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Psychotherapy, counseling, and careercounseling

Chapter January 2015

DOI: 10.1037/14438-022

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1 author:

Peter McIlveen

University of Southern Queensland

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Psychotherapy and Counseling 1

RUNNING HEAD: Psychotherapy and Counselling

Psychotherapy, Counseling, and Career Counseling

Peter McIlveen


This is an authors pre-press version of the chapter. This version may be slightly

different to the final version. Please cite as:

McIlveen, P. (2015). Psychotherapy, counseling, and career counseling. In P. J. Hartung, M.

L. Savickas & W. B. Walsh (Eds.),APA hanbook of career intervention(pp. 403-417).

Washington, DC: APA Books.

Correspondence:

Dr Peter McIlveen


Toowoomba QLD 4350Australia

[email protected]


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First, you, the reader, take a moment reflect upon these three terms that constitute the

title of this chapter: psychotherapy, counselling, and career counseling. Now, take a moment.

What do you think? How might you describe their differences and similarities? What

key terms or constructs might you deploy to differentiate or integrate them? By posing the

questions, is it a simply a matter of rhetorically positing differences that do not exist? What

practical differences are there? Are they merely different labels for the same thing? What

societal value might you ascribe to each? Does it really matter that much anyway? These

questions underpin the reflective purpose of this chapter: an opportunity for you the reader to

(re)consider vocational psychology and career counseling, and counseling and

psychotherapy.

This chapter presents a philosophical analysis of psychotherapy, counseling, and

career counseling, and takes into account history and epistemology. Methodologically, this

chapter is an inspection of vocational psychologys discourse (cf. Richardson, 2012b; Stead

& Bakker, 2012); for it is the discourse of vocational psychology that establishes and delimits

the questions that generate research endeavours, the knowledge that identifies and

differentiates the field from other branches of applied psychology, how its knowledge is

transmitted, and the activities that constitute its professional practices such as career

counselling and career education. Rather than merely rehearsing explicit knowledge of

theories of psychotherapy, counselling and career counselling that can be read in a book or

journal article, the chapter reveals issues pertaining to tacit knowledge/s and their

paradigmatic roots.

Defining Psychotherapy and Counseling

To begin, it is apposite to consider specific definitions of the two terms psychotherapy

and counselingfrom authoritative sources. Stop. Why should one need to consider

definitions, particularly from authoritative sources? This question is the first act of the


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philosophical analysis, not because starting with definitions is the scholarly thing to do, but

because it causes one to reflect upon the owners of knowledge. The term definitionis itself

instrumental of discourse because it sets limits around what is known and done within a

discipline and profession. Theorizing, researching and practice are thus limited within the

definitions discursive parameters. The converse of what a definition prescribes as something

outside of its boundaries is equally important. This epistemological issue comes to light in

arguments over whether career counseling is personal counseling (i.e., what is or is not

counseling) and who/which institution controls the discourse, that is decides, defines, and

disseminates the doctrine.

In itsResolution on the Recognition of Psychotherapy Effectiveness, the American

Psychological Association (APA, 2012) states:

Psychotherapy (individual, group and couple/family) is a practice designed varyingly

to provide symptom relief and personality change, reduce future symptomatic

episodes, enhance quality of life, promote adaptive functioning in work/school and

relationships, increase the likelihood of making healthy life choices, and offer other

benefits established by the collaboration between client/patient and psychologist

In its 20/20: A Vision for the Future of Counseling, the American Counseling Association

(ACA, 2010) states:

Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families,

and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals.

The Canadian Counselling and Psychotherapy Association (CCPA, 2012) states:

Counselling is the skilled and principled use of relationship to facilitate self-

knowledge, emotional acceptance and growth and the optimal development of

personal resources. The overall aim of counsellors is to provide an opportunity for

people to work towards living more satisfyingly and resourcefully.


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On the difference between the psychotherapy and counseling, the CCPA (2012) states:

It is not possible to make a generally accepted distinction between counselling and

psychotherapy. There are well-founded traditions which use the terms interchangeably

and others which distinguish between them. If there are differences, then they relate

more to the individual psychotherapist's or counsellor's training and interests and to

the setting in which they work, rather than to any intrinsic difference in the two

activities.

If one were to conduct an international scan of definitions in nations with advanced

infrastructure of professions that provide counseling and psychotherapy (e.g., United

Kingdom, Australia, Hong Kong, Israel), substantial similarities would be found, along with

subtle differences too, for those other nations have a rich history of counseling. For the sake

of space in this chapter the North American perspective will prevail, albeit with due

acknowledgment of any potential differences among the APA, ACA, the CCPA, and other

professions (e.g., psychiatry). Notwithstanding psychiatrys crucial medical role in

rehabilitation, which is a field of practice that overlaps with career counseling, the American

Psychiatric Associations definition of psychotherapy is not included here because psychiatry

has no substantive interests or stake in career counseling.

Rather than endure a rehearsal of the arguments that have gone before, consult the

excellent expositions of this question in the special issues of the journals of the The

Counseling Psychologist, 2002, 30(6) and The Career Development Quarterly, 1993, 42(2).

The similarities and differences between scholars preferences for the meanings of

psychotherapy and counseling are important. However, the differences are not germane to

the current enquiry into the knowledge/s, purposes, and value of counseling and

psychotherapy to the individual and society. Therefore, for convenience sake, hereafter the


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term counselingwill suffice for both, unless there is a need to use one or the other

specifically for clarity.

One interpretation of these three definitions indicates three important functions of

counseling: curative, restorative, andpreventative. The curative function is to resolve

clients dysfunctional behaviors, illness and its symptoms; the restorative function is to

extend the client beyond symptom management and their disability to a return (or almost

return) to pre-morbid life or a new way of living; the preventative function is to educate

clients toward developing and maintaining health and well-being. The words chosen for this

interpretation (i.e.,curative, restorative, and preventative) allude to the so-called medical

model that is based in the positivist/post-positivist paradigm. This paradigm, which has its

roots in the Enlightenment and its grand narrative vision of humanity, the arts, and sciences,

is the forge of a century of theory, research, and practice in counseling. An additional term,

proactive, implies a function of personal growth as distinct from and in addition to a focus

upon recovery and prevention of illness, disorder, dysfunction, or failings of a person to cope,

adjust, and commit to personal decisions and change. Proactivity may well be a function that

distinguishes career counseling from conceptions of counseling that are embedded in the

medical model. To adumbrate the conclusion of this chapter: Emerging approaches to career

counseling, such as the Emancipatory Communitarian Approach (ECA, Blustein, 2006)

promise new conceptual vistas and practices that transcend the curative, restorative, and

preventative functions of counseling because they are based in a different set of values that

foster a reconsideration of vocational psychology and career counseling.

Counseling: A Modern Technology for Humans

Use of the term modernin the subheading is quite deliberate, for it has a specific

meaning in regard to the philosophy of knowledge and positivist/post-positivist psychological

science of the 20th

century. Further, the term technologyis an allusion to the work of
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Foucault who wrote of the technologies of the self (Foucault, 1988) of which counseling, and

its core process of disclosureconfessionis central to a person caring for himself/herself

through intimate processes of self-elaboration and self-reflection. Also, the generic term

humanis chosen to subsume other terms with various psychological meanings when used in

particular psychological theories of the late 20thand 21stcentury (i.e., identity, self, being,

person).

The main schools of counseling can be classified as: psychoanalytic, Adlerian,

existential, person-centered, gestalt, behavioral, cognitive-behavioral, reality, feminist, post-

modern, and family systems (Corey, 2013). Of course, there are other classifications. The

different schools and theories of counseling are representative of different epistemological

paradigms and have evolved in different eras and zeitgeists of the 19thand 20thcenturies.

Understanding the historical context of the counseling theories can extend ones

understanding of the career counseling theories that emerged contemporaneously or

subsequently.

A Technology Of and For Its Time

Each era brings its psychological zeitgeist that is manifest in talk, texts, and symbols,

in art, technology, and science. Thus, it is important to consider the world in which a theory

and practice is produced as a technology in the service of humans. The mid to late 19th

century can be understood as an era of immense technological change in which the machine

and growing industry are emblematic. The beginning of the 20thcan be understood as no less

tumultuous, however industry turned itself toward the production machinery for mass

annihilation. World War Idestruction, dread, and deathpsychologically brings humanity

and human fragility and mortality to the fore, and life is to be lived to the fullest. Yet again,

there is more destruction, dread and death in World War II. The psychological zeitgeist: the

world is insecure; governments must bring peace and productivity; rebuild with the Marshall
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Plan and Five-year Plans. Not againdestruction, dread and deathKorea and Vietnam.

The mood is turning; governments cannot bring peace and productivity; they failed to ensure

happiness and satisfaction in life; governments cannot be trusted. Arise corporate capitalism,

anarchism, and technology. Oil shock, inflation, stagflation, AIDS! Nothing can be trusted!

Tear down the grand narratives. And now? September 11, wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the

global financial crisis, the Arab Spring, and the psychosocial maladies of hyperconsumerism

identified by contemporary philosophers: affluenza, the bloated, sluggish and unfulfilled

feeling that results from efforts to keep up with the Joneses . an unsustainable addiction to

economic growth (Hamilton & Denniss, 2005, p. ii) and status anxiety, a worry, so

pernicious as to be capable of ruining extended stretches of our lives, that we are in danger of

failing to conform to the ideals of success laid down by our society (de Botton, 2004, pp. 3-

4). Thus, counseling should be philosophically considered contextually and temporally.

Whilst not perfectly delineated by events and time periods, the zeitgeists may be

understood metaphorically as mechanism,formism, organicism, and contextualism(Pepper,

1942). Take the mechanical metaphor as an example. Seen through its lens, classical

psychoanalytic theory can be seen to draw upon machines and hydraulics, of pressure

building and adjustment in the (psychological) system by transferring energy elsewhere. This

is the vision of a mechanical world, an industrial world. Stripped to bare bones, modernist

conceptions of the world and, the mechanical view imbues the great theories of learning that

focus precisely upon stimulus-response contingencies, reinforcements and punishments, and

arising from this technology came the behavioral school. From iron and steam to valves and

silicon, the science of data and information processing emerged. Like its progenitor school,

the cognitive-behavioral school treats thinking like a computer programing language whereby

bugs in the system are eliminated by reprogramming, by changing the language of thoughts

and thinking. Other schools may be conceived of differently. Jungian therapy may be seen


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through the lens of formism, of ego and psychological types as distinctive ways of

functioning in the world. Client-centered therapy may be understood through the lens of

organicism in a period of postwar growth and development, of rebuilding after trauma, of

unfolding toward a whole, new way of being. Feminist and postmodern counselors see a that

is world too complex to simplify in terms of stimulus-response, reward and punishment,

types and growth, through their wide angle contextualist lens they see a psychological world

of complex, unpredictable, interacting systems in which people live.

As technologies of and for their time, it is crucial to understand counseling theories

and practices in context inclusive of era. In the current era, it only fair to consider the old

theories and practices in light of their historical era and not fall into the trap of the presentist

bias(Thorne & Henley, 2005), of criticizing and judging them according to the standards of

current theories and practices. Listening to Billy Joel (1989, track 2) sing We Didnt Start

the Fire serves just as well as a modern history lesson on the pace and diversity of change in

which counseling evolved after World War II. The song also guards against presentist bias

and each generations criticism of its predecessors. For example, there is no shortage of

criticism against Freud and his theory. But, when read in fairness without presentist bias,

through the lens of a mechanical root metaphor seen in industrial century, and constructed in

the discourse of a mechanical paradigm, his works are genius writ large. Imbued in an

industrial world, it is little wonder that Freud chose the hydraulic metaphor to explain

psychological processes. Therefore, it is necessary to consider counseling theory and

practices as technological achievements of their time.

To summarize, the theories of vocational psychology can be understood and

organized in terms of the four root metaphors and three paradigms (McIlveen, 2009). Table

1 presents a selection of theories of counseling (Corey, 2013) and career organized according

to their root metaphor (Pepper, 1942) and paradigm, which may be positivist/postpositivist,
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constructivist/interpretivist, or critical/ideological (Ponterotto, 2005). Of course, the

organization of the theories in this particular table is contestable too.

--------------------

Insert Table 1

--------------------

Paradigm Shifts: Power/Knowledge

Paradigm shifts are not mere transitions toward a new epistemological lens and ways

of solving scientific puzzles. Psychological science is a social, cultural entity beholden to the

paradigmatic discourse and regulations of the day. Psychological science is also subject to

the politics of knowledge and the systems of power that decide what is accepted and rejected

as knowledge and way of knowing (Foucault, 1972). Institutional review boards, journals

editorial boards, ad hoc reviewers, doctoral committees, are just a few of the entities that

control the discourse of a field and concomitant access to resources. They are the protective

bulwarks and selective gatekeepers of a paradigm.

On a human, personal level, paradigmatic revolutions can be cruel as the old is swept

aside for the new; but there are always some men [sic] who cling to one or other of the old

views, and they are simply read out of the profession, which thereafter ignores their work

(Kuhn, 1996, p. 19). Pragmatically, being read out of the profession means that a theory

receives increasingly less space in publications and falls into a living death, a slow spiral of

disappearing from the canon of a discipline. An example of being read less and less and

eventually disappearing from key works in the literature can be seen in the internationally

regarded text book that brings the theories and practices counseling and career development

together,Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling(Sharf, 1997). In the preface

of this second edition of the book, Sharf wrote added to Chapter 13 Social Learning

Theory is a section on career self-efficacy theory, which has been the subject of much
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research (v). Sharf was of course referring to the Social Cognitive Career Theory which

had been promoted to its own chapter in the fourth edition (Sharf, 2005). This is little

wonder given the volume of research evidence the theory has accreted. On the other hand,

one witnesses the death of a chapter. In the second edition psychodynamic approaches to

career development had their own chapter. In the fourth edition the chapter is gone and the

word psychodynamic does not appear in the books index. Furthermore, Sharf stated I have

dropped David Tiedemans developmental approach because no research or attention has

been given to his work in about 15 years (x). Whilst never expunged from the literature,

because there is always a physical record, if only resting on a dusty shelf of a library, and an

occasional nostalgic piece, to be not read by students and up-and-coming scholars of a

discipline is a path to theoretical oblivion.

Indeed, when the Young Turks of a discipline turn on their paradigmatic

progenitors they do so viciously, if not voraciously, in their argument and rhetoric, for they

are not just fighting for their ideas, they are fighting for resources dearly held by the in-

group: publications, research grants, tenure, etc. They will wield their new paradigmatic

rhetoric with such withering force that the extant dominant paradigm must react by

welcoming, subsuming, and accommodating the new, or eventually yield a space for the new

to operate without hindrance, or succumbing through attrition.

From quiet beginnings in the early 1980s and 1990s, proponents of the social

constructionist paradigm for vocational psychology eventually prevailed in winning the

acceptance of their paradigm. Yet, it is their rhetoric that must be brought into a critical gaze,

for it may well show signs of presentist bias, and it is this bias fuels the powerful discursive

force that may ultimately pushes aside a competitor paradigm. Fortunately, the social

constructionists have not torn down and replaced the old paradigms of vocational


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psychology. They never intended to do so; they just wanted acceptance as an additional way

of knowing and doing the discipline, but their words were cutting.

In her paper that can be regarded as the coup de gracefor vocational psychologys

resistance to new theories and isolation from developments in mainstream psychology,

Richardson (1993) articulated a critique laden with notions such as disciplinary

ethnocentrism, complacency and enslavement under positivism and empiricism. These were

strong words that fired a generational assault on traditional theories in order to advance social

constructionism as a paradigm in vocational psychology. The fruits of that vigorous

scholarship are evident in a variety of emerging social constructionist theories (see McIlveen

& Schultheiss, 2012).

Reclaiming Heritage and Turf: Counseling and (not v.) Career Counseling

In order to further the analysis and extend toward new questions relevant to

counseling and career development there is a need to concentrate upon a point of overlap

between the two. This now begins with a lamentation of the present and a journey into the

past.

In what can be thought of as a diagnostic heritage overtaken and now ignored, it is

pertinent to note that clinical psychology and counseling psychology owes a debt of gratitude

to the pioneers of vocational psychology who significantly contributed to and refined the

applied science of psychometrics through conditions of economic depression and war

(Savickas & Baker, 2005). But, it is not psychometric tests per se that should be brought into

focus; instead, it is the positivist/post-positivist paradigmatic tenets of reality that leads to the

reification of psychological constructs (McIlveen & Patton, 2006). For sure, theDiagnostic

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM, American Psychiatric Association, 2000)

and theInternational Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th

Revision(ICD-10) (World Health Organisation, 2010) are the paramount achievements of
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psychological medical nosology. Whilst it is true that the DSM and ICD evolved technical

products of psychiatry and clinical psychology quite independently of vocational psychology,

there can be little doubt that conceptions and measurement of intelligence and personality

constructs met clinical psychologys need to measure, classify, and differentiate individuals

and their pathologies.

For good or ill, the debt has been honored. Clinical diagnoses pertaining to career-

related problems designated on Axis I and IV according to the DSM. Diagnoses given under

the V Codesin the DSM cover problems and these may be classified as V62.2 Occupational

problem, V62.3 Academic problem, or V62.89 Phase of life problem. Within the ICD-10,

career-related problems may be covered by the categoryPersons with potential health

hazards related to socioeconomic and psychosocial circumstances(Z55-Z65) under lower

categories such asZ55 Problems related to education and literacyorZ56 Problems related to

employment and unemployment. These DSM and ICD diagnostic categories are not used

merely to formulate diagnoses. In an era of managed health care, they play an important role

in determining insurance coverage for illness. A psychologist may use psychometric tests of

a vocational constructs (e.g., career interests, abilities, or satisfaction) to affirm these

diagnoses; however, it is as if clinical psychology has established its own purview over the

psychology of career-related problems and has no need to reference extant vocational

diagnostic nosologies (e.g., Boreham, 1967; Gati, Krausz, & Osipow, 1996; Multon, Wood,

Heppner, & Gysbers, 2007; Rounds & Tinsley, 1984). Vice versa, the DSM and ICD-10

diagnostic categories of career-related problems do not appear to be used in the literature of

vocational psychology and career counseling.

This is just another example of the separation of disciplinary knowledge and practice,

and the much lamented lack of correspondence between the vocational psychology and the

other divisions of psychology (Savickas & Baker, 2005). Indeed, when it comes to the
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232449197_A_Taxonomy_of_Difficulties_in_Career_Decision_Making?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247729010_A_Cluster-Analytic_Investigation_of_Subtypes_of_Adult_Career_Counseling_Clients_Toward_a_Taxonomy_of_Career_Problems?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247729010_A_Cluster-Analytic_Investigation_of_Subtypes_of_Adult_Career_Counseling_Clients_Toward_a_Taxonomy_of_Career_Problems?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/17139132_The_Psycho-dynamic_Diagnosis_and_Treatment_of_Vocational_Problems?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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politics of knowledge within the profession, it is worth contemplating the meanings of the

word division. To wit, although vocational psychology resides withinDivision17 [my

italics] of the APA, it receives little support from counseling psychologists in the APA

(Savickas & Baker, p. 43, 2005).

Consider one of the divisions that troubles vocational psychologists. The questions

that introduced this chapter have dogged scholars for at least two decades. Scholars have

attempted to minimize the differences and highlight the similarities between counseling and

career counseling to show the clinical intimacy and personal nature of career counseling.

Discursively, the two have been juxtaposed in the literature aspersonal counselingand

career counseling, as if adding the words personal and career were sufficient to differentiate

intended meanings. The titles of some of the main articles in this literature are quite telling,

if not demanding, in their tone, for example: Career counseling is personal

counseling(Manuele-Adkins, 1992, p. 313); The inseparability of 'career' and 'personal'

counseling(Betz & Corning, 1993, p. 137). Paragon of counseling psychology, Donald

Super (1993), asserted that psychotherapy, counseling, and career counseling are a complex

intertwining, overlapping, interlocking combination that defies characterization (p. 132).

Super went on to suggest that a fellow luminary, Carl Rogers, obfuscated the fields

terminology, psychotherapy and counseling, by amending the titles of his books in order to

attract political favor within his university. Again, this is but another example of the politics

of knowledge and how professions go about controlling the field through discourse.

As far back as the 1950s, when counseling psychology emerged as a separate division

of professional psychology, there was recognition of the holistic approach to intervention.

And, again, Supers (1955) words are prescient and relevant today as when first written:

While [the new field of counseling psychology] includes vocational guidance, it

goes beyond it to deal with the person as a person, attempting to help him with all


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types of life adjustments. Its underlying principle is that it is the adjusting individual

who needs help, rather than merely an occupational, marital, or personal problem

which needs a solution. (p. 4)

Whilst describing the profession counseling psychologist, Super also staked a claim

over psychotherapy, all the while recognizing the professions emergence from vocational

guidance. The evolution from guidance to counseling psychology is important historical fact.

Super went on to state the counseling psychologys purview extended beyond a focus upon

the normal person (p. 5) and that it is focused upon handicapped, abnormal, or

maladjusted persons (p. 5), and that it concerns itself with hygiology, with the normalities

even of abnormal persons (p. 5) in a proactive manner focused upon strengths and resources,

rather than diagnostics and psychopathology. It is thus easy to understand why Super (1993)

saw few definitive differences among psychotherapy, counseling and career counseling and

instead preferred to conceptualize a continuum of intervention with counseling focused upon

problems emanating from situations (e.g., career, relationships, school) at one end and

problems emanating from personal approaches to coping at the other.

Harnessing the Philosophical Problem of Cause-and-Effect

One of the great problems in philosophy is that of causality. Causality may be

formulated from different philosophical perspectives, but perhaps the most striking for

psychology is that proffered by philosopher David Hume (1748/2007). Hume argued that

causeis a psychological construction. A cause is inducted (i.e., mentally created) upon the

basis of a persons successive observations of two or more events the observed evidence

that appear to be constantly associated with one another (i.e., constantly conjoined). His

argument implies that humans can and do make meaning of the observed world by mentally

constructing associations between events. Thus, a cause-and-effect proposition is just an

idea. As an idea, it becomes an explanatory tool for the past and present, and a predictive


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tool for the future. Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to claim Hume to be a very

early cognitive scientist who saw in humans an innate cognitive capacity to inductively

theorize their living in the world and to use their personal theories of causation between

phenomena to get one with the everyday tasks of living.

A little more than 200 years later, Kelly (1955) published The Psychology of

Personal Constructs. Kellys theory formally theorizes how individualsacting as nave

scientistsgenerate cognitive rules to understand, anticipate, and control their living in the

worlds. Indeed, the notion of cause-and-effect is discursively embedded in the canon of

counseling and it is perhaps most famously expressed in Rogers (1957) words the necessary

andsufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change (p. 95). The words necessary

and sufficient are same used a branch of philosophy, logic, when referring to causality.

Rogers use of the word conditions implies the same as cause. There are other causal

presuppositions held aloft by the various schools of thought: unconscious conflict produces

anxiety, behavior is contingent upon reinforcement schedules, traits predict interests, and

thoughts of efficacy enhance performance. Despite social constructionisms slippery

discursive practices (e.g., eschewing definitions of technical terms on the pretext that they are

socially constructed, contested and forever subject to change by consensus), it too is beholden

to cause-and-effect thinking in its presupposition that stories create psychological reality.

It is at this juncture that the philosophical analysis takes a sharp focus on

philosophical problem of cause-and-effect and its implications for counseling practice.

However, a short detour is required in order to finally designate the crucible of cause-and-

effect in counseling.

Psychotherapy Integration

The integration of counseling theories and practices is a substantive sub-disciplinary

field of scholarship with its own APA journal,Journal of Psychotherapy Integration. There


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are four main approaches to integration: technical eclecticism, theoretical integration,

assimilative integration, and common factors (Norcross, 2005). Technical eclecticism draws

upon what may be considered the most effective techniques.

In career counseling, a technical eclectic counselor may be inclined to use a

combination of different counseling techniques rather than adhere to a theoretical framework.

For example, workbooks, written tasks, individualized interpretations of assessment data,

information about the world-of-work, modelling of strategies, and mustering support for the

client may chose by a counselor because of the weight of empirical evidence in their favour

of these techniques (e.g., Brown & Ryan Krane, 2000). Technical eclecticism is not

atheoretical, however. All counselors operate out of some kind of theoretical framework,

whether it be a formal theory or a personal theory, or a combination embedded in a socio-

political perspective (e.g., feminism). This assertion becomes crucial for counselors

reflective practice.

Theoretical integration aims to build new theories out of two or more extant theories.

Three notable examples of integration in vocational psychology include (a) the systems

theory framework (Patton & McMahon, 2006) which presents an organizing metatheory of

the multiplesystems of influencesthat constitute career, (b) the developmental/motivational

model of career development that draws upon mainstream development theory (Vondracek &

Kawasaki, 1995), and (c) the career construction theory (Savickas, 2005) which draws upon

the tri-level framework of personality (McAdams, 1996) to connect: Level I, individual

differences, such a personality traits; Level II, efficacies, strategies, and concerns; and Level

III, personal narratives that constitute the existential singularity of a persons individuality.

The career construction theory is one of the conceptual bases for the emerging life design

counseling(Savickas et al., 2009) which takes an integrative stance to practice.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232471931_Four_or_five_sessions_and_a_cloud_of_dust_Old_assumptions_and_new_observations_about_career_counseling?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247503984_Personality_Modernity_and_the_Storied_Self_A_Contemporary_Framework_for_Studying_Persons?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287768964_Life_designing_A_paradigm_for_career_construction_in_the_21st_century?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222013431_Life_designing_A_paradigm_for_career_construction_in_the_21st_century_Journal_of_Vocational_Behavior_75_239-250?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238352276_Career_construction_theory_and_practice?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27469900_The_systems_theory_framework_a_conceptual_and_practical_map_for_career_counselling?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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Assimilative integration is an approach in which a preferred theory is retained and

techniques from other theories are adopted if conceptually and practically palatable to the

foundation assumptions of the theory. For example, trait/factor assessment and narrative

assessment may be combined to produce a more meaningful assessment for clients (e.g.,

Hartung & Borges, 2005). Krumboltz (2009) theory of career counseling assimilates

objective assessment procedures as stimulants for learning, as distinct from their traditional

application of determining congruence between traits, interests, and occupations. Recent

scholarship has seen steps toward assimilation of clinical techniques into career counselling,

such as the assessment of suicidality (Popadiuk, 2012), mindfulness-based stress reduction

(Jacobs & Blustein, 2008), acceptance and commitment therapy (Hoare, McIlveen, &

Hamilton) and recasting the differences problem as one of counselors operating in different

domains of client need (Blustein & Spengler, 1995; Richardson, 2012a).

The common factors approach, or therapeutic factors approach, sets aside specific

theoretical preferences and instead highlights what is predominantly effective among all

therapies, such as client factors and counseling relationship (Hubble, Duncan, & Miller,

1999). The common factors approach asserts that there are no substantive differences in the

effectiveness of different therapies (Wampold et al., 1997) and emphasizes the importance of

the counseling relationship (Lambert & Barley, 2001) and the client per se as critical factors

(Bohart, 2000). At this juncture, the phenomenology of personal change from the clients

perspective becomes crucial, for it is the clients theory of change that manifests her

understanding of the cause-and-effects of her condition.

Whose Cause? Whose Effect?

Whilst it may seem patently obvious that the client is a factor of the change process,

there is a need for research into client factors (Bohart, 2000; Knight, Richert, & Brownfield,

2012), including career counseling research (Heppner & Heppner, 2003). How clients
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247332846_Identifying_process_variables_in_career_counseling_A_research_agenda?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254735276_Conceiving_Change_Lay_Accounts_of_the_Human_Change_Process?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254735276_Conceiving_Change_Lay_Accounts_of_the_Human_Change_Process?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262834364_Career_counsellors_and_suicide_risk_assessment?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247728889_Toward_Integrated_Career_Assessment_Using_Story_to_Appraise_Career_Dispositions_and_Adaptability?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258191889_Counseling_for_Work_and_Relationship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253231579_A_Meta-Analysis_of_Outcome_Studies_Comparing_Bona_Fide_Psychotherapies_Empirically_All_Must_Have_Prizes'?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232477357_Research_Summary_of_the_Therapeutic_Relationship_and_Psychotherapy_Outcome?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238524977_Mindfulness_as_a_Coping_Mechanism_for_Employment_Uncertainty?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232519078_The_Heart_and_Soul_of_Change_What_Works_Well_in_Therapy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232519078_The_Heart_and_Soul_of_Change_What_Works_Well_in_Therapy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226083856_The_Client_Is_the_Most_Important_Common_Factor_Clients'_Self-Healing_Capacities_and_Psychotherapy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226083856_The_Client_Is_the_Most_Important_Common_Factor_Clients'_Self-Healing_Capacities_and_Psychotherapy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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construct theories of their problems and strategies of change in counseling (cf. personal

construct theory; Kelly, 1955) is a new avenue of enquiry and practice. For example, clients

may formulate theories of change as adaptationto crises or on-going problems, making

definitivepersonal choices, and delimited choicesconstrained to immediate exigencies

(Knight et al., 2012). These three lay theories of change are all too familiar in career

counseling. Thus, it is apropos to consider whose personal theory of change is really

experienced by the client and whose theorys propositions, hypotheses, tests are put into

action genuinely and experientially. Is it the counselors, the clients, either in parallel

existential universes, or co-constructively together? What thoughts churn through a clients

mind when she leaves the consulting room? What if-then propositions shall occupy her mind

as she goes about her daily activities pondering the career concern that is the lens through

which she sees her future? What personal truths will prevail and free the client of her

existential torment?

The notion of therapeutic truth is present in this conundrum of (co-)constructing

personalised theories of explanation and action that enable the client to make sense of her

condition, and to choose and engage in actions for her future. If one accepts the social

constructionist version of knowing and knowledge, then therapeutic truth is a construction of

counselor and client. From a philosophical perspective on knowing and knowledge,

therapeutic truth is a peculiar example ofpragmatismin the tradition of philosopher,

psychologist William James (1907/2000). According to pragmatism, if a theory seems to

work in every day life then it has cash value. Moreover, therapeutic truths constructed in

counseling are instruments for practically dealing with the world and its challenges. As such,

career decision-making (as a way of knowing) and career choices (as personal knowledge) is

a function of pragmatic truth compiled from a complex of cause-and-effect thinking.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247958734_The_Psychology_of_Personal_Constructs_Vol_I?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254735276_Conceiving_Change_Lay_Accounts_of_the_Human_Change_Process?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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The intimate dialogue between counselor and client is the crucible of growth for the

client; yet the dialogue between counselor and client is a complex of assumptions held by one

another and power-relations between one another; it is not an objective, mechanical

interlocution. Together, counselor and client bring their respective historical and present

systems of influences(McMahon & Patton, 2006) into counseling. It is here, at the

therapeutic meeting point, where counselor and client adjoin, that the axiological nature of

career counseling is revealed as a psychopolitical, cultural practice (Prilleltensky & Stead,

2011; Stead & Bakker, 2012). Consciously or unconsciously, and in accord with the ethics

and lore of her profession, the counselor brings her morals, values, and emotions into

counseling, solely for the benefit of the client. Yet, despite her intention, she is at once an

actor and an agent of values, assumptions, and practices of psychology. Thus, the counselor

is not a neutral agent and she is not powerless, she is powerful. How will she use that power?

She makes choices, judgments, and performs actions that are consistent with theoretical

formulations and her professional experiences. Indeed, career counseling is not an objective,

value-free activity; it is a socio-political activity imbued with tacit assumptions of moral

philosophy.

Beyond Epistemology: The Moral Axiological Turn

Vocational psychology has long been a proponent of the good life and what should be

done to establish an interesting, well-balanced career that brings wealth, health, and

happiness. Yet, the morality of this ostensibly noble objective, its values and assumptions,

the discipline and its practices, were not explicitly analyzed until relatively recently, and the

results of the critical analyses (Richardson, 1993) called for an epistemological overhaul;

which has in the two decades hence borne fruit as a diverse range of social constructionist

approaches (Young & Popadiuk, 2012). It is the inherently value-laden nature of vocational

psychology that has drawn scholars to propose explicitly values-driven theoretical and
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258144286_Critical_Psychology_and_Career_Development_Unpacking_the_Adjust-Challenge_Dilemma?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258144286_Critical_Psychology_and_Career_Development_Unpacking_the_Adjust-Challenge_Dilemma?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279119642_Work_in_People's_Lives_A_Location_for_Counseling_Psychologists?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291184220_Social_Constructionist_Theories_in_Vocational_Psychology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232541570_Work_in_people's_lives_A_location_for_counseling_psychologists_Journal_of_Counseling_Psychology_40_425-433?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27469900_The_systems_theory_framework_a_conceptual_and_practical_map_for_career_counselling?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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professional frameworks. Of course, none of this is new to counseling. Earlier challenges

involved a shift from the objectivity of psychoanalysis to the engaged and caring person-

centred counseling (Patterson, 1958). But, the era and the zeitgeist are different in this so-

called postmodern era. There has been a critical shift from debates about the epistemology of

vocational psychology and the establishment of social constructionism, to the axiology of

what is valued in vocational psychology and its professional activities that go toward

securing the good life for those in paid or unpaid work, performing market workor care work

(Richardson, 2012b). Similarly, psychology as a whole has been challenged to re(assess) its

moral foundations (Prilleltensky, 1997).

The psychology of working perspective and the ECA (Blustein, 2006) is overtly

values-driven and advances the as an alternative paradigm for conceptualizing the role of

work and the professional practices of vocational psychology. The ECA calls for counselors

to instill critical consciousness and engage in social advocacyto wear her values on her

sleeve. At first glance this approach appears to be more like social work than psychology

because of its emphasis upon societal problems and structures. The ECA brings into the

foreground the assumptions, values and practices that are deemed to constitute the discipline

of vocational psychology. Leading scholars advocate for a re(vision) of vocational

psychology to make it relevantas if it were ever irrelevantand salient once again. In yet

another special issue devoted to the future of the field, the Journal of Career Assessment,

2011, 19(3), Blustein states:

The choice point for vocational psychology is to continue to create knowledge and

services for the middle-class populations with some degree of choice in their lives or

to expand our inclusiveness to include people with as much volition about education,

training, and work. (p. 316)
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11706525_Values_Assumptions_and_Practices_Assessing_the_Moral_Implications_of_Psychological_Discourse_and_Action?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288091426_The_psychology_of_working_A_new_perspective_for_career_development_counseling_and_public_policy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232504671_Values_in_Counseling_and_Psychotherapy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284867117_A_Critique_of_Career_Discourse_Practices?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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Let Blusteins words hang upon your ears for a moment longer. These words may be read as

political discourse laden with intentions for societal change. Blustein is not merely urging a

shift in client-focus for service-delivery away from the middle class and its problems (e.g.,

affluenza, status anxiety), he is calling for a change in the very epistemological foundations

of vocational psychology is his critical words: create knowledge and for the middle class.

The word for in particular implies a relationship of service to one class and not another.

Blustein is demanding that the discipline critically reconsider what it values for

individuals and society, which is inherently an exercise in moral philosophy. The ECA is

vastly different from the great traditions of vocational psychology that have taken the

psychological constructs of individuality (e.g., traits) as their unit of analysis because of the

zeitgeists from which they emerged and evolved. Indeed, the ECA runs the risk of denying

individuality and sacrificing uniqueness in favor of the community (Prilleltensky, 1997, p.

525); however, Blustein (2006) preserves self-determination in the liberal tradition of

philosopher John Stuart Mill (1863/1972), that the liberty of the individual is thus far

limited; that he [sic] must not make himself a nuisance to other people (114). In the modern

era, philosopher Bertrand Russell (1949) may well come down on the side of the ECA

because it emphasizes community over the individual as way of achieving a fair and just

society. Against this philosophical backdrop, vocational psychology has not yet grappled

with the conundrum thrown up by the ECA: changing vocational psychologys vision of (a)

the individual and (b) the communities in which individuals relate to one another, and,

moreover, (c) how these two may be adjoined as the core business of one science and

profession. Metaphorically, this conundrum may be thought of as the discipline wielding

centripetal and centrifugal forces that will transforms its epistemology and axiology.


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Centripetal Transformation

With regard to centripetal transformationto inward transformationvocational

psychology has already commenced a paradigmatic change that will see its science of the

individual include new perspectives. Indeed, the past three decades have seen the progressive

acceptance of social constructionism as a legitimate alternative to postpositivism. Yet, even

within social constructionism there is a conservatism that holds it to the traditional constructs

of the individual as the unit of analysis (e.g., thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and values) and

narrative counseling in which stories are the focus of counseling. Progress beyond these

traditional foci has been energized through the relational approach (Richardson, 2012a) and

the contextual-action approach (Young, Valach, & Collin, 2002) which take as there unit of

analysis and focus of counseling to be the interactions between individuals. Furthermore,

integration with other domains of counseling (e.g., clinical) (cf. Blustein, 2006) has promise

to invigorate career counseling and bring vocational psychology closer to mainstream

psychology.

Blustein (2006) calls upon counselors to attend to their counter-transference because

many therapists have little exposure to their own inner life with respect to working (p.

290). There is emerging scholarship that takes an overtly critical stance (Irving & Malik,

2005; Stead & Perry, 2012) which requires a counselor to engage in reflective practice that

entails a critical deconstruction of the discourse and taken-for-granted assumptions and ways

of working in practice (including scientific and academic practices of research). Toward that

end, there is emerging scholarship on how practitioners might manage the moral challenges

they confront in their counseling work (e.g., Prilleltensky & Stead, 2011).

Instillation of critical consciousnesswithin clients is an example of career counseling

practice that overtly stakes a political claim on building psychological resilience and

resistance to the social determinants of career (Diemer & Blustein, 2006). This entails the
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258144286_Critical_Psychology_and_Career_Development_Unpacking_the_Adjust-Challenge_Dilemma?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288091426_The_psychology_of_working_A_new_perspective_for_career_development_counseling_and_public_policy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288091426_The_psychology_of_working_A_new_perspective_for_career_development_counseling_and_public_policy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258191889_Counseling_for_Work_and_Relationship?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284564684_A_contextual_explanation_of_career?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254111399_Toward_Critical_Psychology_Perspectives_of_Work-Based_Transitions?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222431561_Critical_consciousness_and_career_development_among_urban_youth_Journal_of_Vocational_Behavior_682_220-232?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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co-construction of therapeutic truth that is similar to feminist counseling, but radically

different from tradition of values-free counseling. Fostering critical consciousness in practice

requires a new vision of the individual-in-context, culture, and class. It also requires a

profoundly honest approach to reflexivity and countertransference in counselors, and a

concomitant awareness that professional work, in this case counseling, may well be the

psychodynamics ofsublimation(Freud, 1930/2010).

The force of centripetal transformation may throw up questions and challenges that

are beyond the scope of psychology to answer. Although a psychology of psychology, a

meta-psychology, is an intriguing possibility, it seems that a better option is to introspect

through the lens of another discipline such as philosophy. In this chapter I have introduced

but a few ideas drawn from philosophy as a way to understand the epistemology and axiology

of counseling and vocational psychology. There are other philosophers (e.g., Nietzsche,

Kierkagaard, Rawls) whose ideas and works may productively, not just critically and

destructively, be read and applied to foster methods of reflexivity and countertranference.

Centrifugal Transformation

Although career counseling that takes an overtly socio-politically stance is one way

forward, it may ultimately be inadequate to the task of meeting a reformist agenda to change

the societal structures that create disadvantage and disenfranchisement. Regardless of moral

intentions to improve the plight of the marginalized and dispossessed, vocational psychology

and career counseling are focused upon the psychology of the individual and of counseling

individuals. Even if couple, family, and group counseling were to be invigorated as forms of

career counseling, albeit laudable and admirable, this too would be a piecemeal approach to

the challenge transforming the world-of-work and career on a larger scale (cf. Roberts, 2005).

Vocational psychology needs, yet again, a new paradigm to prosecute a socio-political

agenda of the type advocated by Blustein (2006). Most importantly, however, the discipline,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288091426_The_psychology_of_working_A_new_perspective_for_career_development_counseling_and_public_policy?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-a4ce50ed-5f27-47a0-b878-65d8704ce35b&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2OTk4Nzg5MjtBUzoxNzg4MjYzNDQ2NzMyODBAMTQxOTY0NjkzMTM2OQ==


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as a community, has to first agree that it wants to pursue the socio-political agenda on a large

scale, or stay with its traditional ground of counseling (for middle-class individuals).

Secondly, the discipline must review its capacity to engage in practices that are demonstrably

effective. Counseling does not take social structures, bureaucracies, systems, and policies as

the unit of analysis and intervention. These entities are the grist of disciplines such as

community psychology, organizational psychology, and social work, and these are the

entities that hold the most potential for change and realization of ECA in practice.

How, then, will vocational psychology move outward and away from its gravitational

center that is counseling? For starters, it may be prudent to engage in interdisciplinary

dialogue to learn from other counseling professions that take a wider, systems perspective on

well-being, work, learning, and counseling practice, such community psychology (e.g., the

APAs Division 27, the Society for Community Research and Action). Furthermore, there is

an economic dimension inherent in the ECA, yet it has not been fully articulated as a

scholarship pathway toward macro-level interventions (e.g., government policy).

Interdisciplinary dialogue with economic psychology (e.g., Division 9, International

Association of Applied Psychology) may bring new theories and methods of research to

better prepare vocational psychology and counseling to grapple with the priorities of large

organizations and government that ultimately insist upon prudent financial bottom lines.

Conclusion

Counseling is one of humanitys technological achievements. As vocational

psychology celebrates one century in the modern era, there is reason to be optimistic that

career counselingor however it be described and defined in the futurehas a bright future.

For it is likely that humans will go on as paradoxical beings, as fallible and fragile beings

capable of astounding strength and achievements, both personally and collectively. As it is

likely that learning (formal and informal), work (paid and unpaid), and people learning and


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working in relationships with one another, will go on as activities of daily living and as

activities for constructing meaningfulness in life, and they will go on as sources of great

torment and triumph. Thus, there will be counseling for curative, restorative, and

preventative purposes, and counseling in the domains of learning, work, and the social spaces

in which they occur, will be the focus of counseling too. Yet, with a sociopolitical reform

agenda in the offing, vocational psychology may very well be recast for proactive purposes

and aims to change organizational or societal structures. However, career counseling must be

reformed for the objectives of that agenda through creative solutions to problems thrown up

by the centripetal and centrifugal forces pressing for its transformation.

I shall leave expression of the concluding caveat to Lent (2001), who, in a special

issue of theJournal of Vocational Behavior, 2001, 59(2), devoted to the future of vocational

psychology, wrote:

To articulate a future vision for vocational psychology is an audacious task. It is also,

perhaps, more than a little foolhardy. Prognosticators are invariably limited by their

own biases and blind spots, and their crystal balls are rarely crystal clear. They tend

to predict the future they would like to see, rather than one based on a dispassionate

analysis of trends and possibilities. (p. 213).

Such perspicacity and sagacity! Given my assertion that vocational psychology is necessarily

blinded by its moral vision, I should state that my conclusions are indeed the future I would

like to see.

Acknowledgement

Thanks go to Dr Gavin Beccaria for his comments on drafts of this chapter. No grants

supported the writing of this chapter.
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