Aqueducts of Aphrodisias

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INTRODUCTION

An abundant and reliable water supply was crucial orthe growth o civic lie at Aphrodisias and the develop-ment o the countryside surrounding it. Public water-works such as cisterns, ountains, baths, and aqueducts

were indispensable to urban development and conspic-uous both inside and outside the city. Aqueducts builtduring the Roman period carried water over long dis-tances to supply prominent urban monuments such asthe Hadrianic Baths and South Agora pool and perhapsto acilitate the agricultural development o the valley.

Although ancient aqueduct bridges and tunnels havebeen visible in the Morsynus river valley and neighbor-ing Tavas plain since antiquity, the material remains owaterworks in and around Aphrodisias have never beensystematically documented or comprehensively stud-ied. Previous scholarship on the citys water supply andmanagement has been limited to the cursory treatment

o remains such as cisterns and water pipes, or to themore detailed discussion o scattered epigraphic and nu-mismatic evidence; little i any attention has been paid toextraurban remains.2

The Aphrodisias Regional Survey has produced anup-to-date and detailed account o the citys extraurbanaqueducts, engineering works that enabled the en-hancement o the citys public inrastructure as well asthe development o the countryside. We have identifedand documented six separate aqueducts, named ater

local toponyms: Seki, Isklar, Derince Dere, KavaklDere, ren Deresi, and Timeles (Fig. 1). Three o these,the Seki, Isklar, and Timeles aqueducts, suppliedAphrodisias in the Roman period. The Derince Dereaqueduct may have supplied two small baths in Aphro-disias during the Ottoman period. The Kavakl Dereand ren Deresi aqueducts, remains o which are lo-cated at elevations lower than the city, may have sup-plied a village, armstead, or villa, or provided water orirrigation during the Roman or Byzantine period.

The most impressive aqueduct was the Timeles,which carried water to Aphrodisias rom the neighbor-ing valley o the Yenidere ay. It was a major piece o

Roman engineering, more than 25 km long, running intunnels up to 50 m deep, and crossing at least a dozenbridges, which ranged in height rom 5 m to nearly 30m. This is surely the aqueduct commemorated by coinsand inscriptions o the mid-second century A.D. thatdocument the introduction o the river Timeles intoAphrodisias. The identifcation o the Timeles with theYenidere ay presumably indicates that at least a por-tion o this river lay within or on the edge o the terri-tory o Aphrodisias.

This chapter provides the frst detailed account o theextraurban aqueducts that supplied Aphrodisias in an-

tiquity. It also represents the frst attempt to documentall the major waterworks in the region, including aque-ducts with destinations other than Aphrodisias and theOttoman cisterns located throughout the valley.

PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON WATERMANAGEMENT AND SUPPLYAT APHRODISIAS

By the late nineteenth century, the main numismatic andepigraphic evidence concerning the Timeles river and itsconnection to Aphrodisias was already known: early

239

The Aqueducts o AphrodisiasANGELA R. COMMITO and FELIPE ROJAS1

1. Commito is the author o the text and catalogue, except thesections Previous Research on Water Management and Supplyat Aphrodisias and Historical Analysis, both o which werewritten by Rojas. Dating, Purpose, and Funding o the Aque-ducts was written by Rojas and Commito. Rojas was also re-sponsible or the production o nearly all the drawings, exceptthose produced by him in collaboration with E. Putalik, E. Cor-bett, or Commito.

2. Scholars have repeatedly expressed the need or a study suchas the present one. Consider, or example, F. Imhoo-Blumers re-marks concerning the identifcation o the Timeles river: ZurAuklrung dieser Flussverhltnisse bedar es weiterer topo-graphischer Forschungen, denen es vielleicht gelingt, Spuren desAquduktes auzufnden; F. Imhoo-Blumer,Fluss-und Meergt-ter au griechischen und rmischen Mnzen (Geneva 1923) 129;and J. Reynoldss more recent comments: We are, however, inneed o a modern study o the availability o water and thearrangements or bringing it to and distributing it within the city;

J. Reynolds, New Letters rom Hadrian to Aphrodisias,JRA13 (2000) 18. See also M. Guy, Apport de linterprtation des im-ages de SPOT lexploration du site, Aphrodisias Papers 3, 77,who notes the need or scientifc maps o the sort included in thisvolume. A preliminary analysis o water management within thecity is currently being undertaken by Andrew Wilson.


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second-century A.D. coins o both Aphrodisias andHerakleia Salbakes show a river god labeled Timeles

(Fig. 2),3

and a contemporary inscription rom Aphro-disias frst recorded in 1705 and published in 1843 men-tions the introduction o that river into the city.4 In1895 W. M. Ramsay argued using this evidence that theTimeles river lay within the territory o Herakleia in theridge separating the valleys o the two towns and that anaqueduct connected it to Aphrodisias, but he did notsuggest more precise topographical locations or eitherthe river or the aqueduct.5

In 1904 G. Weber dedicated a ew paragraphs o hisWasserleitungen in kleinasiatischen Stdten to theissue o water management at Aphrodisias. In additionto mentioning the Timeles aqueduct, Weber noted the

remains o several water eatures in and around the cityincluding baths, cisterns, basins, and pipes, which hevariously and summarily assigned to the Roman,Byzantine, or Turkish periods.6 In 1909 H. Kiepert la-beled one o many streams owing down the slopes oMount Kadmos (modern Baba Dag) that eed theYenidere ay as the Timeles river, but it is unlikely thatany stream ever owed exactly as Kiepert envisaged,and it is impossible to say precisely which, i any othem, was ever called Timeles.7

In 1927 R. Vagts pointed out the appearance in in-scriptions o diverse water acilities;8 these included the

summer Olympian bath o Rhodopaios (

O ),9 the still unidentifed baths oHierokles,10 and some water reservoirs or holdingponds ( ).11

In 1954 L. and J. Robert discussed the topographyand hydrology o the region in what was to date themost useul and comprehensive study o water manage-ment in Aphrodisias and the surrounding territory.12 TheRoberts also took into account the available numismaticand epigraphic evidence, and proposed the identifcationo the Timeles river with the modern Yenidere ay inthe neighboring Tavas plain. Our fndings validate theiridentifcation, and we examine their discussion in greaterdetail under Historical Analysis. Also in 1954, J. M.R. Cormack collected what until then was the main epi-graphic evidence or water supply at Aphrodisias anddistinguished two major water management projects: theTimeles aqueduct constructed under the Antonines, anda dierent project undertaken in the reign o Domitian.13

In 1981 A. R. R. Sheppard published a relie rom Her-akleia Salbakes that almost certainly depicts a personif-cation o the Timeles river (Fig. 3), thereby adding a

sculptural representation o the river to the epigraphicand numismatic documentation.14

THE AQUEDUCTS OF APHRODISIAS 241

Figure 2. Early second-century A.D. coins o Aphrodisias(let) and Herakleia Salbakes showing a river god labeledTimeles. Ater F. Imhoo-Blumer,Fluss-und Meergtter(1923) nos. 291, 292, pl. IX no. 28 (Aphrodisias); no. 295, pl.X no. 3 (Herakleia Salbakes).

Figure 3. Relie rom Herakleia Salbakes showing the per-sonifcation o the Timeles river. Ater A. R. R. Sheppard,

R.E.C.A.M. Notes and Studies No. 8: The River God oHeraclea-on-Salbace,AnatSt 31 (1981) 29.

3. Imhoo-Blumer, Fluss-und Meergtter (supra n. 2) nos.291, 292, pl. IX no. 28 (Aphrodisias); no. 295, pl. X no. 3 (Her-akleia Salbakes).

4. IAph200712.1111. Although here we include articles deal-ing with the Timeles river, the reader is reerred to the section onHistorical Analysis below or a ull discussion o this material.

5. W. M. Ramsay, The Cities and Bishoprics o Phrygia (Ox-ord 1895) 18990.

6. G. Weber, Wasserleitungen in kleinasiatischen Stdten,JdI19 (1904) 9192.

7. H. Kiepert,Formae Orbis Antiqui (Berlin 1909) map IX,Asia provincia; or problems in Kieperts identifcation, see inran. 91.

8. R. Vagts,Aphrodisias in Karien (Borna-Leipzig 1920) 49.

9. See C. Rouech,ALA/eALA 87; L. Robert, Hellenica 4(1948) 12728.

10. P. Le Bas and W. H. Waddington, Inscriptions grecques etlatines receuillies en Grce et en Asie Mineure (1870) no. 1592.

11. IAph200712.314; on these reservoirs, see A. Chaniotis,Twelve Buildings in Search o Locations: Known and UnknownBuildings in the Inscriptions, inAphrodisias Papers 4, 6178.

12. L. Robert and J. Robert, La Carie 2 (Paris 1954) 4649.13. J. M. R. Cormack, Epigraphic Evidence or the Water-

Supply o Aphrodisias, BSA 49 (1954) 910.14. A. R. R. Sheppard, R.E.C.A.M. Notes and Studies No.

8: The River God o Heraclea-on-Salbace,AnatSt 31 (1981) 29.


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In their report on the 1993 feld season at Aphro-disias, R. R. R. Smith and C. Ratt mentioned the stand-ing remains o a pier o a Roman aqueduct bridge in thevicinity o the village o Isklar (see below, Figs. 8, 9).15

In 1996 M. Guy published an analysis o satellite im-

agery that was intended to illuminate the hydrology othe region urther, but no attempt was made in the feldto check the assumptions gleaned rom photographs.Thus, although Guys brie description o the overallhydrology remains useul, the various eatures identi-fed as aqueducts in the satellite imagery have little orno correlation with the remains o ancient structures onthe ground; many correspond only to modern ditches.16

Also in 1996, . zis briey noted the existence o twoancient water conveyance systems northeast o Aphro-disias, one at Isklar and another between Isklar andPalamutuk.17 In 1997, J. Reynolds analyzed a prob-

lematic inscription that sheds light on the history obathing acilities in the city. She distinguished at leasttwo previous bath complexes at the site where theHadrianic Baths were eventually erected: the EusebianBaths, which were likely built under Tiberius andruined ca. A.D. 41, and a second complex incorporat-ing parts o the destroyed Eusebian Baths and itsel usedin the creation o the so-called Hadrianic Baths.18

Reynolds also concluded that public baths at Aphro-disias very likely frst existed in the Julio-Claudian pe-riod. In preparation o a orthcoming analysis o watermanagement within the city, A. Wilson argues againstthe existence o an intermediate bath building and

points out that the inscription does not, in act, indicatethat the Eusebian Baths had necessarily been located atthe same site as the Hadrianic Baths.19

In 2000, Reynolds returned to the question o watermanagement at Aphrodisias and published an impor-tant collection o our letters rom the emperor Hadrianto the magistrates, council, and people o Aphrodisias;two o these letters concern an aqueduct that is proba-

bly the Timeles aqueduct.20 Most recently, in 2008, A.Chaniotis clarifed the discussion o an inscription rel-evant to water management, concluding that the text didnot imply an aqueduct as previously suggested butrather dealt with the construction and repair o intra -urban water acilities (including gutters, canals, andreservoirs or holding ponds) undertaken during thereign o Domitian.21 The interpretation o these variousincriptions remains open to debate and is discussed ur-ther in Historical Analysis.22

SURVEY OBJECTIVES

The overarching objective o the Aphrodisias RegionalSurvey was to place the Graeco-Roman town in a re-gional context by exploring the interaction between theregions human population and the surrounding envi-ronment, rom prehistory to the present day, and by in-vestigating the Hellenistic and Roman citys exploitationo natural resources, including water. The survey goalsalso included those directed specifcally at understand-ing the waterworks in the region. The survey aimed tostudy the hydrology o the region to identiy the watersources most likely to have been exploited or urban sup-

ply and rural irrigation. In addition, it set out to investi-gate and document surviving aqueduct structures and toreconstruct the paths o these aqueducts using both doc-umented structures and predictive modeling. The fnalgoal was to place the regions aqueducts in context witha technical analysis to understand how they were builtand an historical analysis to understand the circum-stances o and motivations or their construction and use.

242 ANGELA R. COMMITO and FELIPE ROJAS

15. Aphrodisias, 1993, 3358, at 38.16. Guy, Apport de linterprtation des images de SPOT

(supra n. 2).17. . zis, Historical Water Schemes in Turkey, Inter-

national Journal o Water Resources Development 12 (1996)34784.

18. J. Reynolds, The Dedication o a Bath Building at Car-ian Aphrodisias, Studia in honorem Georgii Mihailov (1997)397402; the inscription in question is IAph2007 5.6. For thereuse o building material in Aphrodisias, see Chaniotis, TwelveBuildings (supra n. 11) 6869.

19. Personal communication, 5 August 2011. Although thereis no certainty as to the exact location o the Eusebian Baths, weagree with Reynolds, The Dedication o a Bath Building at Car-ian Aphrodisias (supra n. 18) 398, that the economy o usingpre-existing arrangements or water supply and drainage wouldstrongly encourage rebuilding and replacement-building obaths one ater the other on the same site. On the other hand,we agree with Wilson in thinking that there is no need to hy-pothesize an intermediate bath complex. The baths mentioned inIAph20075.6 were dedicated to the Olympian Gods. IAph200711.515 mentions the contributions o Rhodopaios to theOlympian Baths; although this inscription was not ound in situ,two other inscriptions mentioning Rhodopaios (IAph20075.16and 5.17) were ound near the Hadrianic Baths and it is likely

that IAph2007 11.515 stood close to them. Finally, one o thebuilding inscriptions o the Hadrianic Baths (IAph20075.5) usesthe honorary title Olympios to reer to Hadrian. All this couldexplain why the Hadrianic Baths were known as OlympianBaths in antiquity.

20. Reynolds, New Letters (supra n. 2) 1620.21. Chaniotis, Twelve Buildings (supra n. 11); the relevant

inscription is IAph200712.314.22. Wilson would rather see the inscription (IAph2007

12.314) as reerring to water-related structures built specifcally inassociation with a new aqueduct constructed at the same time;personal communication, 5 August 2011. We did not obtain threeTurkish publications that deal with water management and sup-ply in Aphrodisias: M. Cakir, . Verim, and R. Asar,Antik Aro-disias Kenti Su Yaplar (Izmir 1978); . zis, Su MhendisligiTarihi Asndan Trkiyedeki Eski Su Yaplar (Ankara 1994), inwhich Aphrodisias is reported to be treated on pages 7273 and17684; and . zis, aglar Boyunca Anadoluda Su Mhendis-ligi (Istanbul 1995), in which Aphrodisias is reported to be treatedon page 29.


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SURVEY METHODS

When the survey began in 2005, the pier o an aqueductbridge crossing a dere23 near the modern town o Isklarhad already been identifed and briey recorded (A008)(see below, Figs. 8, 9).24 The survey team intended todocument ully the bridge pier at Isklar and to identiyother aqueduct structures. The bridge o a second aque-duct was then identifed near the village o Seki where itspanned the Yksekkemer Deresi near the modern

highway that runs through the valley (A063) (Figs. 4,5). The Yksekkemer Deresi aqueduct bridge was dis-

covered during the survey teams inspection o the Ot-toman bridge into which it had been incorporated.Local inormants amiliar with the region pointed out

most o the other aqueduct structures documented bythe survey team; we then visited and investigated themor additional remains. All major structures, includingbridges, conduits, tunnels, and shats, were documentedwith digital photographs and measured architectural sec-tion and elevation drawings. These data were compiledinto both the main survey database and a separate cata-logue o aqueduct remains, which ollows.

By the end o the 2008 season, six aqueducts had beenidentifed in the region: Seki, Isklar, Derince Dere,

Figure 4. Yksekkemer Deresi bridge o Seki aqueduct (A063) (1:200).

Figure 5. Southwest side o Yksekkemersi Dere bridge o Seki aqueduct, looking north (A063).

23. In Turkish, a dere is a channel or gully o an ephemeral orintermittent stream that is usually dry but may have signifcantow ater a precipitation event.

24. Aphrodisias, 1993 (supra n. 15) 38.


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Kavakl Dere, ren Deresi, and Timeles. Analysis o theaqueducts began by exploring the area around each othe identifed structures to understand their relationshipto the local topography and to search or associated re-mains. In addition, some o the most prominent remains

such as bridges and spoil heaps rom the excavation overtical shats could be identifed on satellite imagery,which was examined in an eort to pinpoint additionaltraces o the aqueducts.

The locations o the identifed structures o theIsklar and Timeles aqueducts were mapped into a Ge-ographic Inormation System (GIS), and these knownpoints were used to create predictive models to investi-gate possible paths or the two aqueducts. The predic-tive model created by A. Kuznetsov or the Timelesaqueduct was ollowed on oot to check the viability othe model and look or urther remains, and each new

fnd increased the accuracy o the model. The locationo documented structures was also analyzed in relationto the hydrology o the region using topographic mapsmarked with the location o natural springs and a soilmoisture index map created with GIS data. Finally, ea-tures o the Timeles aqueduct, by ar the longest andmost substantial in the region, were analyzed in com-parison to other Roman aqueducts supplying ancientcities across the empire.

HYDROLOGY OF THE SURVEY REGION

A hydrology map o the survey region was createdusing General Directorate o Maps topographic maps ata scale o 1:25,000 marked with the location o naturalsprings, digital elevation and soil moisture index mapscreated with GIS data, and on-site observation o thevalleys streams.25 Aphrodisias is located in the valley othe Morsynus river (modern Dandalas ay), a tribu-tary o the Maeander river ed by perennial springs easto the ancient city near the modern village o Seki. Whilethe springs that supply the Morsynus are perennial andamong the most abundant in the valley, the moderatedischarge o the river itsel decreases dramatically in the

summer. Its resources alone could not provide the vol-ume o water required by the ancient city, especiallyater the construction o immense public works such asthe Hadrianic Baths and South Agora pool.

The potential water supply o Aphrodisias was ur-ther checked by the existence o an eastwest-orientedridge north o the city near the modern village o Pala-mutuk. By directing the ow o water to the west othe city, this ridge eectively blocks the runo rom thesprings and surace drainage o the Baba Dag range, the

large mountain range to the north, rom reachingAphrodisias and the eastern part o the valley. There-ore, the residents o Aphrodisias had to tap sources tothe east and north o the city to supplement the insuf-cient local supply.

Municipal inormation on local water managementindicates that the largest springs in the region supplythe villages o Dikmen, Seki, and Yeniky in the east othe valley, while other important springs are locatedin the northwest near Dedeler, in the western area othe Baba Dag range, and in the center o the valley nearAtaeymir. Local inhabitants o the region emphasizethe importance o the springs near Seki or agricultureand household consumption. The construction o atrout arm, water mill, and hydroelectric plant rom themid-twentieth century in the western part o the val-ley highlights the abundance o water resources west

o Aphrodisias at elevations lower than the ancient city.In the neighboring Tavas plain to the southeast, a mod-ern dam marks the previous location o a series oOttoman mills powered by water rom the Kepiz ayand its tributaries, all o which eed into the Yenidereay.

Though the surace hydrology regime described hereis based on modern environmental conditions, its im-plications or likely ancient aqueduct water sources cor-respond well with the actual remains. The Seki aqueductmust have tapped the abundant springs in the easternportion o the valley. The remains o the Isklar and De-rince Dere aqueducts suggest that both were supplied

by water that gathered in the western slopes o the BabaDag range. The Kavakl Dere and ren Deresi aque-ducts, located west o Aphrodisias, possibly collectedwater rom the streams o the western part o the valleythat are deeper and narrower than those in the east dueto the inux o water shunted westward by the Pala-mutuk eastwest ridge.

In addition, the residents o Aphrodisias drew onwater sources located outside their own valley. Thelongest, most substantial aqueduct was the Timeles,which tapped tributaries o the Yenidere ay (Timeles)in the Tavas plain, located beyond the hills that mark the

eastern edge o the Morsynus valley. The headwaters thatsupplied the Yenidere ay provided an ample dischargeo water that ed not only the Roman aqueduct oAphrodisias but in more recent centuries supplied vil-lages and mills and is currently stored by a modern dam.

THE AQUEDUCTS: DESCRIPTIONAND RECONSTRUCTION

Assigning dates to most o the aqueducts we recorded isdifcult. Construction methods and technical charac-teristics help determine broad chronological distinctions


25. See Stearns in this volume, Fig. 6, which also oers moredetailed inormation on the hydrology o the survey region.


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only. Epigraphic evidence suggests waterworks wereconstructed at Aphrodisias in the Julio-Claudian periodand during the reigns o Domitian and Hadrian. As dis-cussed at length below, the Hadrianic-period aqueductknown rom inscriptions o the second quarter o the

second century A.D. almost certainly corresponds tothe massive and technically sophisticated Timeles aque-duct (see Historical Analysis, below). The other watermanagement projects known rom inscriptions includeat least one bath complex built beore the HadrianicBaths and perhaps on the same site. This complex, calledthe Eusebian Baths, was likely built in the reign oTiberius and destroyed around A.D. 41; its materials orendowment were used or the construction o theHadrianic Baths or, ollowing Reynolds, or a secondbath complex that preceded the Hadrianic Baths.26 Dur-ing the reign o Domitian, a prominent citizen named

Adrastus built a system o cisterns, canals, and gutters tocontrol the ow o water within the city.27 Presumablythe construction o bath complexes o the frst centuryA.D. required an abundant, aqueduct-ed water supply.Whether the water-control acilities provided by Adras-tus were constructed in association with a new aqueductis unclear, but this seems possible. I so, it is reasonableto assume that the aqueduct in question would havebeen the Seki or Isklar line. We know rom the inscrip-tions only that the existing water management systemswere repaired at this time.

This epigraphic evidence does not preclude the exis-tence o other water-related projects including aqueducts

or which no textual evidence has survived. The tempta-tion to correlate the documented physical remains withthe known epigraphic evidence must be treated withcaution. However, the Seki and Isklar aqueducts are themost likely candidates or one or more aqueducts builtin association with frst-century A.D. water acilitiesknown rom the inscriptions discussed above. They aresmaller in length and capacity than the Timeles aqueductand, unlike the two aqueducts in the lower valley, are lo-cated at elevations adequately high to supply the city.And whereas the Derince Dere aqueduct runs in a terra-cotta pipeline, which may indicate an Ottoman date, the

Seki and Isklar aqueducts appear to have run in non-pressurized conduits, as was also true o the Timelesaqueduct.

Water rom the Upper Valley

1. Seki AqueductOnly one structure has been identifed o an aqueduct atleast 9 km in length, but probably longer, that must have

tapped the abundant springs in the east o the valleyaround the modern village o Seki. Residents o the val-ley today depend on these springs or their domesticand agricultural water supply. The remaining bridge othe so-called Seki aqueduct is located 8.5 km east-south-

east o Aphrodisias, just northeast o the main road run-ning through the valley (A063) (see Figs. 4, 5). Thebridge is oriented southeast-northwest across the smallYksekkemer (High Arch) Deresi, a tributary o theMorsynus river, and sits at an elevation o 705 masl,more than 280 m above Aphrodisias.

The aqueduct bridge over the Yksekkemer Deresiis well preserved because it was incorporated into a laterroad bridge, becoming the southern portion o thewider structure. Constructed o mortared rubble acedwith petit appareil masonry, the bridge stands at a heighto 6 m and stretches 15 m across the streambed, which

lies 5.9 m below the bottom o the arch. The structureis 1.7 m wide and has an arch span o 5 m. The bridgewas widened in the Ottoman period by the construc-tion o an additional arched bridge ush with its northside. The composite structure was also leveled andresuraced with a slightly pitched profle or use as aroad bridge. Calcium carbonate deposits line the un-derside o the aqueduct bridges arch and the interior oits southeast pier, confrming its use as a water-bearingstructure. A modern water pipe runs parallel to the an-cient structure.

The acing blocks and voussoirs o the bridge includelocal materials such as feldstones o quartz and sand-

stone. Marble blocks originally dressed or other pur-poses are incorporated into the ooting and projectingcourses, and a white marble block makes a prominentkeystone or the arch. A pale beige lime mortar withstone inclusions, most not larger than 0.05 m, bonds theacing stones, while a hard, blue mortarlike materialcovers the joins between the large blocks at the base othe northwest pier and appears to be a later applicationor strengthening the structure. Large blocks up to 1 min length provide stable ooting or the bridge piers. Theprojecting course, which is visible only on the north-west pier, begins 2.5 m above the base o the pier. Above

the projecting course, smaller blocks orm the super-structure o the bridge. The arch springs rom a pointtwo courses higher than the projecting course. No traceo the conduit remains.

A clear seam delineates the Roman aqueduct bridgerom the Ottoman bridge built against its northeast side.The Ottoman bridge is also constructed o mortaredrubble aced with petit appareil masonry, but the acingblocks are smaller and more varied in size than those othe aqueduct bridge, and chinking stones are used moreliberally. The later section is 1.8 m wide and has a pro-

jecting course that does not span the entire width oits northwest pier, as it is built to accommodate the

26. Reynolds, The Dedication o a Bath Building at CarianAphrodisias (supra n. 18); the inscription is IAph20075.6.

27. Chaniotis, Twelve Buildings (supra n. 11) 1415; the in-scription is IAph200712.314, SEG 1964.731.


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projecting course o the aqueduct bridge, with which itis in line. The arch has a slightly greater span than thearch o the aqueduct bridge, and putlog holes remainunder the arch directly above the projecting course andin the southwest corner o the piers base.

The next stream to the west is the Alakkemer (LowArch) Deresi, on the east (let) bank o which we noteda scatter o highly eroded mortared rubble, apparentlyin situ. This masonry may be the remains o anotherbridge carrying the Seki aqueduct across the next dere

on its path toward Aphrodisias, or it could be the re-mains o another road bridge built during the Ottomanperiod. Regardless, the Seki aqueduct likely passed overthis stream to carry water to Aphrodisias.

The Seki aqueduct was probably built in the frst cen-tury A.D. to support the consumption needs o thegrowing population o the city and perhaps specifcallyto supply a new bath complex. The aqueduct may havealso supplied water to agricultural felds in the easternportion o the valley.

Figure 6. Documented remains o Isklar and Derince Dere aqueducts and reconstructed path o Isklar aque-

duct based on standing remains and least-cost analysis predictive modeling (1:50,000).


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Water rom the Baba Dag RangeTwo aqueducts were identifed near the modern towno Isklar, located north o Aphrodisias in the oothillso the Baba Dag range. Both waterlines probablytapped the springs eeding the tributaries o the IncirDeresi around ayrkazan located northeast o Isklarin the middle elevations o the mountain range betweenthe northernmost remains o the aqueducts at about 800masl and the high ridge o the Baba Dag range hun-dreds o meters above. Alternatively, i the aqueductswere much longer, they could have collected water romthe numerous springs around Yayla Aras northwest oIsklar, or rom the springs just west o Tekam that eed

into the Dem Deresi north o Isklar.Ater tapping these springs, both aqueducts traveled

rom the Incir Deresi at about 800 masl, southwarddown the oothills o the Baba Dag range towardAphrodisias, across the Derince Dere at about 540 masl,and ended 20 m lower in elevation at the city. Remainso a bridge o the so-called Isklar aqueduct on theupper portion o the Kavakl Dere indicate that thisaqueduct traveled through or around the west side othe Kemer Tepesi and surrounding hills beore enteringthe small valley o the Derince Dere. The so-called De-rince Dere pipeline, however, may have taken a more

direct route rom the Incir Deresi to the valley o theDerince Dere by traveling east o the Kemer Tepesi.While the Isklar aqueduct appears to date rom the

Roman period, the Derince Dere pipeline may havebeen built in the Ottoman period to supply a smallercommunity living on the same site. It is possible that athigher elevations not investigated by the survey, the De-rince Dere aqueduct used the same structures as theIsklar aqueduct.

2. Isklar AqueductThe three extant structures o the Isklar aqueduct indi-cate that it collected water rom the middle elevations

o the Baba Dag range and carried it south towardAphrodisias along a route at least 10 km in length (Fig.6). The northernmost documented structure is a tunnelcut into the west (right) bank o the Incir Deresi, almost7 km north o Aphrodisias and more than 280 m higher

in elevation than the city (B081) (Fig. 7). The tunnel iscarved into an outcrop o schist and quartz, at a heighto about 2 m above the streambed and 2.75 below theground level o the stream bank above, and can be ol-lowed rom the north or 8 m, beyond which point ris-ing sediment infll makes it impassable. Thoughsediment infll obscures the original dimensions, thetunnel is 0.93 m wide at the oor, tapering to a width o0.42 m at the ceiling, and it has an internal height o 0.7m at the entrance. Niches, smaller than 0.10 m square,can be ound along the eastern interior wall o the tun-nel and were perhaps used to hold lamps during con-

struction. Calcareous deposits cover all the interiorsuraces, including the top, indicating natural water per-colation rom above rather than rom water owingthrough the tunnel.

Pockets o standing water dotting the streambed sug-gest that the water table is located at an elevation toolow to supply the tunnel situated 2 m above thestreambed. The Isklar aqueduct must have carriedwater gathered at a higher elevation, and not rom thestream, though it is unclear how the aqueduct was car-ried elsewhere along the streambed. The act that thelater Derince Dere pipeline ollows the streambed sug-gests the Isklar aqueduct may have as well. As de-

scribed below, the Timeles aqueduct also ollows astreambed or a signifcant portion o its course.

Ater losing 200 m in elevation over a distance oabout 2 km, the Isklar aqueduct was carried over theKavakl Dere on a bridge built o mortared rubble setin layers and aced with petit appareil masonry (A008)(Figs. 8, 9). One complete pier o the aqueduct bridgewith partial remains o two springing arches stands onthe north (right) bank o the stream. Other remains othe bridge include two masses o mortared rubble, oneapproximately 4 m north o the standing pier on thesame bank and another on the opposite side o the

stream about 18 m rom the pier. These structures mustbe the remains o additional pier ootings. The standingpier is not preserved to the height o the conduit, andno trace o the conduit can be ound in either streambank.

Collapse or settling o the pier has resulted in a largehole through the structure, revealing its mortared rub-ble core, and the pier wall under the north arch has col-lapsed. The upstream (east) ace o the structure is moreheavily damaged, with a greater loss o acing blocksthan the downstream side. The standing pier is 1.65 mwide and has a maximum preserved height o 7.8 m andlength o 6.6 m. The arch has a projected span o 9.5 m

Figure 7. Rock-cut tunnel o Isklar aqueduct in Incir Deresi,looking south (B081).


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Figure8.

Kavak

lDerebr

idgeo

Isk

laraqueduct(A008)(1:200).


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and a projected height above the streambed o 11.5 m.The original bridge may have been more than 42 m longand 15 m high.

The acing blocks and the stones o the rubble corevary greatly in size, and most are ashioned rom thesame locally available, garnet-embedded schist intowhich the upstream tunnel was dug. In contrast, almostall the external voussoirs are marble. Courses o blockso standard size are interchanged with courses osmaller, more irregular stones, with an extensive use ochinking stones. The lime mortar used throughout thestructure is pale gray-tan, with densely packed stone in-clusions no larger than 0.01 m.

Where the pier is closest to the stream, large blocksorm a oundation resting on a rock outcrop. The archsprings rom a point 3.6 m above the base, and the threelowest courses o voussoirs are recessed 0.15 m rom the

short (south) side o the pier acing the stream. Theother voussoirs are recessed an additional 0.15 m, so thatthe resulting double-stepped profle o the arch providestwo ledges that could have supported a wooden rame-work or construction o the arch. Above this upper re-cess, the pier narrows in width by 0.10 m on either sideabove a course o large acing stones. These lateralledges extend even to the voussoirs o the arch spanningthe stream, with the result that the lowest three courseso the arch are wider than the rest. In contrast, the archon the north side o the pier has no ledges to support aramework, but a putlog hole just above the springing othe arch ulflls the same purpose. It is noteworthy that

both arches were equipped with support or a rame-work at a point that is three voussoirs above the springpoint, and that two dierent methods were used.

Between the bridge over the Kavakl Dere andAphrodisias, the aqueduct crossed the Derince Dere ona small bridge o which only a masonry wall remains(E050) (Fig. 10). The wall is constructed o mortaredrubble aced with petit appareil masonry and is builtinto the east (let) bank o the stream. The top o thewall is ush with the ground level o the stream bank,suggesting that the structure has been leveled o dur-ing centuries o agricultural activity in the surroundingfelds. The wall is 0.80 m wide and extends 2 m belowthe current ground level o the stream bank.

The masonry includes feldstones o quartz, schist,and sandstone varying greatly in size and bonded witha gray-tan lime mortar with stone inclusions no larger

than 0.01 m. A possible construction trench, 0.70 mwide, is discernible next to the south (downstream) sideo the wall. The earth within the trench is a yellow-tansandy infll with small feldstones and diers rom thebedded stream deposits, mostly rounded pebbles andsand, through which it cuts. The stone placed at the bot-tom o the wall is considerably larger than the othersand probably acted as a oundation stone or the wall asit was built into the trench.

The location o the wall alls very close to the routeo A. Kuznetsovs predictive model o the route o theIsklar aqueduct based on least-cost analysis (see above,Fig. 6). The preserved wall is probably the oundation o

Figure 9. East side o the standing pier o Kavakl Dere bridge o Isklar aqueduct, looking southwest(A008).


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the pier o an aqueduct bridge. Without rock outcropson which to construct the bridge, the builders oundedthe bridge pier deep within the streambed deposits othe east bank, using the trench on the south side as aworkspace, which they flled in ater construction. Thenarrowness o the wall, which is less than hal as wide asthe bridge pier on the Kavakl Dere, suggests that theconduit was perhaps only 0.4 m or so wide internallyand that here it ran close to the ground, perhaps even ina pipeline, rather than atop a tall substructure.

Like the Seki aqueduct, the Isklar aqueduct wasprobably built in the frst century A.D. to supply newbuildings in Aphrodisias, such as a bath complex, andto support the needs o a growing population in the val-ley. The aqueduct may also have supplied water to agri-cultural felds in the northern portion o the valley.

3. Derince Dere AqueductThe two documented structures o the Derince Derepipeline suggest that its route overlapped with that othe Isklar aqueduct and tapped the same abundantsprings somewhere along the western portion o theBaba Dag range (see Fig. 6). The northern structure is an

open channel along the west (right) bank o the IncirDeresi in the vicinity o the rock-cut tunnel o the Isklaraqueduct discussed above (E054). It can be traced or ap-proximately 280 m. The channel rests on a substructureo parallel walls, each ranging rom 0.30 m to 0.60 m

thick, built o roughly worked schist slabs bonded witha tan-white lime mortar with densely packed stone in-clusions smaller than 0.005 m. In several areas, the wallcloser to the streambed has allen away, indicating thatthe two walls are not bonded together. The channel runsalong the west bank o the stream but maintains aroughly level elevation, while the streambed rapidlyloses elevation as it travels south. Thereore, the channelbegins at almost the same level as the streambed, but asit travels south, it gets higher and higher above thestream below.

Where the channel level is close to the level o the

streambed, the channel oor is visible. The channel is0.33 m wide and has a bedding o pink mortar, 0.02 mthick, covering the channel oor and preserved to aheight o 0.03 m along the interior walls. The pink mor-tar is laid directly on top o the masonry substructure.Layered calcium carbonate deposits, 0.01 m thick intotal, cover all preserved portions o the pink mortar,suggesting that water owed in the open channel ratherthan in a sealed pipeline laid on its oor.

The channel is located at a considerably higher ele-vation than the rock-cut tunnel o the Isklar aqueduct,a second indication, in addition to the style o masonry,that it is not part o the same system. The original pink

mortar channel was reashioned in more recent times bythe application o hard, white cement to orm an altered,V-shaped conduit. A local inormant said the conduitwas reworked with cement recently and was used tocarry water all the way south to the town o Isklarmore than 2 km away.

The pink mortar channel could be the remains o alater system that used the same water source as theRoman Isklar aqueduct. The relatively small size o thechannel, the lack o a mortared rubble core within itssubstructure, and the survival and recent reuse o thechannel make it signifcantly dierent rom the remains

o the more substantial Isklar aqueduct. Even thoughthe pattern o calcium carbonate deposits suggests thatat some point water ran in the open channel rather thanin pipes, we have decided to group this structure withthe remains o an aqueduct located approximately 5 kmdownstream on the Derince Dere, which obviously ranin a pipeline. The two structures appear to be part o aseries o waterworks built ater the Roman period tocarry water rom the important springs on the BabaDag ridge southward to Isklar and Aphrodisias.

The remains on the Derince Dere (a local name or theIsklar Deresi used throughout this article) consist o thesubstructure o a bridge that must have crossed the dere

Figure 10. Masonry wall o Isklar aqueduct on Derince

Dere, looking southeast (E050).


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and been associated with a terracotta pipeline still pre-served on the opposite stream bank (E055) (Fig. 11). Thesubstructure is built o mortared rubble aced with petitappareil masonry o roughly worked feldstones owidely varying sizes and materials. It is 1.33 m wide andpreserved to a height o 1.8 m and length o 40 m. Thesubstructure approaches the west (right) stream bankrom the northwest, but it turns slightly to the east about4 m rom its eastern endpoint, perhaps to cross the streamat a slightly less acute angle. Almost directly across thestream rom this substructure, at least six segments o aterracotta pipeline are visible, placed in a trench dug intothe eroding shale o the east (let) bank. Erosion o therock has caused the collapse o the side o the trench ac-ing the streambed, revealing the terracotta pipelinewithin. The terracotta pipe segments, joined with whitemortar, are each about 0.5 m in length and 0.15 m in di-ameter. The pipes have a smooth exterior surace but aregently ribbed inside, and two parallel grooves circum-scribe the upstream end o each pipe segment.

The Derince Dere pipeline is the only aqueduct in theregion along which terracotta pipes have been ound,and these pipes match those ound in the Ottomanbaths at Aphrodisias. The pipeline may have entered thecity rom the east where the remains o what appear to

be two pressure-regulating water towers have beenidentifed, as discussed below in Technical Analysis,Suterazi (Fig. 12). As a likely supplier o water or theOttoman settlement, this aqueduct underscores thelongevity o human occupation at the site o Aphro-disias and the continued importance o the springs onthe western slopes o the Baba Dag range in supportingthese communities.

Water rom the Lower ValleyThe remains o two aqueducts located west o Aphro-disias help to orm a more complete picture o watermanagement in the Morsynus river valley. Because both

are open-conduit aqueducts run by gravity and are situ-ated at levels more than 50 m lower in elevation than thecity, they could not have supplied Aphrodisias. Instead,they may have carried water to a settlement, armstead,or villa, or provided water or the irrigation o sur-

rounding agricultural felds. Combined with evidenceor armsteads, settlements, and agricultural blocks inthis area o the valley just west o Aphrodisias, the iden-tifcation o the Kavakl Dere and ren Deresi aque-ducts provides evidence or a valley dense with humanoccupation that depended on locally available natural re-sources such as water.

The remains o these two aqueducts have been iden-tifed at only a single location each, so their respectiveroutes and destinations must be reconstructed based onother actors. Because the western part o the Morsynusriver valley receives the runo o the springs and surace

drainage o the Baba Dag range, it has deep, narrowstreams that provide a more abundant water supplythan in the central part o the valley. These aqueductsmay have tapped springs along the Baba Dag range orthe upper reaches o these relatively high-volumestreams. While it is possible that they supplied agricul-tural irrigation systems, their location in a relativelywell-watered part o the valley suggests that they wereconstructed to bring water rom a higher elevation to adestination at a lower elevation that would not other-wise have received water o adequate volume or qual-ity. Likely candidates or this type o water requirementare the settlements, armsteads, or villas located in the

area at elevations lower than the documented remains.Thereore, the two aqueducts in the lower valley wereprobably built in association with one or more o thesesites dated to the Roman or Byzantine periods.

4. Kavakl Dere AqueductThe conduit o the Kavakl Dere aqueduct is visible incross section in the west (right) bank o the KavaklDere almost 5 km west o Aphrodisias (E053) (Fig. 13).The water o the meandering Kavakl Dere must haveacilitated the collapse o the subterranean conduit atthis point where it ran close to the stream. The vaulted

conduit is built o mortared rubble masonry in a singlelayer o feldstones including schist and quartz andsmoother stream stones, which are between 0.20 m and0.30 m long, with smaller stones o 0.05 to 0.10 m in-terspersed throughout. The masonry is bonded with ablue-gray lime mortar with densely packed and verysmall stone inclusions about 0.001 to 0.002 m in size.Interesting to note, the oor o the conduit is not con-structed o the same rubble masonry. Only a sand-richsediment layer remains o the conduit oor, which musthave originally been equipped with a more substantialbedding, perhaps a hydraulic mortar, that has disinte-grated. The interior dimensions o the conduit are 0.47

Figure 11. Bridge substructure and pipeline on Derince Dere,looking southeast (E055), with arrow indicating remains otrench in east (let) bank into which pipeline was placed.


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to 0.50 m wide and 0.77 m high. The thickness o thewalls and vault ranges between 0.20 m and 0.30 m.

It is difcult to reconstruct the relationship betweenthe streambed and the conduit when it was originallybuilt. The conduit is situated about 3 m above the cur-rent streambed and 1.8 m below the ground level o thebank. A construction trench above the conduit extendsall the way to the current ground level and cuts throughmultiple layers o stream deposits. Ater the bedding

and vaulted masonry conduit were constructed withinthe trench, mortared rubble was piled on top o thevault, so that the exterior o the conduit appears rectan-gular in section. The trench was then backflled.

The conduit is almost completely flled with the samered, iron-rich sediment as that o the stream bank sur-rounding it. The sediment in the conduit is about 0.64 mhigh, the same height as the calcareous deposits liningthe north interior wall, and includes no stones largerthan 0.05 m. Presumably the fll is sediment deposited inthe conduit when water was still owing through it. Iso, the aqueduct may have tapped water rom a sedi-ment-laden stream almost identical to that o the

Kavakl Dere, rather than rom one o the springs onthe Baba Dag range. In any case, slow water ow al-lowed both the accumulation o calcium carbonate andthe deposition o suspended sediment.

5. ren Deresi AqueductAs with the Kavakl Dere aqueduct, the vaulted andmortared masonry conduit o the ren Deresi aqueductis visible only where it has been exposed in the west(right) bank o the ren Deresi, where the stream runs

just over 3 km west o Aphrodisias (A029) (Fig. 14). Inthe segment currently visible, the conduit wall closer tothe stream has collapsed, revealing both the longitudinalsection and cross section o the structure. Also pre-served is a rectangular shat, possibly or maintenanceand inspection.

In cross section, the interior o the conduit is 0.50 m

wide with a 0.30-m wide channel centered in the oor.The channel is 0.90 m in height, and the rest o the con-duit rises another 0.90 m above the channel. The con-duit sidewalls are 0.400.50 m thick. The vault is madeo a single layer o feldstones with rubble packing onthe exterior, all bonded with a beige lime mortar withsmall stone inclusions. However, the exposed interiorsurace o the conduit wall reveals a dierent treatment.A very hard mortar with a reddish orange color coversnot the stones o the wall but their interstices. Thismortar could simply be the same mortar as that used inthe vault, stained by iron-rich sediment infll, or itcould be the remains o a waterproofng mortar now

so damaged that it is not easily distinguishable as aneven coating.

Figure 12. One o two possible pressure-regulating water

towers (suterazi) at Aphrodisias, outside the city to thenortheast.

Figure 13. Conduit o Kavakl Dere aqueduct, visible incross section in west (right) bank o Kavakl Dere (E053)(1:100).


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An opening in the vaults roo leads to an inspectionshat that rises vertically rom the conduit and is pre-served to a height o 0.3 m above the vault. Both theopening in the vault and the shat itsel have interiorwidth dimensions o about 0.9 m parallel to the conduitand 0.5 m perpendicular to the conduit. The well-pre-served west wall o the shat, which is built into thestream bank, is 0.65 m thick. The east walls o the shatand conduit have collapsed. The shat walls perpendi-cular to the conduit have damaged interior suraces anda preserved thickness o 0.4 m. A single putlog hole is

visible in the interior west wall o the shat and waslikely used to acilitate both construction o the shatand access into the conduit ater construction.

The conduit is flled with sediment to a height o 1.2m. The Kavakl Dere and ren Deresi aqueducts weresubterranean conduits that ran adjacent to deep streamsor at least part o their route. Both seem to have even-tually collapsed as a result o their proximity to thesemeandering streams.

Water rom Beyond the Valley6. Timeles Aqueduct

The Timeles aqueduct is the largest and most substantialo the six identifed aqueducts (Figs. 15, 16). It tappedtributaries o the Yenidere ay in the Tavas plain andcarried water westward through the hills that mark theboundary between it and the adjacent valley o theMorsynus river. This structure, over 25 km in length,almost certainly corresponds to the Hadrianic-periodaqueduct known rom inscriptions o the second quar-ter o the second century A.D. ound at Aphrodisias,which are discussed at length in Historical Analysisbelow.

History o investigation. Remains o the Timelesaqueduct were frst visited by the survey team in 2006,

when a local inormant showed us the standing piers oa large collapsed aqueduct bridge on the Saban Derenear the village o Denizoluk and told us that a numbero other such remains could be ound in the area (C048)(see below, Figs. 31, 32). Investigation o those remainswas a major ocus o the 2007 season. Our objectiveswere to determine whether all the remains belonged tothe same aqueduct, and then to trace that aqueduct ascompletely as possible rom its source to its ultimatedestination, while at the same time documenting allmajor bridges, conduits, tunnels, and shats with digital

photographs and architectural section and elevationdrawings.

We began our investigation in 2007 by visiting struc-tures known to our local inormants, who frst showedus a series o tunnels made visible by a recent road cutalong the northern banks o the Kepiz ay, near the vil-lage o Gzelky on the Tavas plain (G002). We met withresidents o the villages o Kayapnar and Yesilky to ex-amine the shats, tunnels, and bridges known to them.Exploration over two days o the areas between theseknown points led to the discovery o urther remains.

During the fnal season o investigation o the aque-

ducts in 2008, we ocused on completing the architec-tural records o the surviving bridges, conduits, andshats. We were also shown two additional bridges inthe oor o the Morsynus river valley, which providecrucial inormation about the path o the aqueduct be-tween the ridge separating the Morsynus and Timelesvalleys and Aphrodisias (see Fig 15, E058 and E059).

The source and Kepiz ay. Using the methods out-lined above, we were able to trace the path o the aque-duct and reconstruct its route rom the presumed sourceto Aphrodisias. We identifed an exposed segment o themortared masonry walls o the conduit as the eastern-most trace o the aqueduct, ollowing the contours o

Figure 14. Conduit o ren Deresi aqueduct, visible in the west (right) bank o ren Deresi (A029)

(1:100).


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Figure15.

Recon

structedpat

ho

Timelesaqueduct

base

donstan

dingremainsan

dleast-costanalysispre

dictivemo

deling(1:100,0

00).

Amapo

theoutlined

fel

disprovidedinFigure16.


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Figure16.

Eastern(upstream)portiono

reconstructedpat

ho

T

imelesaqueduct,

romKepizaytoKayapnar,

basedonstan

dingremainsand

least-costanalysispre

dictivemo

deling(1:50,0

00).


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the north (right) bank o the Kepiz ay near the mod-ern village o Gzelky (E032) (see Fig. 16). Originallyrunning underground, the conduit has been exposed byerosion o the bank. A modern dam has been built nearthe exposed conduit at the point where several smalltributaries join together to orm the Kepiz ay, whichitsel eeds into the Timeles river (Yenidere ay) as itskirts the western edge o the Tavas plain.

The construction o the modern dam has possibilydestroyed or obscured the beginning o the aqueduct.The area around the dam is certainly a viable site orthe aqueducts source. According to local inormants,the Kepiz ay and its headwaters used to be more co-pious and clean than they are today, and until quite re-cently the Kepiz ay ed canals that powered a serieso Ottoman mills located downstream o the dam and

just east o alky, one o which remains standing.28

However, the source o the aqueduct could have beenas ar away as Krkpnar (Forty Springs), an area lo-cated about 5 km east o alky noted by Robert andRobert in their description o the Tavas plain as partic-ularly well watered.29 Today Krkpnar is an importantsource o water or the residents o the Tavas plain. Theexact source o the Timeles aqueduct thereore remains

unknown.Starting rom the easternmost remains noted above,

the conduit continued to hug the north bank o theKepiz ay and then passed over a small tributary dereatop a bridge that has been reashioned as part o a later

water-carrying system, apparently connected to the Ot-toman mills mentioned above (E015) (Fig. 17). Bothpiers remain standing, but only the lower nine coursescan be securely identifed as part o the Roman aque-duct bridge. The bridge is constructed o mortared rub-

ble aced with petit appareil masonry o roughlyworked blocks o schist and quartz, leveled with chink-ing stones and bonded with a beige lime mortar withstone inclusions smaller than 0.02 m. The bridge sur-vives to a height o 3 m and is 3.20 m wide. The totallength o the bridge is about 9 m, and the distance be-tween the piers is 2.7 m. The presumably Ottoman con-duit, open on top and coated in white waterproofngmortar, is 1.51.7 m wide and 0.8 m deep. Additionalmasonry, possibly or buttressing the bridge, is joined tothe downstream (south) side o the piers.

Ater passing over this bridge, the aqueduct conduit

resumed its route along the north bank o the Kepizay. Construction o a modern road along the bank,ollowing the same path as the aqueduct, has scrapedaway the contours o the hillside, revealing sections othe conduit and two tunnels perpendicular to the con-duit that provided access rom the stream bank to theconduit itsel where it ran deep within the hillside.These tunnels, dug through sandy conglomerate rock,have a roughly vaulted profle. The eastern o the twotunnels is 0.7 m wide at the oor and 0.4 m wide at thetop and can be entered and ollowed or almost 11 minto the hillside, at which point it connects to the aque-ducts masonry conduit (G001). As the tunnel ap-

proaches this intersection point, it gradually increasesin height rom 0.8 m at the entry point to about 1 m, assediment rom wind, erosion, and road construction hasbeen deposited on the oor o the exposed tunnel. Thetunnel connects directly to the conduit, which is avaulted structure built o worked blocks bonded with awhite lime mortar with densely packed stone inclusions.The blocks, roughly ashioned rom the local conglom-erate outcrops, are 0.300.40 m long and 0.20 m high.Calcium carbonate deposits (sinter) created by slowlyowing water cover the interior walls to a height oabout 1 m rom the current level o the conduit oor,

which is covered by infll. Putlog holes are located alongthe walls at a height o fve courses, or just less than 1 m,above the current oor level. Located at the spring pointo the vaulted ceiling, these putlog holes held a woodencentering ramework on which the stones o the vaultwere laid, mortared, and allowed to set.

The interior o the conduit is about 1.7 m wide and1.7 m high and can be ollowed in both directions. Tothe east, it curves slightly north to ollow the contourso the dere or 27 m, ater which it is impassable. To thewest, it ends ater 8.4 m where the modern road cut hasscraped away the stream bank, removing the conduitalong with it. From this point, a longitudinal section o

Figure 17. Bridge on eeder dere o Kepiz ay withOttoman and modern reconstructions, looking northeast;only lower courses are part o original Roman aqueductbridge (E015).

28. In this area, along the Kepiz ay east o alky, we doc-umented a masonry-lined shat (E057) connected to a rock-cuttunnel (E056) that pierces a large bedrock outcrop (see Fig. 1).While this tunnel could be connected to the Roman aqueduct, itappears instead to have directed water toward a later, perhaps Ot-toman mill located next to the stream, now deunct and used toshelter sheep.

29. Robert and Robert, La Carie 2 (supra n. 12) 4647.


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the conduit becomes visible along the road cut or about270 m (G002, E013, E014) (Fig. 18). The regular blocksthat ormed the interior o the conduit have been lost,revealing the mortared rubble packing that supportedboth the conduit oor and the northern sidewall. Themortared rubble packing along the sidewall is 0.7 mthick and is constructed o roughly regular blocks o thelocal conglomerate rock laid in courses o varyingheights. The mortared rubble bedding below the con-duit oor is 0.2 m thick and covered with 0.03 m o cal-careous deposits. A second level o calcareous deposits,0.035 m thick, is located 0.3 m above the lower layer,with a layer o sediment and pebbly fll in between. Thisdouble layer o sinter, separated by deposits o sedimentand pebbles, could be the result o two distinct periodso use.

The intersection point between the eastern access tun-nel and the masonry conduit was let open or at leastsome o the time during which the aqueduct was in use.Calcareous deposits line the conduit blocks and rubblepacking where they adjoin the tunnel, indicating that thewater owed reely in this open space. The distancebetween the current oor levels o the tunnel and theconduit is 0.4 m, but the calcareous deposits extend to aheight o 1 m above the current oor o the conduit. Toprevent the leakage o water rom the conduit throughthe access tunnel, there must have been a device to sealo the conduit. The junction could have been blockedup by temporary rubble masonry, torn down and rebuilt

as needed during maintenance, or possibly used as ano-take point.

Aqueduct conduits running through soil close to theground surace could be built in relatively shallowtrenches, covered with backfll ater construction andaccessed by short, vertical inspection shats i neces-sary.30 The conduit along the Kepiz ay, however, ranthrough both earth and rock and at some places randeep within the hillside o the stream bank, making con-struction in a trench impractical. Instead, the builderspierced the stream bank with horizontal access tunnelsthrough the rock and then dug at a perpendicular to cre-ate a tunnel into which they then laid the masonry con-duit o the aqueduct. These horizontal access tunnels,used or construction and possibly maintenance as well,perormed the same unction as the more typical verti-

cal shats, either cut through rock or lined with ma-sonry, ound arther down the Timeles aqueduct.31

Ater ollowing the north bank o the Kepiz ay,

Figure 18. Longitudinal section o subterranean conduit visible along road cut by Kepiz ay, lookingnortheast (G002).

30. As, e.g., on the Eiel aqueduct at Cologne, Germany; seeA. T. Hodge, Roman Aqueducts and Water Supply, 2nd ed. (Lon-don 2002) 9394.

31. Vertical shats have been documented along well-knownaqueducts such as those supplying Carthage and Thugga and theGier aqueduct o Lyon. Carthage and Thugga: A. I. Wilson,Water Management and Usage in Roman North Arica: A Socialand Technological Study (D. Phil., University o Oxord 1997)67. Lyon: J. Burdy, Les aqueducs romains de Lyon (Lyon 2002)12327. See Technical Analysis, Tunnels and Shats below ormore inormation.


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the aqueduct turned to the northwest and crossed an-other small eeder dere. The second preserved accesstunnel is located about 350 m west o the frst, on theother side o the eeder dere, but cannot be entered be-

cause o sediment infll (E003). The local inormant whoshowed us the access tunnels said that there had oncebeen a bridge crossing the eeder dere, but no trace othe bridge remains visible today. Other evidence or theaqueduct in this area includes a curved ragment o pre-cipitated calcium carbonate. Presumably ormed on theinside o a terracotta pipe, the ragment may indicatethat the Roman aqueduct conduit was tapped or use ina nearby armstead, village, or or irrigation. Alterna-tively, the pipe could have been associated with theOttoman mills in the area. The possibility that theTimeles aqueduct provided water or local consumptionis in evidence at several points along its path to Aphro-

disias and is discussed in Technical Analysis, RuralWater Supply, below.

Yahsiler plateau. Ater crossing this bridge, theaqueduct conduit entered a tunnel that ran up to 50 munderground or almost 2 km through a wide, atplateau south o the modern village o Yahsiler. Overthis distance, on top o the plateau, mounds o rockchips at ground level mark the course o the aqueductconduit deep below the surace (east to west: E049,E048, E036). While one mound to the east o this serieshas been scattered by agricultural activity, these threemounds are large eatures highly visible in the landscape

and even in satellite imagery (Fig. 19). The striking re-

semblance o the mounds, about 10 m in diameter, totumulus tombs encouraged an attempted looting o oneo them. The deep looters trench revealed a thick layero rock chips, 2.3 m deep, created during construction

o the aqueduct.These mounds are heaps o backdirt (spoil) createdas construction crews dug deep shats rom the suracedown to the level o the tunnel. Creating vertical shatsrather than boring straight through the plateau providedseveral points or surveying the orientation and gradiento the tunnel, helped expedite the tunneling process byopening up multiple work suraces rom which workerscould dig simultaneously, and provided air to the work-ers and exits or the removal o backdirt.

To the west o the mounds, a deep depression in theearth marks the location o a fth shat, with traces omasonry lining the entry point (E052). In contrast to

the masonry-lined shats and large rock-cut shat ar-ther along the aqueduct, discussed below, there is noclear evidence that these mounds corresponded to shatsthat were let open ater construction. Two additionalshats can be tentatively identifed using satellite im-agery, in which the scattered rock chips o the moundsappear as white blotches distinct rom the agriculturalfelds surrounding them. The seven possible shats areplaced at various intervals ranging rom 87 m to 550 m.The three intact mounds are separated by intervals o87 m and 98 m, representing the shortest intervals iden-tifed. Shats could have originally been placed every

90100 m, or the spacing could have been inconsistent.

Figure 19. Satellite image showing three mounds o rock chips and one masonry-lined shat on theYahsiler plateau (right to let), corresponding to the course o the aqueduct conduit underground, andremains o the bridge at ar let where the aqueduct crossed Ciglek Deresi (east to west: E049, E048,E036, E052, E033). Google Earth satellite image ( 2010 Google, 2011 DigitalGlobe).


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Our local inormant said that earth piles rom the dig-ging o shats or inspection points used to be discernibleevery 100 m or so. A more detailed consideration othese shats and the tunnel to which they connect is pro-

vided in Technical Analysis, Tunnels and Shats,below.Ciglek Deresi. The aqueduct emerged rom its sub-

terranean tunnel under the Yahsiler plateau to cross twoclosely spaced bridges, frst turning north to pass overa small gully, then turning west along a ridge to crossthe larger Ciglek Deresi (Figs. 2022). The frst bridge,which must have spanned about 8 m to cross the gully,no longer stands, but traces o the masonry conduit oneither side o the gully indicate its original length(E034). On the south side o the gully, the conduit iswell preserved and can be entered where it runs under-ground (E035). On the north side o the gully, traces o

the conduit sidewalls connect to the large bridge thatcrosses the Ciglek Deresi itsel (E033).

Where the conduit on the south side o the gully con-nected to the aqueduct bridge that no longer stands, aclear cross section o its oundation, oor, and the lowerportion o its sidewalls is visible, embedded in theeroded hillside (E035) (Fig. 23). Here the conduit is 1.50m wide, with sidewalls 1.15 m (east) and 1.18 m (west)thick. The conduit sidewalls are built o regular blockso the local sandy conglomerate bonded with mortarand topped with a barrel vault. These blocks are 0.100.40 m long, 0.160.20 m high, and 0.150.20 m deep.

Around these blocks, mortared rubble packing consist-

ing o stones varying greatly in size and shape supportedthe vaulted conduit. The sidewalls are bonded withpink-beige lime mortar with densely packed stone in-clusions smaller than 0.01 m.

The sidewalls and conduit oor rest upon a ounda-tion layer o smaller stones 0.300.35 m thick. Abovethis rubble oundation, the conduit oor is equippedwith a bedding o white-gray lime mortar with denselypacked stone inclusions smaller than 0.01 m. The mor-tar bedding is 0.25 m thick under the center o the con-duit oor but tapers to a thickness o 0.10 m about0.200.35 m rom both edges o the oor. On top o thiswhite-gray mortar bedding is a very thin layer, 0.001 mthick, o pink waterproofng mortar, created by the useo crushed brick or the local, iron-rich, sandy con-glomerates, as used in the mortar o the conduit side-walls. On top o the pink waterproofng mortar is a

layer o sinter, 0.05 m thick, created by the gradual ac-cumulation o precipitated calcium carbonate in layers,each less than 0.001 m thick.

The conduit arrived rom underneath the Yahsilerplateau to the east, continued running west within aridge between two dry gullies perpendicular to thebroad Ciglek Deresi, and turned north at a 125 angle tocross a dry gully over the bridge that no longer remains(E034). Following the conduit rom the cross sectionvisible in the south side o the dry gully and moving upthe course o the aqueduct, the conduit has collapsedand is flled with earth and vegetation or 6.7 m. In this

segment, only the lower ew courses o the conduit side-

Figure 20. Where conduit emerges rom hillside in Ciglek Deresi (let), a cross section is visible (markedwith arrow, looking southeast) (E035). Piers o the large bridge are visible at right (E033).


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Figure21.

Bri

dgesan

dtunne

linCiglekDeresi(E033,

E034,

E035)(1:400).


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Figure22.

Plano

bri

dgesan

dtunn

elinCiglekDeresi(E033,

E034,

E035)

(1:400).


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walls are standing. Ater this segment, the conduit isully preserved within the ridge and can be entered orabout 22 m, at which point the vault has collapsed. Ashort segment o conduit can be entered again ater thiscollapse, but a second collapse seals it o completely.The conduit is 1.50 m wide, and heavy sinter depositsbegin about 0.95 m down rom the top o the rubblevault. Much sediment and debris cover the conduitoor. Measuring rom the oor as exposed in the crosssection o the conduit visible by the missing bridge, theoriginal height o the conduit can be calculated at 2.25m. Assuming that the sinter deposits on the conduitoor and sidewalls were laid at the same time, the watercould have run 1.30 m deep, allowing or the rough es-timate o discharge discussed in Technical Analysis,

Discharge, below. At the current oor level o the con-duit, the sinter is 0.2 m thick in some places.The masonry o the conduit is not uniorm but can

be divided into three distinct segments. As one entersthe conduit, the frst segment extends 8 m on the outersidewall (west) o the turn and 7 m on the inner (east),which is executed more sharply than the gently curvingouter sidewall. The rubble used in the vault consists oroughly worked stones varying greatly in size andarranged like voussoirs in an arch. About 3.5 m into theconduit, on the west sidewall only, there is 3-m stretchextending to the end o the rubble-vault segment, inwhich three courses o small stones are used in place o

one course o regular blocks. This stretch occurs alongthe outer (west) sidewall exactly where the conduitcurves. The lime mortar o the rubble vault is beige pinkwith small, loosely packed stone inclusions.

Where the conduit turns, a clear seam is visible sepa-rating the rubble-vault segment rom the adjacent seg-ment in which the vault is constructed o the sameregular blocks as the sidewalls (Fig. 24). These two seg-ments are dierent in several ways. First, in the twoother places where the intact aqueduct conduit is visible,at Kepiz ay (G001) and at Yesilky (E006), both thesidewalls and the vault are constructed o regular, rec-tangular blocks, just like this second segment at CiglekDeresi. The rubble vault is thus an anomaly. Second, atthe seam where the rubble vault meets the regular vault

at the conduit bend, the two are oset on the outer(west) sidewall by 0.100.13 m. In addition, a deep pitdug into the sediment infll o the conduit has revealedthe profle o the west sidewall o the rubble-vault seg-ment near the point where it meets the regular-vault seg-ment. The upper courses o the sidewall are set back0.050.10 m rom the lower courses revealed within thepit. Third, the putlog holes in the rubble-vault segmentare located one course above the putlog holes o the reg-ular-vault segment. Fourth, the mortar o the rubblevault seems to have less densely packed stone inclusionsthan the mortar used in the sidewalls o the conduitwhere it emerged to cross the bridge that no longer

Figure 23. Conduit exposed in hillside and inside tunnel in Ciglek Deresi (E035) (1:100).


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stands (E034). Finally, at the entrance to the conduit,where the vault has collapsed, the east side o the vault isconstructed with the same regular, rectangular blocksused in the sidewalls and in the regular-vault segment.These blocks are displaced about 0.08 m lower than thelevel o the rubble vault and could be the remainder othe original conduit, which would explain the displace-ment as well. Alternatively, they could have been reused

during the construction o the rubble vault and displacedas a result o the collapse at this point.Deep inside the hill the conduit was built inside a

rock-cut tunnel. Where it emerged to cross the smallgully, however, it was built in earth, probably in a trenchreflled with backdirt. These two construction methodsmay explain the dierences in vault construction seenwithin the conduit. The builders may have chosen toconstruct a rubble vault where the conduit was laid inearth, relatively close to the ground surace above. Al-ternatively, the rubble-vault segment may be a later re-building o the original conduit where it turned, andthereore was more susceptible to damage by moving

water, and exited the hillside. In this case, the originalconduit would be represented by the second segmentwith its vault o regular blocks identical to those o thesidewalls.

About 8.8 m upstream rom the seam and the con-

duit bend, a third segment begins, in which the top por-tion o the vault o regular, rectangular worked blocksappears to have been rebuilt in rubble masonry withthickly applied white-blue lime mortar with large,densely packed stone inclusions, most between 0.005 mand 0.012 m. The added rubble masonry is 0.60 m wideacross the top o the vault and has a level profle, mak-ing it not a true vault but a much weaker structure, nodoubt responsible or its collapse about 5 m artherdown the conduit. The roughly worked stones o thealse vault are placed lengthwise across the width othe conduit, in contrast to the stones o the rubble-vault

segment discussed above, which are placed like vous-soirs in an arch. The stones used in the alse vault in-clude both feldstones and roughly worked blocks othe local conglomeritic sandstone, just like the blocksused in the sidewalls and in the vault and sidewalls othe adjacent regular-vault segment, suggesting that per-haps some o the blocks o the original conduit werereused to create this alse vault. The thickly appliedmortar protrudes below the level o the vault o regular,rectangular blocks built with a centering ramework,urther suggesting that this alse vault is a later rebuild-ing, intended to mend a collapse or patch up the con-duit ater maintenance o some sort. In this segment, the

putlog holes are located one course above the putlogholes o the regular-vault segment. Patches o a smooth,white lime mortar without inclusions surround theblocks o the upper sidewalls and lower vault in this seg-ment as well. The mortar was applied horizontally inlayers, leaving a distinct ribbed pattern.

The alse vault was certainly a repair job. Sinter ac-cumulation up to 0.20 thick on top o the smooth, whitemortar indicates that the aqueduct was still in use aterits application. In one place, a 1-m stretch o sinter hasbeen intentionally chipped o with a pick, perhaps orreuse as building material elsewhere.

As noted above, the putlog holes are located at di-erent heights within the three segments, the most ob-vious dierence being their location one course lower inthe regular-vault segment than in the other two seg-ments. The putlog holes o the rubble-vault segment areset at intervals ranging rom 0.35 to 1.40 m in no clearpattern and are matched only roughly in pairs across theconduit. The putlog holes are set at shorter intervals atthe inner part o the conduit curve. In the regular-vaultsegment, the putlog holes are set at intervals ranging be-tween 0.40 m and 2.90 m, and are not matched acrossthe conduit due to the bend. In the alse-vault segment,the putlog holes are matched in pairs across the conduit,

Figure 24. Interior o conduit beore it emerges at Cig lek

Deresi, looking southwest (E035). Where conduit turns, aseam separates upstream segment vaulted with rectangularblocks rom downstream segment with rubble vault.


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Figure25.

Two-tiere

dHaram

iDere

bri

dgenearYesilky(E008)(1:40

0).


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but those on the northeast sidewall are located about0.14 m below those on the opposite sidewall. The irreg-ular intervals o the putlog holes suggest rebuilding orbuilding with purposeully distinct segments, perhapsto accommodate the bend. Additional discussion o the

technical aspects o conduit construction ollows inTechnical Analysis, Conduit, below.

Two piers o an aqueduct bridge are preserved on ei-ther side o the dry Ciglek Deresi (E033) (see Fig. 21).The total length o the bridge is approximately 42 m,and the estimated height o the aqueduct conduit abovethe streambed as it ran across the bridge is 11.5 m. Thearch and upper portions o both piers have collapsed,leaving a scatter o mortared rubble across both sides othe dere. The piers are constructed o mortared rubbleaced with petit appareil masonry. The acing blocks areworked rom the well-cemented, sandy conglomerates

located throughout the area. Other blocks are ashionedrom locally available low-grade, gray-blue marble andquartz. The acing blocks and rubble core are bondedwith pink-beige lime mortar with stone inclusionssmaller than 0.01 m. The mortared rubble core is struc-tured in layers, and the acing blocks are leveled withsmall chinking stones.

The base o the west pier is 5.2 m wide and is oundedon a rock outcrop. At eighteen courses (3.6 m) abovethe base o the west pier is a leveling course o blockslarger than the other acing stones, all ashioned with achisel rom locally available low-grade, gray-blue mar-ble. The leveling course does not project rom the sides

o the pier and appears to be too low to have served asa spring point or the arch, which would have spanned

just over 6 m.The west pier is better preserved than the east and has

many in situ acing blocks on the south ace, and only aew on its west and north aces. On both piers, thedownstream (south) side is much better preserved thanthe upstream (north) side, which has suered greaterdamage rom the orces o wind and weather, as seen onall the other aqueduct bridges documented. See Tech-nical Analysis, Bridges, below, on the causes o up-stream damage.

Yesilky. From the Ciglek Deresi, the conduit dis-appeared underground to run northwest or about 1 kmuntil it once again emerged on a series o bridges cross-ing deep gorges near the village o Yesilky. The bridgesare constructed o mortared rubble set in layers andaced with petit appareil masonry. Incorporated into theacing o the piers are periodic leveling courses, whichproject slightly rom the masonry above and belowthem. These projecting courses are invariably built omarble, also used or some o the voussoirs, and theyinclude occasional reused blocks.

The aqueduct conduit frst ran across a tall bridgeabove the Harami Dere (E008) (Fig. 25). Although the

bridge is poorly preserved, analysis o the standing re-mains on both banks o the gorge suggests that thebridge was originally two-tiered, with a lower arch sup-porting possibly our arches above, topped by the con-duit. Traces o the conduit survive on the south (let)

bank o the gorge, indicating that the bridge as a wholewas about 65 m long and 27 m high.

While nothing remains on the north (right) bank othe gorge except weathered mortared rubble and scat-tered acing blocks, the bridge is better preserved on theopposite bank. The ew acing blocks o the bridge thatremain in situ are located on the west (downstream) sideo the south pier and are ashioned rom the sandy con-glomeratic outcrops orming the banks o the gorge.Three kinds o mortar are visible in the remaining sec-tions o the structure. Ubiquitous is a white lime mor-tar with stone inclusions no larger than 0.005 m. Also

visible around the crumbling mass o the upper northpier is a light gray lime mortar with larger stone inclu-sions up to 0.01 m in size. A third type o lime mortarcan be ound on the buttressed middle mass on thesouth bank; it has a very loose, pinkish tan matrix withstone inclusions as large as 0.02 m.

The single arch o the lower tier springs rom thebedrock o the steep south (let) bank o the gorge at aheight o 10 m above the bottom o the gorge. The tieris preserved to a height o 5.5 m, and the arch originallyspanned a distance o approximately 13 m. The arch,only 12 courses o which remain standing, is con-structed o two layers o voussoirs, the upper blocks

carved rom the local well-cemented, sandy conglom-erates and the lower o marble. The maximum preservedwidth o the lower arch is about 3 m, though the acingblocks o the upstream (east) side are missing. Marblevoussoirs and a large mass o mortared rubble litter thestreambed below the arch and arther downstreamalong the gorge or at least 20 m. The marble blocks arevariously dressed with anathyrosis, clamp cuttings, lit-ing bosses, and moldings, indicating that they were re-cycled as voussoirs.

The second tier o the bridge survives mostly intraces on the south (let) bank o the gorge and begins

approximately 4.5 m above the remains o the lower tier.It has been reconstructed as a series o our arches, cen-tered on the lower arch and each spanning 5.75 m. Anotable eature o the remains is a buttressing structure,perhaps added ater the time o initial construction,which joins the downstream (west) side o the secondtier in a clear seam. As the upstream (east) side o thesecond tier on both banks is heavily damaged and hasno preserved acing blocks, the buttress on the down-stream side must have been built to oset the destabi-lizing eects o wind and weather on the tall structure.Notably, only the second tier, which had to span a muchwider part o the gorge than the tier below, was


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equipped with a buttress. Approximately 1 m above theupper tier, the sidewalls o the conduit are visible emerg-ing rom the hillside.

Ater running underground or 190 m, the aqueductthen passed over another bridge spanning the KrkmDeresi on an arch that remains intact and can still becrossed on oot (E005) (Figs. 26, 27). On the west (right)bank, a section o the vaulted conduit and tunnel is ex-posed. Pickmarks line the exposed suraces o the tunnel,excavated rom the conglomerate bedrock o the gorge,into which the vaulted conduit was laid using smallblocks o the same rock. The conduit ran approximately

36 m across the bridge and 16.7 m above the gorge below.Based on the remains o the conduit and tunnel, theheight o the entire structure is reconstructed as 19 m.

Both piers are ounded on rock outcrops. The baseo the east pier sits 3.7 m above the base o the west pier.The base o the west pier is constructed o marbleblocks several times larger than the other acing blocks.As on the Harami Dere bridge, the upstream side o thisbridge has suered considerably more damage than thedownstream side, on which acing blocks are preserved.Nevertheless, the width o the better-preserved westpier can be reconstructed at 4.3 m. The acing blocks are

Figure 27. North side o Krkm Deresi bridge near Yesilky, looking southwest (E005).

Figure 26. Elevation and section o Krkm Deresi bridge near Yesilky (E005) (1:400).


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ashioned rom the same sandy conglomerate outcropsubiquitous in the region and used or the conduit andother bridges. The lime mortar is white with small stoneinclusions, most no larger than 0.05 m.

Both piers terminate in projecting courses o marble

blocks, rom which the arch o the bridge springs. In-teresting to note, the top o the projecting course on theeast pier is approximately 0.15 m lower in elevation thanthe corresponding course on the west pier, which has anadditional projecting course located approximatelyhalway between the upper projecting course and thebase o the pier. The lower projecting course o the westpier, 2.6 m above the base o the structure, is made omarble blocks more uniorm in size and shape thanthose o the upper projecting course, located 3.2 mabove the bottom o the lower course. The arch spans9.8 m across the gorge and has two layers o voussoirs,

the upper layer being larger than the lower.Ater crossing this bridge, the aqueduct turnedsouthwest, running underground or a short distanceand then emerging in a poorly preserved bridge, owhich only the large ooting blocks o sandy conglom-erate and the weathered mortared rubble core remain(E007). The east pier o the bridge is 4.4 m wide, with amaximum preserved height o 6 m. The masonry isbonded with white lime mortar with stone inclusions,most smaller than 0.05 m.

Between this bridge and the next one, the conduit ranunderground in a tunnel that can be entered rom thedownstream side and ollowed or more than 150 m

(E006) (Figs. 28, 29). Comparable to the conduit seg-ments at Kepiz ay (G001) and Ciglek Deresi (E035),

the vaulted conduit is 1.44 m wide and at least 1.9 mhigh and is built o regular, rectangular blocks cut romthe local sandy conglomerate bedrock. The conduitblocks are 0.300.40 m long and 0.20 m high. Thesmaller blocks o the leveling course at the spring pointo the vault are 0.30 m long and 0.13 m high. The limemortar is beige-pink with densely packed stone inclu-sions smaller than 0.01 m. No trace o waterproofngcement or other treatment o the interior suraces is vis-ible. No clear sinterlevel is discernible, and calcareousdeposits lining the vault and walls appear to be the re-sult o water percolating through the tunnel and con-duit walls.

Figure 28. Elevation o masonry conduit insidetunnel near Yesilky (E006) (1:100).

Figure 29. Masonry conduit inside tunnel near Yesilky, looking northeast (E006).


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The space between the vaulted conduit and the tun-

nel, excavated rom the rock with a head-and-shoulders profle, is flled with mud and rubblepacking. At 86 m rom the entry point, the direction othe tunnel bends slightly to the north, and approxi-mately 5 m later returns to its original orientation, per-haps indicating the meeting point o two constructioncrews working in opposite directions. Regular putlogholes in the segment downstream rom the bend placedat alternating intervals o 0.35 m and 1.40 m indicate thatthe centering ramework was about 1.75 m long. In con-trast, the putlog holes in the segment upstream rom thebend appear to be dierently spaced, with intervals o0.75 m and 1.30 m, suggesting the use o centering 2.05m long.

The conduit emerged rom this tunnel to cross a low,dry dere. A severely eroded mass o mortared rubble onthe south side o the dere is all that remains o the bridgethat would have carried the conduit about 9 m abovethe streambed below (G003).

Ater the series o bridges around Yesilky, theaqueduct returned underground or 1.5 km beorecrossing a narrow gorge on small bridge (E02

Aqueducts of Aphrodisias

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