanadate


absorber structures






Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis










Cells (SOEC)






Research















international level

102









production unit










industrial level























development

103






































104



























Research (IREC)




105


AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria




(NIBIO)






hybrid systems










Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)












(Caltech)



GmbH and Aixtron SE








Ilmenau



under development

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)













Lausanne)





Barcelona (UB)













Dye-sensitised












106

AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


(within CAP)






Lausanne)

EPFL











Office




Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)






Center from Spain






synthesis)



(IREC)



research




Bayreuth Germany




Siemens CT



Bayreuth

107




















electrolysis


approaches






technologies)




109


61 Context





































90


110







future








pathways












given path
















Europe

111








62 Roadmap overview


























91


112



Regional MS amp EU


Private amp EU

Private (companies)

FUNDINGSOURCE

TRL 9Industrial

Implementation

TRL 6-8Demonstrator

Projects


TRL 1-3Fundamental

Research


2017 2025 2035

113




























level support)















fuelsrsquo

Priority

High




114





implementation



















Priority

Medium



















industry




Priority

Medium


Short (Phase 1)

92


115























projects























Priority

High


Medium (Phase 2)

116



















Priority

High



long term











social requirements













117











By



At the same time












Priority

Medium


Long (Phase 3)





















93



118









































assessed







119






121

7 References




(3) Agency I E 2015












Edition 2010


















133 16334







of Sciences 2012 109 15560



4029









2016 334 89



122


1677


4 2754






Society 2012 134 5627




2010 5 73






2008 130 6308




7223





































123





2011 15 1










Patents 2011


[Ca

talo

gu

e n

um

be

r]

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

LEGAL NOTICE








ISBN 978-92-79-59752-7

ISSN 1831-9424

Doi 102777410231






Freephone number ()

00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11


may charge you)

5

Abstract



















technology field

7

Executive Summary





































8























technologies







alliance (EERA)

9


































microorganisms





fuels



competing pathways)




degradation


micro-organisms




systems level



photobioreactors








10









efficiencies







abundant material











structures




engineering


of gt1000 hours




US$ per kg

Co-electrolysis










electrodes






syngas





(steam) and CO2





ratio of the syngas














approach




11


actions


















should be promoted












12


Source Ecorys





TRL 1-3 Fundamental

2017 2025 2035


















13



















products








measures








15

Table of contents

Abstract 5

Executive Summary 7


1 Introduction 21
















323 Patents 44





333 Patents 53


34 Summary 54














16



















61 Context 109






7 References 121

17

List of figures
















19

List of tables


36





















21

1 Introduction










production














23



























coordinated by four
























24














PSII14











ATP12-16










672 kcal mol-1




The efficiency of


25

















This method of






26










Due to








100x1015




27



















Natural




Hydrogen


systems29

















28


























arise from

Low efficiency












29


study



30










utilised)


transfer)








31




































233 Co-electrolysis











energy source40



32



the near future

33















34













For







Illustrations






35












h-1

41-43

(TRL 3)






h-1


Systems



h-1





h-1

46

(TRL 3-4)










36












min-1




27



system27






h-1






The








(TRL 3)








-1]

TON (time hours)


0002 ndc (2000)


001 ndc (3)


013 ndc (2)


031 ndc (05)


073 (3)


107 ndc (1)


11 (12)


125 (4)

PSI-cobaloximea 27

283 (15)


583 (4)


524 ndc (3)


b Redox mediator PC

c nd not determined

37




This work







Most photoactive









(TRL 3)




regenerate55













(TRL 3)



(MES)57










processes5859





38

























improving





Microorganisms





It should be












industrial scale

39







environment
















chemistry
























40


























Illustration




-) are released H




Explanations





41










PEC


















external bias10






























42



Types 1 and 2 are


















43





















pricing)10

Type 1 $160 H2kg

Type 2 $320 H2kg

Type 3 $1040 H2kg

Type 4 $400 H2kg







was too low






To














44
















(TRL 4)




06769

(TRL 3)













(TRL 2-3)

323 Patents


discussed below








(TRL 3-4)








45







(TRL 2-3)








(TRL 3)







(TRL 3)













continue to fall














46





activity




















These






manufactured








The amount of each




120784119815120784 + 119810119822120784 rarr 119810119815120786 + 119822120784

120784(120784120790120787) + 120788120784120789120782 rarr 120784120784120790120782 + 120786120787120788






The energy


47




33 Co-electrolysis




equation below879










mol-1

(095 eV) at 900 oC

8397980

120784119815120784119822 + 119811119810 rarr 120784119815120784 + 119822120784




Unlike electrolysis






This


Co-electrolysis







48





119810119822120784 + 119815120784119822 rarr 119810119822 + 119815120784 + 119822120784





If










The most




Illustrations




49




Explanations



A recent





current densities11



current densities















gt99







50






























51


Manufacturer

Technology

(configuration)

Production

(Nm3h)

Rated Power

(kW)b

Energy

Consumption

(kWhNm3)c

Efficiency

()d

Maximum

Pressure

H2 purity

(vol)

Location




















52





constructed from





















81 (TRL 3)



Recently








(TRL 4)












(TRL 4)

53




Advantages







Dynamic operation

Disadvantages








333 Patents







(TRL 3)








(TRL 4)

54







(TRL 2-3)



























34 Summary











55






















current technology

Co-electrolysis
























57


























about AP5
















58



EU - AMPEA






























Sweden - CAP








fuels11









59

UK ndash SolarCAP




















PECHouse2)14





)








groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Austria 1 1 15

Belgium 1 1 -


Denmark 3 2 -

Finland 1 1 6

France 5 3 14

Germany 31 17 16

Ireland 1 1 7

Italy 5 5 29

Netherlands 28 9 18

Norway 1 1 -

12






60


groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Spain 4 4 11

Sweden 13 5 17

Switzerland 5 5 10

UK 13 9 10

Total 113 65 15




Source Ecorys



people17













respectively



amp hybrid systems


Austria 1 1 1 0

Belgium 1 1 1 0


Denmark 3 0 2 2

Finland 1 1 0 0

France 5 2 5 0

Germany 31 14 15 9

Ireland 1 1 1 0

Italy 5 0 5 0


Norway 1 0 1 0

Spain 4 2 3 1

Sweden 13 10 7 0

Switzerland 5 1 5 3

UK 13 8 5 1

Total 113 53 69 25

Source Ecorys

17


61













AMPEA






They hence focus












photosynthesis20













18






62











Source Ecorys











63

Japan ndash ARPChem



























set up










and JCAP

US ndash JCAP









23






64



US ndash SOFI















research group

Australia 1 1 18

Brazil 1 1 5

Canada 1 1 -

China 12 5 13

Israel 1 1 6

Japan 16 15 15

Korea 4 4 16

Singapore 1 1 14

US 40 32 18

Total 77 61 5




Source Ecorys












28



65




Country Technology

pathway


and hybrid systems


Australia 1 1 1 0

Brazil 1 0 1 0

Canada 1 0 1 1

China 12 4 6 2

Israel 1 1 0 1

Japan 16 7 15 1

Korea 4 0 4 0

Singapore 1 0 1 0

US 40 17 30 9

Total 77 30 59 14


Source Ecorys
























pathways




66


Source Ecorys

















Germany




not only AP

Germany



Germany





only AP





67


UK





2011







Source Ecorys






initiatives











billion30







The


PECDEMO project32






30




68



the total budget

Time

period

(months)






FAST MOLECULAR

WOCS


euro 100000 euro 100000 48



NANO-PHOTO-

CHROME


euro 218731 17











euro 10000 54



Total euro 30005106 euro 24016752 821
















69











Source Ecorys









AMPEA is one of the










33




70


groups36

Swedish ndash CAP















million38


























36









71




employees44







Part of this










use





















44








72


Japan ndash ARPChem






Japan ndash AnApple





from the


Korea ndash KCAP






US - JCAP




JCAP


research programme

US ndash SOFI


















51






73









































challenging





56







74

















a national level63





research activities




degree64



international level









62




75






several MS







within Europe

















closely68



















65





76



term69




Furthermore































pathways

69





77



hybrid systems


companies

European companies

France 1 1 0 1

Germany 2 2 0 4

Italy 0 1 0 1

Netherlands 3 4 1 8

Switzerland 0 1 0 1

Total 6 9 1 15


Japan 0 8 0 8


Singapore 0 0 1 1

US 3 2 4 8

Total 3 11 5 19


Source Ecorys




departments




pathways














78



France PhotoFuel


Germany Brain AG

Italy Hysytech





US Joule Unlimited

US Phytonix

US Algenol

Source Ecorys


















Other companies











79





stage







this pathway



France PhotoFuel


Germany ETOGAS

Italy Hysytech











Netherlands Hydron




US HyperSolar

Source Ecorys







73


80






























74




81




improved77


0378









































77








82









Other companies





















US Opus 12

US LanzaTech

US Proton onsite

Source Ecorys







83













Germany Audi




Canada Quantiam



Israel NewCO2Fuels


US Liquid light


US Opus 12

US LanzaTech


Source Ecorys










45)

84





















Other companies










84




85































87



86









of synthetic diesel



















89


87










Research community












Total in Europe 113




Co-electrolysis 25





Co-electrolysis 14

Source Ecorys














88
















Industrial actors























89


Number of companies

Total in Europe 15




Co-electrolysis 1





Co-electrolysis 5

Source Ecorys


















91





AP devices)










AP Technology



hybrid systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria



systems



water splitting)


catalysts

Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis







structures

Co-electrolysis






research












92


developed













93


AP

Technology





Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

Nitrogenase

activity wanes

within a few

days

Light energy

conversion

efficiency

gt10

(theoretical

limit ~15)

4 (PAR

utilization

efficiency) on

lab level (200 x

600 mm)

No data No data



hybrid systems

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

CO2 reduction

energy

efficiency (full

system) gt10

(nat PS ~1)

NA (CO2

reduction

energy

efficiency for

full system) on

lab level

No data No data

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)







Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

gt500 hours

(stability goal)

gt40 hours

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt17

STH efficiency

14

Reduction of

use of noble

metal Rh

catalyst and

use of Si-

based

substrate

material

1kg Rh for

1MW

electrochem

power output

Ge substrate

(for

concentrator

systems)

Si substrate

94

AP

Technology





Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)





structures

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency ~9

STH efficiency

49

Reduction of

use of rare Pt

catalyst

Pt used as

counter

electrode for

H2 production

Dye-sensitised



Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt10

IPCE gt90

(efficiency

goal)

IPCE (incident

photon to

electron

conversion

efficiency) of

25

Reduction of

use of rare and

expensive raw

materials

High-cost Ru-

based photo-

sensitizers

used

Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)

SOFC capital

cost target

400 US$kW

Comp of

synthetic fuels

with fossil fuels

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

~50 hours

(high SOEC

cell

performance

degradation

observed)

Power-to-

Liquid system

efficiencies

(full system

incl FT)

gt70




research

Comp with

fossil chemi

and fuels (eg

CO ethylene

alcohols) 650-

1200 EURMt

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

10000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1000 hours

(laboratory

performance)

System

efficiencies

(full system)

gt60-70

95 of

electricity used

to produce CO

System

efficiencies

(full system)

40

No data No data

95










2016)


needed



TRL 3 (pres Init)

TRL 6-8 (for direct



algae)




TRL 4 5 Mio euro






absorbers)

TRL 4 (for III-VGe

tandem structures)


structures)


tandem structures)


tandem structures)


TRL 5 5-10 Mio euro




absorbers)

TRL 4 2020 TRL 5

Dye-sensitised



TRL 3 2020 TRL 4



TRL 4 5 Mio euro




TRL 2-3 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)

2020 TRL 3-4 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)




carbon compound

production)



2020 TRL 6 (for RE

assisted carbon




systems)








96


AP RTD initiatives



factories based on

cyanobacteria



harvesting capacity







gases












hybrid systems



growth




solar energy source














polymers and fuels

97

AP RTD initiatives









interfaces




(photo)corrosion


Rh catalyst









surface area









gt17












optical absorption)
























Dye-sensitised









98

AP RTD initiatives










solutions





separation lifetime



efficiencies








needed


(towards 90 IPEC)








30 years










99

AP RTD initiatives





(SOEC)


and CO2




conditions








(BSCF) perovskites)


hydrogen electrodes
















processes




research





density)










chemicals and fuels

100






















short term





European levels



101





cyanobacteria






Bio-hybrid systems




bandgap absorber





structures







bandgap absorber



Bismuth Vanadate


absorber structures






Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis










Cells (SOEC)






Research















international level

102









production unit










industrial level























development

103






































104



























Research (IREC)




105


AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria




(NIBIO)






hybrid systems










Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)












(Caltech)



GmbH and Aixtron SE








Ilmenau



under development

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)













Lausanne)





Barcelona (UB)













Dye-sensitised












106

AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


(within CAP)






Lausanne)

EPFL











Office




Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)






Center from Spain






synthesis)



(IREC)



research




Bayreuth Germany




Siemens CT



Bayreuth

107




















electrolysis


approaches






technologies)




109


61 Context





































90


110







future








pathways












given path
















Europe

111








62 Roadmap overview


























91


112



Regional MS amp EU


Private amp EU

Private (companies)

FUNDINGSOURCE

TRL 9Industrial

Implementation

TRL 6-8Demonstrator

Projects


TRL 1-3Fundamental

Research


2017 2025 2035

113




























level support)















fuelsrsquo

Priority

High




114





implementation



















Priority

Medium



















industry




Priority

Medium


Short (Phase 1)

92


115























projects























Priority

High


Medium (Phase 2)

116



















Priority

High



long term











social requirements













117











By



At the same time












Priority

Medium


Long (Phase 3)





















93



118









































assessed







119






121

7 References




(3) Agency I E 2015












Edition 2010


















133 16334







of Sciences 2012 109 15560



4029









2016 334 89



122


1677


4 2754






Society 2012 134 5627




2010 5 73






2008 130 6308




7223





































123





2011 15 1










Patents 2011


[Ca

talo

gu

e n

um

be

r]

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

5

Abstract



















technology field

7

Executive Summary





































8























technologies







alliance (EERA)

9


































microorganisms





fuels



competing pathways)




degradation


micro-organisms




systems level



photobioreactors








10









efficiencies







abundant material











structures




engineering


of gt1000 hours




US$ per kg

Co-electrolysis










electrodes






syngas





(steam) and CO2





ratio of the syngas














approach




11


actions


















should be promoted












12


Source Ecorys





TRL 1-3 Fundamental

2017 2025 2035


















13



















products








measures








15

Table of contents

Abstract 5

Executive Summary 7


1 Introduction 21
















323 Patents 44





333 Patents 53


34 Summary 54














16



















61 Context 109






7 References 121

17

List of figures
















19

List of tables


36





















21

1 Introduction










production














23



























coordinated by four
























24














PSII14











ATP12-16










672 kcal mol-1




The efficiency of


25

















This method of






26










Due to








100x1015




27



















Natural




Hydrogen


systems29

















28


























arise from

Low efficiency












29


study



30










utilised)


transfer)








31




































233 Co-electrolysis











energy source40



32



the near future

33















34













For







Illustrations






35












h-1

41-43

(TRL 3)






h-1


Systems



h-1





h-1

46

(TRL 3-4)










36












min-1




27



system27






h-1






The








(TRL 3)








-1]

TON (time hours)


0002 ndc (2000)


001 ndc (3)


013 ndc (2)


031 ndc (05)


073 (3)


107 ndc (1)


11 (12)


125 (4)

PSI-cobaloximea 27

283 (15)


583 (4)


524 ndc (3)


b Redox mediator PC

c nd not determined

37




This work







Most photoactive









(TRL 3)




regenerate55













(TRL 3)



(MES)57










processes5859





38

























improving





Microorganisms





It should be












industrial scale

39







environment
















chemistry
























40


























Illustration




-) are released H




Explanations





41










PEC


















external bias10






























42



Types 1 and 2 are


















43





















pricing)10

Type 1 $160 H2kg

Type 2 $320 H2kg

Type 3 $1040 H2kg

Type 4 $400 H2kg







was too low






To














44
















(TRL 4)




06769

(TRL 3)













(TRL 2-3)

323 Patents


discussed below








(TRL 3-4)








45







(TRL 2-3)








(TRL 3)







(TRL 3)













continue to fall














46





activity




















These






manufactured








The amount of each




120784119815120784 + 119810119822120784 rarr 119810119815120786 + 119822120784

120784(120784120790120787) + 120788120784120789120782 rarr 120784120784120790120782 + 120786120787120788






The energy


47




33 Co-electrolysis




equation below879










mol-1

(095 eV) at 900 oC

8397980

120784119815120784119822 + 119811119810 rarr 120784119815120784 + 119822120784




Unlike electrolysis






This


Co-electrolysis







48





119810119822120784 + 119815120784119822 rarr 119810119822 + 119815120784 + 119822120784





If










The most




Illustrations




49




Explanations



A recent





current densities11



current densities















gt99







50






























51


Manufacturer

Technology

(configuration)

Production

(Nm3h)

Rated Power

(kW)b

Energy

Consumption

(kWhNm3)c

Efficiency

()d

Maximum

Pressure

H2 purity

(vol)

Location




















52





constructed from





















81 (TRL 3)



Recently








(TRL 4)












(TRL 4)

53




Advantages







Dynamic operation

Disadvantages








333 Patents







(TRL 3)








(TRL 4)

54







(TRL 2-3)



























34 Summary











55






















current technology

Co-electrolysis
























57


























about AP5
















58



EU - AMPEA






























Sweden - CAP








fuels11









59

UK ndash SolarCAP




















PECHouse2)14





)








groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Austria 1 1 15

Belgium 1 1 -


Denmark 3 2 -

Finland 1 1 6

France 5 3 14

Germany 31 17 16

Ireland 1 1 7

Italy 5 5 29

Netherlands 28 9 18

Norway 1 1 -

12






60


groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Spain 4 4 11

Sweden 13 5 17

Switzerland 5 5 10

UK 13 9 10

Total 113 65 15




Source Ecorys



people17













respectively



amp hybrid systems


Austria 1 1 1 0

Belgium 1 1 1 0


Denmark 3 0 2 2

Finland 1 1 0 0

France 5 2 5 0

Germany 31 14 15 9

Ireland 1 1 1 0

Italy 5 0 5 0


Norway 1 0 1 0

Spain 4 2 3 1

Sweden 13 10 7 0

Switzerland 5 1 5 3

UK 13 8 5 1

Total 113 53 69 25

Source Ecorys

17


61













AMPEA






They hence focus












photosynthesis20













18






62











Source Ecorys











63

Japan ndash ARPChem



























set up










and JCAP

US ndash JCAP









23






64



US ndash SOFI















research group

Australia 1 1 18

Brazil 1 1 5

Canada 1 1 -

China 12 5 13

Israel 1 1 6

Japan 16 15 15

Korea 4 4 16

Singapore 1 1 14

US 40 32 18

Total 77 61 5




Source Ecorys












28



65




Country Technology

pathway


and hybrid systems


Australia 1 1 1 0

Brazil 1 0 1 0

Canada 1 0 1 1

China 12 4 6 2

Israel 1 1 0 1

Japan 16 7 15 1

Korea 4 0 4 0

Singapore 1 0 1 0

US 40 17 30 9

Total 77 30 59 14


Source Ecorys
























pathways




66


Source Ecorys

















Germany




not only AP

Germany



Germany





only AP





67


UK





2011







Source Ecorys






initiatives











billion30







The


PECDEMO project32






30




68



the total budget

Time

period

(months)






FAST MOLECULAR

WOCS


euro 100000 euro 100000 48



NANO-PHOTO-

CHROME


euro 218731 17











euro 10000 54



Total euro 30005106 euro 24016752 821
















69











Source Ecorys









AMPEA is one of the










33




70


groups36

Swedish ndash CAP















million38


























36









71




employees44







Part of this










use





















44








72


Japan ndash ARPChem






Japan ndash AnApple





from the


Korea ndash KCAP






US - JCAP




JCAP


research programme

US ndash SOFI


















51






73









































challenging





56







74

















a national level63





research activities




degree64



international level









62




75






several MS







within Europe

















closely68



















65





76



term69




Furthermore































pathways

69





77



hybrid systems


companies

European companies

France 1 1 0 1

Germany 2 2 0 4

Italy 0 1 0 1

Netherlands 3 4 1 8

Switzerland 0 1 0 1

Total 6 9 1 15


Japan 0 8 0 8


Singapore 0 0 1 1

US 3 2 4 8

Total 3 11 5 19


Source Ecorys




departments




pathways














78



France PhotoFuel


Germany Brain AG

Italy Hysytech





US Joule Unlimited

US Phytonix

US Algenol

Source Ecorys


















Other companies











79





stage







this pathway



France PhotoFuel


Germany ETOGAS

Italy Hysytech











Netherlands Hydron




US HyperSolar

Source Ecorys







73


80






























74




81




improved77


0378









































77








82









Other companies





















US Opus 12

US LanzaTech

US Proton onsite

Source Ecorys







83













Germany Audi




Canada Quantiam



Israel NewCO2Fuels


US Liquid light


US Opus 12

US LanzaTech


Source Ecorys










45)

84





















Other companies










84




85































87



86









of synthetic diesel



















89


87










Research community












Total in Europe 113




Co-electrolysis 25





Co-electrolysis 14

Source Ecorys














88
















Industrial actors























89


Number of companies

Total in Europe 15




Co-electrolysis 1





Co-electrolysis 5

Source Ecorys


















91





AP devices)










AP Technology



hybrid systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria



systems



water splitting)


catalysts

Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis







structures

Co-electrolysis






research












92


developed













93


AP

Technology





Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

Nitrogenase

activity wanes

within a few

days

Light energy

conversion

efficiency

gt10

(theoretical

limit ~15)

4 (PAR

utilization

efficiency) on

lab level (200 x

600 mm)

No data No data



hybrid systems

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

CO2 reduction

energy

efficiency (full

system) gt10

(nat PS ~1)

NA (CO2

reduction

energy

efficiency for

full system) on

lab level

No data No data

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)







Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

gt500 hours

(stability goal)

gt40 hours

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt17

STH efficiency

14

Reduction of

use of noble

metal Rh

catalyst and

use of Si-

based

substrate

material

1kg Rh for

1MW

electrochem

power output

Ge substrate

(for

concentrator

systems)

Si substrate

94

AP

Technology





Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)





structures

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency ~9

STH efficiency

49

Reduction of

use of rare Pt

catalyst

Pt used as

counter

electrode for

H2 production

Dye-sensitised



Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt10

IPCE gt90

(efficiency

goal)

IPCE (incident

photon to

electron

conversion

efficiency) of

25

Reduction of

use of rare and

expensive raw

materials

High-cost Ru-

based photo-

sensitizers

used

Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)

SOFC capital

cost target

400 US$kW

Comp of

synthetic fuels

with fossil fuels

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

~50 hours

(high SOEC

cell

performance

degradation

observed)

Power-to-

Liquid system

efficiencies

(full system

incl FT)

gt70




research

Comp with

fossil chemi

and fuels (eg

CO ethylene

alcohols) 650-

1200 EURMt

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

10000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1000 hours

(laboratory

performance)

System

efficiencies

(full system)

gt60-70

95 of

electricity used

to produce CO

System

efficiencies

(full system)

40

No data No data

95










2016)


needed



TRL 3 (pres Init)

TRL 6-8 (for direct



algae)




TRL 4 5 Mio euro






absorbers)

TRL 4 (for III-VGe

tandem structures)


structures)


tandem structures)


tandem structures)


TRL 5 5-10 Mio euro




absorbers)

TRL 4 2020 TRL 5

Dye-sensitised



TRL 3 2020 TRL 4



TRL 4 5 Mio euro




TRL 2-3 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)

2020 TRL 3-4 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)




carbon compound

production)



2020 TRL 6 (for RE

assisted carbon




systems)








96


AP RTD initiatives



factories based on

cyanobacteria



harvesting capacity







gases












hybrid systems



growth




solar energy source














polymers and fuels

97

AP RTD initiatives









interfaces




(photo)corrosion


Rh catalyst









surface area









gt17












optical absorption)
























Dye-sensitised









98

AP RTD initiatives










solutions





separation lifetime



efficiencies








needed


(towards 90 IPEC)








30 years










99

AP RTD initiatives





(SOEC)


and CO2




conditions








(BSCF) perovskites)


hydrogen electrodes
















processes




research





density)










chemicals and fuels

100






















short term





European levels



101





cyanobacteria






Bio-hybrid systems




bandgap absorber





structures







bandgap absorber



Bismuth Vanadate


absorber structures






Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis










Cells (SOEC)






Research















international level

102









production unit










industrial level























development

103






































104



























Research (IREC)




105


AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria




(NIBIO)






hybrid systems










Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)












(Caltech)



GmbH and Aixtron SE








Ilmenau



under development

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)













Lausanne)





Barcelona (UB)













Dye-sensitised












106

AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


(within CAP)






Lausanne)

EPFL











Office




Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)






Center from Spain






synthesis)



(IREC)



research




Bayreuth Germany




Siemens CT



Bayreuth

107




















electrolysis


approaches






technologies)




109


61 Context





































90


110







future








pathways












given path
















Europe

111








62 Roadmap overview


























91


112



Regional MS amp EU


Private amp EU

Private (companies)

FUNDINGSOURCE

TRL 9Industrial

Implementation

TRL 6-8Demonstrator

Projects


TRL 1-3Fundamental

Research


2017 2025 2035

113




























level support)















fuelsrsquo

Priority

High




114





implementation



















Priority

Medium



















industry




Priority

Medium


Short (Phase 1)

92


115























projects























Priority

High


Medium (Phase 2)

116



















Priority

High



long term











social requirements













117











By



At the same time












Priority

Medium


Long (Phase 3)





















93



118









































assessed







119






121

7 References




(3) Agency I E 2015












Edition 2010


















133 16334







of Sciences 2012 109 15560



4029









2016 334 89



122


1677


4 2754






Society 2012 134 5627




2010 5 73






2008 130 6308




7223





































123





2011 15 1










Patents 2011


[Ca

talo

gu

e n

um

be

r]

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

7

Executive Summary





































8























technologies







alliance (EERA)

9


































microorganisms





fuels



competing pathways)




degradation


micro-organisms




systems level



photobioreactors








10









efficiencies







abundant material











structures




engineering


of gt1000 hours




US$ per kg

Co-electrolysis










electrodes






syngas





(steam) and CO2





ratio of the syngas














approach




11


actions


















should be promoted












12


Source Ecorys





TRL 1-3 Fundamental

2017 2025 2035


















13



















products








measures








15

Table of contents

Abstract 5

Executive Summary 7


1 Introduction 21
















323 Patents 44





333 Patents 53


34 Summary 54














16



















61 Context 109






7 References 121

17

List of figures
















19

List of tables


36





















21

1 Introduction










production














23



























coordinated by four
























24














PSII14











ATP12-16










672 kcal mol-1




The efficiency of


25

















This method of






26










Due to








100x1015




27



















Natural




Hydrogen


systems29

















28


























arise from

Low efficiency












29


study



30










utilised)


transfer)








31




































233 Co-electrolysis











energy source40



32



the near future

33















34













For







Illustrations






35












h-1

41-43

(TRL 3)






h-1


Systems



h-1





h-1

46

(TRL 3-4)










36












min-1




27



system27






h-1






The








(TRL 3)








-1]

TON (time hours)


0002 ndc (2000)


001 ndc (3)


013 ndc (2)


031 ndc (05)


073 (3)


107 ndc (1)


11 (12)


125 (4)

PSI-cobaloximea 27

283 (15)


583 (4)


524 ndc (3)


b Redox mediator PC

c nd not determined

37




This work







Most photoactive









(TRL 3)




regenerate55













(TRL 3)



(MES)57










processes5859





38

























improving





Microorganisms





It should be












industrial scale

39







environment
















chemistry
























40


























Illustration




-) are released H




Explanations





41










PEC


















external bias10






























42



Types 1 and 2 are


















43





















pricing)10

Type 1 $160 H2kg

Type 2 $320 H2kg

Type 3 $1040 H2kg

Type 4 $400 H2kg







was too low






To














44
















(TRL 4)




06769

(TRL 3)













(TRL 2-3)

323 Patents


discussed below








(TRL 3-4)








45







(TRL 2-3)








(TRL 3)







(TRL 3)













continue to fall














46





activity




















These






manufactured








The amount of each




120784119815120784 + 119810119822120784 rarr 119810119815120786 + 119822120784

120784(120784120790120787) + 120788120784120789120782 rarr 120784120784120790120782 + 120786120787120788






The energy


47




33 Co-electrolysis




equation below879










mol-1

(095 eV) at 900 oC

8397980

120784119815120784119822 + 119811119810 rarr 120784119815120784 + 119822120784




Unlike electrolysis






This


Co-electrolysis







48





119810119822120784 + 119815120784119822 rarr 119810119822 + 119815120784 + 119822120784





If










The most




Illustrations




49




Explanations



A recent





current densities11



current densities















gt99







50






























51


Manufacturer

Technology

(configuration)

Production

(Nm3h)

Rated Power

(kW)b

Energy

Consumption

(kWhNm3)c

Efficiency

()d

Maximum

Pressure

H2 purity

(vol)

Location




















52





constructed from





















81 (TRL 3)



Recently








(TRL 4)












(TRL 4)

53




Advantages







Dynamic operation

Disadvantages








333 Patents







(TRL 3)








(TRL 4)

54







(TRL 2-3)



























34 Summary











55






















current technology

Co-electrolysis
























57


























about AP5
















58



EU - AMPEA






























Sweden - CAP








fuels11









59

UK ndash SolarCAP




















PECHouse2)14





)








groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Austria 1 1 15

Belgium 1 1 -


Denmark 3 2 -

Finland 1 1 6

France 5 3 14

Germany 31 17 16

Ireland 1 1 7

Italy 5 5 29

Netherlands 28 9 18

Norway 1 1 -

12






60


groups

Number of research

institutions


group

Spain 4 4 11

Sweden 13 5 17

Switzerland 5 5 10

UK 13 9 10

Total 113 65 15




Source Ecorys



people17













respectively



amp hybrid systems


Austria 1 1 1 0

Belgium 1 1 1 0


Denmark 3 0 2 2

Finland 1 1 0 0

France 5 2 5 0

Germany 31 14 15 9

Ireland 1 1 1 0

Italy 5 0 5 0


Norway 1 0 1 0

Spain 4 2 3 1

Sweden 13 10 7 0

Switzerland 5 1 5 3

UK 13 8 5 1

Total 113 53 69 25

Source Ecorys

17


61













AMPEA






They hence focus












photosynthesis20













18






62











Source Ecorys











63

Japan ndash ARPChem



























set up










and JCAP

US ndash JCAP









23






64



US ndash SOFI















research group

Australia 1 1 18

Brazil 1 1 5

Canada 1 1 -

China 12 5 13

Israel 1 1 6

Japan 16 15 15

Korea 4 4 16

Singapore 1 1 14

US 40 32 18

Total 77 61 5




Source Ecorys












28



65




Country Technology

pathway


and hybrid systems


Australia 1 1 1 0

Brazil 1 0 1 0

Canada 1 0 1 1

China 12 4 6 2

Israel 1 1 0 1

Japan 16 7 15 1

Korea 4 0 4 0

Singapore 1 0 1 0

US 40 17 30 9

Total 77 30 59 14


Source Ecorys
























pathways




66


Source Ecorys

















Germany




not only AP

Germany



Germany





only AP





67


UK





2011







Source Ecorys






initiatives











billion30







The


PECDEMO project32






30




68



the total budget

Time

period

(months)






FAST MOLECULAR

WOCS


euro 100000 euro 100000 48



NANO-PHOTO-

CHROME


euro 218731 17











euro 10000 54



Total euro 30005106 euro 24016752 821
















69











Source Ecorys









AMPEA is one of the










33




70


groups36

Swedish ndash CAP















million38


























36









71




employees44







Part of this










use





















44








72


Japan ndash ARPChem






Japan ndash AnApple





from the


Korea ndash KCAP






US - JCAP




JCAP


research programme

US ndash SOFI


















51






73









































challenging





56







74

















a national level63





research activities




degree64



international level









62




75






several MS







within Europe

















closely68



















65





76



term69




Furthermore































pathways

69





77



hybrid systems


companies

European companies

France 1 1 0 1

Germany 2 2 0 4

Italy 0 1 0 1

Netherlands 3 4 1 8

Switzerland 0 1 0 1

Total 6 9 1 15


Japan 0 8 0 8


Singapore 0 0 1 1

US 3 2 4 8

Total 3 11 5 19


Source Ecorys




departments




pathways














78



France PhotoFuel


Germany Brain AG

Italy Hysytech





US Joule Unlimited

US Phytonix

US Algenol

Source Ecorys


















Other companies











79





stage







this pathway



France PhotoFuel


Germany ETOGAS

Italy Hysytech











Netherlands Hydron




US HyperSolar

Source Ecorys







73


80






























74




81




improved77


0378









































77








82









Other companies





















US Opus 12

US LanzaTech

US Proton onsite

Source Ecorys







83













Germany Audi




Canada Quantiam



Israel NewCO2Fuels


US Liquid light


US Opus 12

US LanzaTech


Source Ecorys










45)

84





















Other companies










84




85































87



86









of synthetic diesel



















89


87










Research community












Total in Europe 113




Co-electrolysis 25





Co-electrolysis 14

Source Ecorys














88
















Industrial actors























89


Number of companies

Total in Europe 15




Co-electrolysis 1





Co-electrolysis 5

Source Ecorys


















91





AP devices)










AP Technology



hybrid systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria



systems



water splitting)


catalysts

Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis







structures

Co-electrolysis






research












92


developed













93


AP

Technology





Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

Nitrogenase

activity wanes

within a few

days

Light energy

conversion

efficiency

gt10

(theoretical

limit ~15)

4 (PAR

utilization

efficiency) on

lab level (200 x

600 mm)

No data No data



hybrid systems

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt100 hours

CO2 reduction

energy

efficiency (full

system) gt10

(nat PS ~1)

NA (CO2

reduction

energy

efficiency for

full system) on

lab level

No data No data

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)







Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

gt500 hours

(stability goal)

gt40 hours

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt17

STH efficiency

14

Reduction of

use of noble

metal Rh

catalyst and

use of Si-

based

substrate

material

1kg Rh for

1MW

electrochem

power output

Ge substrate

(for

concentrator

systems)

Si substrate

94

AP

Technology





Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (light-

driven water

splitting)





structures

Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency ~9

STH efficiency

49

Reduction of

use of rare Pt

catalyst

Pt used as

counter

electrode for

H2 production

Dye-sensitised



Production

costs for H2

2-4 US$ per kg

H2

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1 hour

Solar-to-

hydrogen

(STH)

efficiency

gt10

IPCE gt90

(efficiency

goal)

IPCE (incident

photon to

electron

conversion

efficiency) of

25

Reduction of

use of rare and

expensive raw

materials

High-cost Ru-

based photo-

sensitizers

used

Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)

SOFC capital

cost target

400 US$kW

Comp of

synthetic fuels

with fossil fuels

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

1000 hours

(stability goal)

~50 hours

(high SOEC

cell

performance

degradation

observed)

Power-to-

Liquid system

efficiencies

(full system

incl FT)

gt70




research

Comp with

fossil chemi

and fuels (eg

CO ethylene

alcohols) 650-

1200 EURMt

No data

gt20 years

(long term)

10000 hours

(stability goal)

gt1000 hours

(laboratory

performance)

System

efficiencies

(full system)

gt60-70

95 of

electricity used

to produce CO

System

efficiencies

(full system)

40

No data No data

95










2016)


needed



TRL 3 (pres Init)

TRL 6-8 (for direct



algae)




TRL 4 5 Mio euro






absorbers)

TRL 4 (for III-VGe

tandem structures)


structures)


tandem structures)


tandem structures)


TRL 5 5-10 Mio euro




absorbers)

TRL 4 2020 TRL 5

Dye-sensitised



TRL 3 2020 TRL 4



TRL 4 5 Mio euro




TRL 2-3 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)

2020 TRL 3-4 (for co-

electrolysis of H2O

(steam) and CO2)




carbon compound

production)



2020 TRL 6 (for RE

assisted carbon




systems)








96


AP RTD initiatives



factories based on

cyanobacteria



harvesting capacity







gases












hybrid systems



growth




solar energy source














polymers and fuels

97

AP RTD initiatives









interfaces




(photo)corrosion


Rh catalyst









surface area









gt17












optical absorption)
























Dye-sensitised









98

AP RTD initiatives










solutions





separation lifetime



efficiencies








needed


(towards 90 IPEC)








30 years










99

AP RTD initiatives





(SOEC)


and CO2




conditions








(BSCF) perovskites)


hydrogen electrodes
















processes




research





density)










chemicals and fuels

100






















short term





European levels



101





cyanobacteria






Bio-hybrid systems




bandgap absorber





structures







bandgap absorber



Bismuth Vanadate


absorber structures






Dye-sensitised


cells - Molecular

photocatalysis










Cells (SOEC)






Research















international level

102









production unit










industrial level























development

103






































104



























Research (IREC)




105


AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


Synthetic

biology amp

hybrid

systems


factories based on

cyanobacteria




(NIBIO)






hybrid systems










Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)












(Caltech)



GmbH and Aixtron SE








Ilmenau



under development

Photoelectroc

atalysis of

water (water

splitting)













Lausanne)





Barcelona (UB)













Dye-sensitised












106

AP

Technology

Pathways

AP RTD Initiatives


(within CAP)






Lausanne)

EPFL











Office




Co-

electrolysis




(SOEC)






Center from Spain






synthesis)



(IREC)



research




Bayreuth Germany




Siemens CT



Bayreuth

107




















electrolysis


approaches






technologies)




109


61 Context





































90


110







future








pathways












given path
















Europe

111








62 Roadmap overview


























91


112



Regional MS amp EU


Private amp EU

Private (companies)

FUNDINGSOURCE

TRL 9Industrial

Implementation

TRL 6-8Demonstrator

Projects


TRL 1-3Fundamental

Research


2017 2025 2035

113




























level support)















fuelsrsquo

Priority

High




114





implementation



















Priority

Medium



















industry




Priority

Medium


Short (Phase 1)

92


115























projects























Priority

High


Medium (Phase 2)

116



















Priority

High



long term











social requirements













117











By



At the same time












Priority

Medium


Long (Phase 3)





















93



118









































assessed







119






121

7 References




(3) Agency I E 2015












Edition 2010


















133 16334







of Sciences 2012 109 15560



4029









2016 334 89



122


1677


4 2754






Society 2012 134 5627




2010 5 73






2008 130 6308




7223





































123





2011 15 1










Patents 2011


[Ca

talo

gu

e n

um

be

r]

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

KI-N

A-2

7-9

87-E

N-N

Artificial Photosynthesis: Potential and Reality

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Transcript of Artificial Photosynthesis: Potential and Reality