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Arabization and Translation: Focus on Lexical Issues

Abdelaziz KESBIUniversity Hassan II Mohammedia

Abstract

This article addresses the issue of Arabization and translation with a focus on the

lexicographic deficiencies noted in Arabic dictionaries. These factors negatively

affect the success of the translation process. Exploring some dictionaries reveals

clearly some weaknesses and deficiencies in the Arabic terminology. In this article

we give some examples and propose some solutions that would hopefully promote

the field of translation, a condition sine qua non of any development in the Arab

world.

Cet atile taite la uestio de l’aaisatio et de la tadutio ave foalisatio

sur les insuffisances lexicographiques notées dans les dictionnaires arabes.Fateus etavat la éussite du poessus de tadutio. L’exploatio de

etais ditioaies dévoile à l’évidee les failesses et les aees dot

souffe la teiologie aae. L’atile e doe uelues illustatios et popose

des solutions qui seraient à même de permettre la promotion du domaine de la

traduction, condition sine qua non de tout développement du monde arabe.

ج ا ا ب شإ ا ا ا ا ج أ ك ا ع س ا ا حط ا. ا ط ط ا صقا ا ا ف ج ظح س ا ا إ د

ج

ا

أ

ح

ا

ش

ا

.

ا

حث

ا

ق

ا

ق

ا

ش ا ا ح ق ا ا ض ا أ ش ا ج ا ط

ا ا .

Throughout the literature, the concept of „Arabization‟ has had different meanings and

interpretations according to the perspective from which it was looked at. Indeed, one of its

important goals was, and still is, translation. This was mainly the result of the Arabs‟ contact

with other cultures and languages. One of the main aims of Arabization was to adopt and

adapt western sciences through the coining of new Arabic terminologies. Yet throughout

history, Arab translators have faced many obstacles reflected in one of their important tools,

namely dictionaries. In fact, Arabic dictionaries reveal many deficiencies and weaknesses

such as the lack of indications of the etymology, neologism, references and contexts of the

translated terms. Besides, there are no delimitations between contemporary, classical, and

dialectal use of words. Last but not least, the reliance of Arab translators on different sourcelanguages results in different translations for the same concept. Consequently, the users of

Arabic dictionaries encounter many problems related to terminological gaps. Translations

vary not only from one translator to another, from a country to another but even within the

same country. All of these problems have a great impact on the transmission of the language,

hence of knowledge. To make matters worse is the unawareness of many Arabic specialists,

as they are multilingual, of the necessity to develop Arabic terminology (Massoud, 2005).


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Arabization and translation

The contact between Arabs and other foreign speech communities has led to the

flourishing of translation of the respective foreign sciences into Arabic. This included both

the form and the content. In the process of adopting western sciences, hence creating new

Arabic terminology, the Arabs devised different methods. When the Arabs‟ influence was

great, they found new scientific information and data in the invaded countries. During the

Abbassid era, Arabs wrote in all the scientific domains with the help of translations of Greek

and Persian books. The technical words used had two origins: Arabic and those borrowed

from foreign languages. The procedure of Arabization in the past is illustrated in the work of

El Beirouni who used to follow different steps:

1- He used the new word once in its original language in order to make it known.

2 - If an equivalent word in Arabic existed, he used it.

3 - In some cases, he used the foreign term even if an equivalent one in Arabic

existed, if the foreign word were easier to use and nearer to the given thing.

4 - If the term were a widely used symbol, he used it (Abou Abdou, 1984).

„Corpus Arabization‟ is not a new notion, as it dates back to the pre -Islamic period.

Its main task is to develop Arabic through processes such as „derivation‟ /ichtiqa:q/,

„compounding‟ /naћt/, „metaphor‟ /maža:z/, „translation‟ /taržama/, and „borrowing‟ /istia:ra/

or /iqtira:D/ (Elbiad, 1985) (Al-Kasimi, 1987)1.

Abou Abdou (ibid.) believes that Arabic is the language whose structure allows it to

coin many words via the process of derivation. From the simple root of three letters, a

number of new words can be formed. As an example, from the simple root /f l/ many word

types such as, /fil/, /fau:l/, /faala:n/, /faalah/ can be derived e.g. /k t b/: /kataba/ „to write‟,

/ka:tib/ „writer‟ etc. Yet, before proceeding to the creation of new words, the competent

institutions of Arabization2 should define precisely the meaning of each word type in order

the derivation of words should not be done in a haphazard way. „Compounding‟ is to make

up a word from two words or more in an attempt to shorten them, e.g. /zamaka:n/ „space-time‟

from /zama:n/ „time‟ and /maka:n/ „space‟. „Metaphor‟ is the process whereby the original

1 Al-Kasimi, A. was the head of the Bureau of Co-ordination of Arabization (1978-1982).

2IERA and the Bureau of Co-ordination of Arabization.


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meaning of a word is shifted to a new one e.g. /qa:Tera/ used to mean a „she-camel‟ which

leads a caravan; now the same word is used to mean a „locomotive‟. „Translation‟ is the

transfer of the meaning of a foreign term into Arabic. However, a term like „telephone‟ can

be translated twice: in its original term, e.g. /tilifu:n/ or its meaning, e.g. /ha:tif/. Finally,

„Borrowing‟ means the adoption of a foreign term either as it is or after being adapted to the

phonetic and phonemic inventory of Arabic. An example of the former would be /tilifu:n/

„telephone‟ and /falsafah/ „philosophy‟ for the latter (Al-Kasimi, ibid.).

In this sense, Corpus Arabization can be equated with linguistic Arabization, which

has as a guiding principle: quality; hence its qualification as an „Arabisation de niveau.‟ This

linguistic Arabization also includes a lexical and a conceptual level. The former consists in

the assimilation and adaptation of foreign words into Arabic, while the latter consists in the

assimilation of foreign concepts using typically Arabic lexical items (Elbiad, 1985).

Corpus Arabization, in general, was a success, as thousands of new Arabic terms were

coined in different fields. Consequently, Arabic, since independence, has been used more and

more in new domains. Nowadays, it is used as the unique language of scientific instruction in

both the primary and secondary schools.

Problems of dictionaries

It is true that the Arabs were a leading nation in a number of sciences during the

Middle Ages. To assume this leading role, Arabic had developed considerably during this

period. Yet, the decadence of the Arabs for nearly six centuries (from the thirteenth to the

nineteenth century) led to the degradation and degeneration of their language. Afterwards, the

period of the Arab renaissance /nahDa/ was not enough to make up for the big loss of Arabic.

To make matters worse, the Arab renaissance coincided with the onset of the colonisation of

many Arab countries. Hence, this contributed in the weakening of Arabic, which was

relegated to a secondary position for the benefit of the language of the colonisers (Elbiad,

ibid.).

In the Arab world, the „movement of translation‟ is facing many obstacles, which

hinder it from performing the leading role it played during the flourishing period of the

Islamic Arab civilisation. Today, with all the rapid changes that the world is undergoing, this

movement, instead of relying on mere individual initiatives, should be organised and

institutionalised (Alaskari, 2001; Ennaji, 2002, 2005).


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In the nineties, an ambitious project was founded in Egypt, namely the „National

Translation Project‟. Another one was created in Lebanon, namely the „Arabic Institution of

Translation.‟ The goal of this institution is to translate the world‟s most important scientific

books, periodicals, encyclopaedias and co-ordinate all the efforts of the Arabs in the field of

translation via the Internet (Alaskari, ibid.).

Yet, those rare projects are vain attempts to face the huge number of scientific

publications, which need to be translated into Arabic. There is no dictionary of the present

technological and scientific terminology with linguistic indications, for example: origins,

neologism formations, references, context, etc. Bilingual dictionaries refer more to a

translation rather than to a linguistic definition. In the dictionary /lisa:n/, for example, the

definition of scientific terms is followed by their translation in English and French. In this

way, the meaning of these scientific terms is determined by their translation without any

linguistic justification (Lakhdar-Ghazal, 1977.)

Another disadvantage of the existing dictionaries is that there is no delimitation

between an old and contemporary use of language; or between a classical and a dialectal use.

This leads to confusion in communication. Besides, the analysis of these dictionaries reveals

many lexical differences due to the reference to different languages in the Arab world. Some

authors refer to French while others to English, leading to a growing confusion (Lakhdar-

Ghazal, ibid.).

The situation gets more complicated when you consult bilingual dictionaries in which

authors give the same concept different terms, which are not synonyms, as they serve to label

other things. An example of the translation of the French word „cheville‟ (ankle) illustrates

this clearly:


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DICTIONARIES SUGGESTED TRANSLATIONS

Arabic-French Belot (1952). [kab]

Arabic-French Elias (1952). [ka:ћil, kab]

Manhal, (1970). [urqu:b]

Mawrid, (1967). [ka:ћil]

Mazhar, Nahda Dictionary, Cairo (without a date). [ka b, ka:ћil, kursu:]

Dictionary of Medicine, Damascus (1956). [urqu:b]

The unified military Dictionary, Cairo (1970). [urqu:b, kab]

(Lakhdar-Ghazal, 1977: 23)

The researcher notices that for the same French concept „cheville‟ four terms are

provided in different dictionaries. The problem is that these terms are not synonyms, as it is

shown in the following table:

Arabic English

1 kab

-Part of the ankle. Dictionary of Medicine of Damascus.

-Part of the ankle, heel. (Edouard Ghaleb, Dictionary of Nature Sciences, 1965.

2 urqu:b-Hock, the middle joint of an animal‟s back leg Dictionary of agricultural terms (M.

Chehabi and Edouard Ghaleb, 1975.

3 kursu:

-Exterior bone of the wrist, (Arabic-French Elias and French-Arabic Belot). The last

meaning is confirmed by the Dictionary matn lluRa, (1958). It does mean a part of the

foot only in the case of the species of sheep and bulls.

4 ka:ћil -Not found in classical dictionaries, it is pointed out to in the French-Arabic Belot as a

probably dialectal Syrian term ,

(Lakhdar-Ghazal: 1977: 24)


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Other illustrations of the existence of different translations for the same concept are

stated in the Moroccan version of the dictionary of Physics.

FRENCH ARABIC

Ballon ћawžalah; ћawqalah; minTa:d

Etalonnage Tadri:ž; mua:yarah

(Ministère de l‟Education Nationale, 1989)

Indeed, the French word „ballon‟ used in physics means a flask used in the laboratory.

Yet, according to the dictionary of Al Boustani (1983) MuhiT Al MuhiT, the first Arabic

word namely „ћawžalah‟ means a bottle with a large base or surprisingly a small bottle with a

large top. In addition, the next suggested translation viz. ћawqalah according to the same

dictionary means a long-necked bottle. Last but not least, the word minTa:d means only an

air balloon.

The main problem of Arabization stated in the literature is that of terminology.

Indeed, the situation of bilingualism gives birth to the problem of Arabization from the angle

of translation; in other words, the need to express in Arabic all that is expressed in foreign

languages. At all levels of translation emerges one of the important handicaps of Arabic. By

way of illustration, there are numerous gaps in terminology, the used vocabulary is not stable

and translations vary from one author to another, from one country to another and even inside

the same country (Lakhdar-Ghazal, 1959, 1977).

A confusing factor is explicit in the wide gaps in the Arabic terminology. These gaps

can be partial or total (Lakhdar-Ghazal, ibid.). For example, the translation of a group of

French words illustrates this: „Effigie‟, „figure‟, „gravure‟, „illustration‟, „image‟,„photographie‟, „portrait‟ and „représentation‟. All these words have a single equivalent in

Arabic, namely/Su:rah/.3

3 This problem is solved by online translators as they refer to many dictionaries at once.


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French English Arabic

Figurefigure

/Su:rah/

effigieEffigy

gravurecarving

illustrationillustration

Imageimage

Photographie

photograph

portraitportrait

ReprésentationRepresentation

Total gaps are illustrated in the big number of English or French words, which have no

respective translations in Arabic. These gaps concern especially the language of science and

technology, creating the double problem of borrowing and neologism.

Paradoxically, in some studies about the capacity of pupils to acquire new terms,

Elbachir (1983) remarked that the Arab child learns many words, to express the same notion.

For example, /alfaSl/, /aSSaf/ /alћožrah ddira:siya/ and /qa:at ddars/, all meaning

„classroom‟. This situation can be a sign of Arabic richness. Yet, this is made to the

detriment of the information that the child has to learn. If researchers suppose that the pupil

in a school has to learn 1500 words, they find that s/he learns in fact only 900 and the rest are

synonyms; on the contrary, when the European child learns 1500 words these equals 1500

concepts (El Bachir interviewed by Chante, 1983)4.

4 Mohamed Elbachir was the General Secretary of the Union of the Islamic Universities.


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Arabic resists direct borrowing of foreign words for different reasons mainly structural

ones. It accepts up to six consonants in arabized foreign words, for example /sakanžabir/

(ginger). Foreign words, which contain more than this number of consonants, such as

„électroencéphalogramme‟ will yield unacceptable word if it is transcribed as it is in Arabic.

Another difficulty is that Arabic contains only these vowels, namely /a/, /u/ and /i/, which

creates a problem in transcribing other vowels, which exist in European languages. An

example would be the transliteration in Arabic of French words (Lakhdar-Ghazal, ibid.).

French English Arabic transiliteration

Cœur heart

/ku:r/

Cure treatment

Cours Course

Corps bodyAnother problem is the transliteration of some French consonants which have no

counterparts in Arabic such as /g/ and /v/. Indeed, /g/ is pronounced in Arabic as / R /, /k/ or

/q/; while /v/ is pronounced as /b/ or /f/. These different forms make their Arabization not

relying on clear or definite rules.

ENGLISH FRENCH ARABIC

Manganese Manganèse manRani:z

Granite Granite kra:ni:t

Reg Reg Riq

lava Lave La:f ah

Lava flow Coulée de lave Tadaffuq la:bi:

(Tbatou, 1994: 14-15)


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The fact that Arabic resists direct borrowing creates the problem of neologism. The

process of creation of words in European languages is different from that in Arabic. French,

for example, borrows not only roots from Greek and Latin but also derivational elements,

which combine in complex lexical entities like: „anthropomorphologie‟. This type of

agglutination cannot be done in Arabic.

The last point tackled by Lakhdar-Ghazal (ibid.) is the fact that the Arabic terminology

is lagging behind the European one. A simple comparison between a French-Arabic

dictionary and a French one shows the big difference in the number of entries lacking in the

former. The situation is getting worse and worse since thousands of words are newly coined

in the world in the different fields of science, while only a hundred appear in the Arab world;

in a vain attempt to make up for the lost time.

It is a truism that a language is the privileged instrument of knowledge. Any scientific

or technical innovation is automatically accompanied with the creation of new terms. As “/.../

It is necessary to name in order to distinguish, recognise and finally know” (Rey, 1979) (in

Richert 1987: 17). Therefore, the great increase of the technical and scientific information

correlates with the great increase of the techno-scientific vocabulary. Facing this multilingual

knowledge, each language should be equipped with an adequate terminology if it aspires to

accomplish its essential function of a means of knowledge.

The scientific progress of a linguistic community leads to the supremacy of the

language it uses. Languages are not equal with respect to science, as it is shown by the

evaluation done by the UNISIST5. According to this study, English and Russian are classified

first followed by French and German as being members of the closed club of the „languages

of science‟. However

Any serious research is practically forbidden for the specialists in the French

and German languages if they have not a good knowledge of English orRussian. The difference is only a question of degree if their mother tongue is

one of the Romance, Germanic or Slavonic – even Japanese or Chinese

languages. /…/ However, the heaviest handicap is witnessed in the case of

developing countries, where the numerous years spent in the learning of a

mother tongue are practically lost concerning the access to scientific

information. Indeed, Semitic, African or Indo-Malaya languages do not

constitute, in anyway, a means of exchange, in any direction whatsoever, with

the scientific community of the North Hemisphere.

5 Etude sur la réalisation d‟un système mondial d‟information scientifique et technique. (Study on the realisation

of a worldwide system of scientific and technical information).


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(Cited in Richert, 1987: 17-18).

This leads us to talk about technical Arabization. If administrative, judiciary and

social Arabization is relatively easy, the problem gets complicated when researchers deal with

technical Arabization. This is mainly due to the rapid progress of science.

Conclusion

During the Arab‟s golden period, the development of Arabs was correlated with the

flourishing of translation of science from the Greeks and Romans etc. However, the

decadence and underdevelopment of Arabs led to the deterioration of their language. Hence,

we are convinced that translation can contribute to development. Nevertheless, the movement

of translation should be institutionalized, instead of relying on mere individual and sparseefforts, in an attempt to keep up with the huge amount of foreign scientific publications.

Besides, Arabic dictionaries should overcome their weaknesses and deficiencies so that they

can fully play their important role of simplifying and easing the process of knowledge

acquisition. Additional efforts should be invested to make uniform the translations of the

same concepts in the Arab world. Consequently, the role of institutions like the “bureau of

coordination of Arabization” or “the mujamma‟ allugha alaarabiya” should be more

strengthened to produce not Moroccan, Egyptian etc. dictionaries, but rather Standard Arabic

ones! In brief, the multilingual science specialists should be aware of the necessity of making

Arabic a tool of scientific acquisition and transmission to contribute to the development and

revival of Arabs‟ language and culture.


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Bibliography

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I. S. (2001) “al arabu wa tari:b al ulu:m al ћadi:tah”. In Al Arabi Magazine,

(2001).

Al-kasimi, A. (1987) muqaddima fi: ilmi lmuSTalaћ, oum lqura: edition, Egypt.

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AlQa:filah magazine (eds., 1983).

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Conditioning Factors in Morocco, Unpublished PhD. thesis, State University of New

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I.E.R.A Press, Rabat.

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Dictionaries

Ministère De L’education Nationale (1989) Lexique Français-Arabe De

Sciences Physiques. Edition Najah, Casablanca.

Butros Al Boustani (1983) MuhiT Al MuhiT, Lebanon Library, Beyrouth.

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