AP Language and Composition Study Guide

8/13/2019 AP Language and Composition Study Guide

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Rhetorical DevicesRhetoric: (n) The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, espt. the use of figures of speech andother compositional techniques.

*Stars by the sides of the words signify frequency Frequency Key: ** - device has shown up once so far, *** - device has shown up 2+ times

Alliteration: [uh-lit-uh-rey-shuhn] the recurrence of initial consonant sounds. To call attention to a phrase and fix it in the readers mind

Delicious day Satisfying sensation Arthur the aardvark ate asparagus

**Allusion: [uh-loo-zhuhn] a short informal reference to a famous person or event. To explain or clarify

If you take his parking place, you can expect WWII all over again

Plan ahead: it was not raining when Noah built the ark I was surprised his nose was not growing like Pinocchios

Amplification: [am-pluh-fi-key-shuhn] repeating an expression while adding more detail. Makes reader realize importance

In my hunger after ten days of fasting I saw visions of ice cream mountains of creamy, luscious ice cream

Pride boundless pride is the bane of civilization In everything remember the passing of time, a time which cannot be called again

Anacoluthon: [an-uh-kuh-loo-thon] finishing a sentence with a different grammatical structure

than from which it began; usually interrupts a sentence midway and changes structure. Often used to suggest what is written is spoken language or interior thought; stylistic

choice Be careful with these two devices because improperly used they can will, I

have cautioned you enough And then the deep rumble from the explosion began to shake the very bones

of no one had ever felt anything like it The good stuff think about it.

Anadiplosis: [an-uh-di-ploh-sis] repeating the last word of a phrase or sentence at the beginningof the next.

For the purpose of beauty or to give sense of logical progression Knowledge might pity win, and pity grace obtain Pleasure might cause her read, reading might make her know In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word

was God **Analogy: [uh-nal-uh-jee] compares two things alike in several respects.


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To explain or clarify He that voluntarily continues ignorance is guilty of all crimes which ignorance

produce, as one who extinguishes as lighthouse should be blamed for shipwrecks

Knowledge always desires increase: it is like a fire, which must be kindled bysome external agent, but which afterward will propagate itself

Worrying is as effective as trying to solve an algebra problem by chewing bubblegum

**Anaphora: [uh-naf-er-uh] the repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, or sentences.

To emphasize To think on death it is a misery/ to think on life it is a vanity/ to think on the

world verily it is In books I find the dead as if they were alive; in books I foresee things to come;

in books warlike affairs are set forth Slowly and grimly they advanced, not knowing what lay ahead, not knowing

what they would find at the top of the hill, not knowing that they were so near toDisneyland

**Antimetabole: [an-tee-meh-TA-boe-lee] reversing the order of words or phrase. To intensify final solution, present alternatives, or show contrast

All work and no play is as bad as all play and no work Ask not what you can do for your country, but what your country can do for

you

I know what I like and I like what I know Antiphrasis: [an-tif-ruh-sis] one word irony, established by context.

To create irony, and help create pathos with irony Come here Tiny he said to the fat man It was a cool 115 degrees in the shade Hes only a child of fifty years

**Antithesis: [an-tith-uh-sis] a clear, contrasting relationship between two things by joining themtogether.

To convey complexity by admitting nearly opposite truths

One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind To err is human; to forgive, divine If we try, we might succeed; if we do not try, we cannot succeed

**Aporia: [uh-pohr-ee-uh] expresses doubt about an idea or conclusion without expressingcommitment.

Suggests an alternative without making a commitment I am not sure whether to side with those who favor school uniforms, or those


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who do not I do not know whether this legislation will work all of the miracles its backers

say it will, but it is clear I have not yet been convinced that living in a dorm is superior to living at home

Aposiopesis: [ap-uh-sahy-uh-pee-sis] stopping abruptly and leaving a statement unfinished. Creates suspense, induces readers imagination

Ive got to make the team or Ill If they use that section of the desert for bombing practice, the rock hunters will I sense something, a presence I have not felt since

Apostrophe: [uh-pos-truh-fee] interrupts the discussion or discourse and addresses a person or thing, that can be present or not.

To dramatize things (i.e. add emotions) O books who alone are liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and

enfranchise all who serve faithfully But all such reasons notwithstanding, dear reader, does not the cost in lives

persuade you by itself that we must do something immediately about thesituation

Twinkle, Twinkle little star; how I wonder what you are Appositive: [uh-phz-i-tiv] a noun or noun substitute placed next to (in apposition to) another

noun to be described or defined by the appositive. To define or emphasize the noun

Henry Johnson, the boss of the operation, always wore a baseball cap Subject: Henry Johnson

Appositive: boss of the operation That afternoon Kathy Peterson, the pianist, met the poet Thompson

Subjects: Kathy Peterson, Thompson Appositive: Pianist, poet (respectively)

That evening we were all at the concert, an elaborate and exciting affair Subject: Concert Appositive: Elaborate and exciting affair

Assonance: [as-uh-nuhns] vowel sounds repeated in proximate words. To provide rhythm, and make memorable

A city set on a hill cannot be hid Hear the mellow wedding bells The crumbling thunder of seas

Asyndeton: [uh-sin-di-ton] omitting conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses. To give a list the sense of being a incomplete, synonymity between phrases or seep a

concision in phrases She likes pickles, olives, dates, pretzels


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He was a winner, a hero They spent the day wondering, searching, thinking, understanding.

Antanagoge: [an'-ta-na'-go-gee] placing a positive point or benefit next to afault/criticism/problem.

To reduce the impact of negative points True, he always forgets my birthday, but he buys me presents year round When life gives you lemons, make lemonade Many are the pains and perils to be passed, but great is the gain and glory at the

last Apophasis: [uh-pof-uh-sis] asserts or emphasizes something by pointedly seeming to pass over,

ignore, or deny it. To call attention to sensitive facts/statements while remaining apparently detached from

them We will not bring up the matter of the budget deficit I will not even mention Houdinis many writings I pass over the fact that Jenkins was an alcoholic, beats his wife and sells dopes

to kids, because we will not allow personal issues to enter our politicaldiscussion

**Catachresis: [kat-uh-kree-sis] an extravagant, implied metaphor using words in an alien or unusual way.

For art and style I will speak daggers to her The little old lady turtled along at ten miles per hour

They had expected that this news would paint original grief, but the only resultwas silk screened platitudes

**Chiasmus: [kahy-az-muhs] the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced by thefirst part, only in reverse order; instead of AB structure (learned unwillingly) paralleled byanother AB structure (forgotten gladly) it would be an AB structure followed by a BA structure(gladly forgotten).

To add beauty and effectiveness What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten He labors without complaining and without bragging rests

Tell me not of your many perfections; of your great modesty tell me not either Climax: [klahy-maks] consists of arranging words, clauses, or sentences in order of importance,

weight, or emphasis. To show importance

The concerto was applauded at the house of Baron von Schnooty, it was praised highly at court, it was voted best concerto of the year by the Academy,it was considered by Mozart the highlight of his career, and it has become


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known today as the best concerto in the world. At 6:20 a.m. the ground began to heave. Windows rattled; then they broke.

Objects started falling from shelves. Water heaters fell from their pedestals,tearing out plumbing. Outside, the road began to break up. Water mains andgas lines were wrenched apart, causing flooding and the danger of explosion.Office buildings began cracking; soon twenty, thirty, forty stories of concretewere diving at the helpless pedestrians panicking below.

To have faults is not good, but faults are human. Worse is to have them and notsee them. Yet beyond that is to have faults, to see them, and to do nothingabout them. But even that seems mild compared to him who knows his faults,and who parades them about and encourages them as though they were virtues.

Conduplicatio: [con-du-pli-KAT-see-oh] repeats a keyword from the preceding phrase/clause/sentence at the beginning of the next.

Emphasizes an idea or thing of importance She fed the goldfish every day with special food. Gradually the goldfish began

to turn a brighter orange. If this is the first time duty has moved him to act against his desires, he is a very

weak man indeed. Duty should be cultivated and obeyed in spite of its frequentconflict with selfish wishes.

The strength of the passions will never be accepted as an excuse for complyingwith them; the passions were designed for subjection, and if a man suffers themto get the upper hand, he then betrays the liberty of his own soul.

Diacope: [di AK oh pee] repetition of a word or phrase after an intervening word.

For emphasis We will do it, I tell you, we will do it We give thanks to Thee, 0 God, we give thanks Someone ate the baby,

It's rather sad to say.Someone ate the babySo she won't be out to play.We'll never hear her whiny cryOr have to feel if she is dry.

We'll never hear her asking, 'Why?'Someone ate the baby

Dirimens Copulatio: [DIH-ri-mens koh-poo-LAh-tee-o]mentioning a balancing or opposing factto prevent the argument from being one-sided or unqualified.

Prevents arguments for being unqualified; creates ethos This car is extremely sturdy and durable. It's low maintenance; things never go

wrong with it. Of course, if you abuse it, it will break.


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But we preach Christ crucified, to Jews a stumbling block, and to Gentilesfoolishness, but to those who are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ the

power of God and the wisdom of God. "Not only am I not learning, I'm forgetting stuff I used to know."

Distinctio: [dis-TINK-tee-o] an explicit reference to a particular meaning or various meanings of the word, in order to prevent/remove ambiguity.

To prevent ambiguity The precipitate should be moved from the filter paper to the crucible quickly--

that is within 3 minutes. To make methanol for twenty-five cents a gallon is impossible; by "impossible" I

mean currently beyond our technological capabilities. The modern automobile (and here I refer to the post-1975, desmogged

American car) is more a product of bolt-on solutions than of revolutionaryengineering.

**Enthymeme: [en-thuh-meem] an informally stated syllogism which omits either one of the premises or the conclusion. The omitted part must be clearly understood by the reader.

Everyday logical shorthand, instrument to used to understate yet clearly point out anassertion, omitted part is often the conclusion impressing your conclusion on the reader

by having them make the connection himself He is an American citizen, so he is entitled to due process

All Americans are entitled due process Since your application was submitted before April 10th, it will be considered

All applications submitted before April 10th will be considered

Socrates is mortal because hes human ***Enumeratio: [e-nu-me-RA-ti-o] detailing parts, causes, effects, or consequences to make a

point. To more forcefully make a point

I love her eyes, her hair, her nose, her cheeks, etc. When the new highway opened, more than just the motels and restaurants

prospered. The stores noted a substantial increase in sales, more people beganmoving to town, a new dairy farm was started, the old Main Street Theater doubled its showings and put up a new building

I remember the neckcurls, limp and damp as tendrils;And her quick look, a sidelong pickerel smile;And how, once startled into talk, the light syllables leaped for her,And she balanced in the delight of her thought

Epanalepsis: [ep-uh-nuh-lep-sis] repeats the beginning word of a clause or sentence at its end. Calls special attention to the repeated word because the beginning and end of a

sentence are the two places of biggest emphasis


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Water alone dug this giant canyon; yes just plain water To report that your committee is still investigating the matter is to tell me that

you have nothing to report Our eyes saw it, but we could not believe our eyes

Epistrophe: [ih-pis-truh-fee] repeats last word from a previous sentence at the end of the nextsentence.

To heavily stress a word Where affections bear rule, there reason is subdued, honesty is subdued, good

will is subdued, and all things else that withstand evil, for ever are subdued. And all the night he did nothing but weep Philoclea, sigh Philoclea, and cry out

Philoclea. You will find washing beakers helpful in passing this course, using the gas

chromatograph desirable for passing this course, and studying hours on endessential to passing this course.

Eponym: [ep-uh-nim] substitutes a particular attribute with a famous person recognized for thatattribute.

He is a regular Einstein. That little Caesar is fooling nobody. He knows he is no Patrick Henry. Those of us who cannot become a Ulysses and see the world must trust our

knowledge to picture books and descriptions. Epithet: [ep-uh-thet] an adjective as adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun)

by naming a key, important characteristic about it. Laughing happiness

Untroubled sleep Lazy road Tired landscape

Epizeuxis: [ep-uh-ZOOX-sis] repetition of one word. For emphasis

What do you see? Wires, wires, everywhere wires **Exemplum: [ig-zem-pluhm] citing an example or using an illustrative story which could or

could not be true. **Expletive: [ek-spli-tiv] a word of phrase that interrupts normal speech in order to lend

emphasis to the words immediately next to it. "... we shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe,

this Island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving .." Hyperbaton: [hahy-pur-buh-ton] includes several rhetorical devices involving departure from

normal word order; the separation of words usually belonging together. Delayed epithet- adj. follows noun-- She had a personality indescribable. Divided epithet- 2 adj. separated by noun they modify-- It was a long


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operation, but successful. **Hyperbole: [hahy-pur-buh-lee] exaggeration. **Hypophora: [hi-PAH-for-uh] Consists of raising one or more questions and then proceeding

to answer them, usually at length, often ? at beginning of paragraph then the paragraphanswers said question.

Hypotaxis: [hahy-puh-tak-sis] using subordination to show the relationship between phrases/clauses

They asked the question because they were curious. **Litotes: [lahy-tuh-teez] a particular form of understatement, denying the contrary of the word

which would usually be used. Heat waves are not rare in the summer.

**Metabasis: [me-ta'-ba-sis] A brief statement of what has been said and what will follow. Transitions, keeps ordered and clear, helps reader understand, organize, and remember

parts of the writing Such then, would be my diagnosis of the present condition of art. Now I will

say what I think will come of art in the future. You have heard how the proposed plan will fail; now consider how an

alternative might succeed. The matters you have heard were wonderful, and those that you shall hear are

no less marvelous. Metanoia: [met-uh-noi-uh] qualifies a statement by recalling it and expressing it in a better,

milder, or stronger way. Coax reader into expanding their belief/comprehension by moving from modest to bold

Fido was the friendliest of all St. Bernards, nay of all dogs This is the worst--no, the absolute worst--excuse I have heard. And if I am still far from the goal, the fault is my own for not paying heed to the

reminders--nay, the virtual directions--which I have had from above. ***Metonymy: [mi-ton-uh-mee] a form of metaphor in which the thing chosen for the

metaphorical image is closely associated (but not actually part of) the subject. The orders come directly from the White House The pen is mightier than the sword Im told hes gone so far as to give her a diamond ring

***Metaphor: [met-uh-fawr] compares two things without using like or as. Life is a beach. Time is a thief. He was the apple of her eye.

Onomatopoeia: [on-uh-mat-uh-pee-uh] the use of words whose pronunciation imitates thesound the word describes.

Produces lively writing


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BAM! Spalsh! Sizzle.

**Oxymoron: [ok-si-mawr-on] a paradox reduced to two words. Helpful when your position is different than anothers which you are discussing,

produces an ironic contrast which shows that something has been misunderstood or mislabeled

Modest magnificence Alone together Jumbo shrimp Random order

***Parallelism: [par-uh-le-liz-uh-m] recurrent syntactical similarity; several parts of asentence(s) expressed similarly.

Shows ideas are equal in importance, adds rhythm, and clarity Ferocious dragons breathing fire and wicked witches casting their spells do

more harm by night in the forest of darkness. He was a prolific author, writing poems, short stories, novels, and screenplays. To think accurately and to write precisely are interrelated goals.

**Parataxis: [par-uh-tak-sis] writing successive independent clauses without coordinatingconjunctions.

We walked to the top of the hill, and we sat down. I came; I saw; I conquered. The Starfish went into dry-dock, it got a barnacle treatment, it went back to

work. (Note: This example does not use conjunctions) Parenthesis: [puh-ren-thuh-sis] a form of hyperbaton, insert word/phrase/sentence in another;

one can use the parenthetical symbols, commas, or dashes John, a 7-year-old cat from Doncaster, hid in the engine area of his owner's car

for a 60-mile trip to the seaside. Every time I try to think of a good rhetorical example, I rack my brains

but--you guessed--nothing happens. But the new calculations--and here we see the value of relying upon up-to-date

information--showed that man-powered flight was possible with this design.

***Personification: [per-son-uh-fi-key-shuh-n] metaphorically represents an object or animal ashaving human characteristics.

For artistry, and clarification The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky. The ship began to creak and protest as it struggled against the rising sea. That coffee is strong enough to get up and walk away

Pleonasm: [plee-uh-naz-uh-m] using more words than necessary to describe idea.


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Normally vise, sometimes for emphasis We heard it with our ears They all sat around the burning campfire End result

**Polysyndeton: [pol-ee-sin-di-ton] use of conjunction between each word, phrase, or clause. Creates feelings of multiplicity, energy, and build-up

I read and studied and wrote and drilled. He ran and jumped and laughed for joy. The baby ate and cried and slept.

**Portmanteau: [pirt-man-to] a combination of two words and their definitions to create a newword.

Smog: smoke and fog Memorable: memorable and horrible Spork: spoon and fork Redonkulous: ridiculous and donkey Confuzzled: confused and puzzled

***Procatalepsis: [pro-cat-a-lep-sis] anticipating a question and answering it. It is not always the job of people inside impressive buildings to solve problems.

It is often the job of the people inside, who have paper,pens, desks, and animpressive view.

Answers: whose job is it? Sunday, I studied all day. I had finals this week.

Answers: why?

Yet this is the prime service a man would think, wherein this order should give proof of itself. If it were executed, you'll say. But certain, if execution be remissor blindfold now, and in this particular, what will it be hereafter and in other

books? Rhetorical Question: question of which the answer is obvious or obviously desired.

For effect, emphasis, provocation, and to draw a conclusion Who would want to do that?

The speakers intention is not that someone will answer or refute him, but that he will get a response of people agreeing with him

Is the pope Catholic? Do bears live in woods?

Scesis Onomaton: [ske-sis o-no-ma-ton] expressing something in a string of synonymousstatements.

For emphasis We succeeded, we were victorious, we accomplished the feat! A man faithful in friendship, prudent in counsels, virtuous in conversation, gentle


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in communication, learned in all liberal sciences, eloquent in utterance, comly ingesture, an enemy to naughtiness, and a lover of all virtue and godliness.

It is tough, difficult, not easy. Sentenia: [sen-ten-shee-uh] quoting a maxim or wise saying to apply a general truth to a

situation. As Pascal reminds us, It is not good to have all our want satisfied. A friend in need is a friend indeed. A bad peace is worse than war. Tacitus

Sentential adverb: [sen-ten-shuh-l] a single word or short phrase, interrupting normal syntax. Emphasizes words on either side of the word/phrase

But the lake was not, in fact, drained before April. Actually, his favorite color was not blue, but instead, orange.

I will, hopefully, feel better by Thursday.

***Simile: [sim-uh-lee] comparison using like or as. For artistry, to explain

The cats eyes were as big as saucers.

...snug as a bug in a rug.

... as busy as a bee.

Symploce: [sim-ploh-see] the word/phrase at the beginning of a phrase/clause/sentence is

repeated at the end of a successive phrase/clause/sentence.

"Most strange, but yet most truly, will I speak:/ That Angelo's forsworn; is it not

strange?/ That Angelo's a murderer; is't not strange?/ That Angelo is an

adulterous thief,/ An hypocrite, a virgin-violator;/ Is it not strange and strange?"

Against yourself you are calling him, against the laws you are calling him,

against the democratic constitution you are calling him"

"Spring clothes with leaves the trees; Spring leads back the birds of song to the

trees."

**Synecdoche: [si-nek-duh-kee] metaphor in which the part stands for the whole and vise

versa. If I had some wheels, Id put on my best threads and ask for Janes hand in

marriage. (Wheels = a car, threads = clothes)

"He shall think differently," the musketeer threatened, "when he feels the point of

my steel." (Steel = sword)

His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast


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ocean of anxious faces about her. (Faces = whole people)

**Understatement: [uhn-der-steyt-muh nt] deliberately stating an idea as less important than it

actually is.

An ironic emphasis; politeness and tact

The 1906 San Francisco earthquake interrupted business somewhat in the

downtown area.

After going two days without sleeping, I was a little tired.

Deserts are sometimes hot, dry, and sandy.

***Zeugma: [zoog-muh] involving grammatically correct language: 1 subject with 2 verbs or 1

verb with 2 direct objects or 2 subjects with 1 verb.

The dog chased the cat and the pigeon.

On his fishing trip, he caught eight fish and a cold. Fear makes us cautious, resentful and sometimes dangerous.

Grammar and Mechanics

Parts of Speech Nouns: People, places, things, and ideas.

Common Nouns: most basic kind: person, place, or thing. Car, bridge, metal

Abstract Nouns: Things you cannot observe with the 5 senses Hope, bravery, morality

Collective Nouns: To describe groups Team, band, army

Compound Nouns: Made up of more than one word Pickpocket, mother-in-law, water bottle

Concrete Nouns: Things that can be observed with the 5 senses Tree, wall, paper

Non-countable nouns: Things you cannot count, also called mass nouns Food, music, blood

Gender-specific nouns: Words that are definitely male or female Actress, lord, mistress

Verbal nouns: Nouns representing actions Running, guessing, playing

Proper Nouns: Capitalized noun representing a specific thing Africa, Uncle Tom, Beijing


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Pronouns: Words typically used to replace nouns, but also may serve other purposes. Demonstrative Pronouns: Used to demonstrate or indicate.

This, that, those Indefinite Pronouns: Used for non-specific things.

All, some, nobody, none Interrogative Pronouns: Used typically in questions.

Who, which, how Personal Pronouns: Replace nouns representing people, usually

We, they, he, who Relative Pronouns: Used to relate one piece of information to another.

Dr. Adam Sissons, who lectured at Cambridge for more than 12 years The man who first saw the comet

Possessive Pronouns: Used to show possession, used as adjectives. My, your, their, his

Absolute Possessive Pronouns: Used to show possession, sit by themselves Those are ours. Will we take yours or theirs?

Reciprocal Pronouns: Used for actions or feelings that are reciprocated. Each other, one another

Reflexive Pronouns: Ends in -self or -selves, refers to noun or pronoun earlier insentence, typically the subject.

Myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Intensive (Emphatic) Pronouns: Refers back to previous noun or pronoun to emphasize

it. The cat opened the door itself.

Adjectives: Used to describe nouns or pronouns.Overused adjectives: I once had a substitute teacher that did not permit our class to use thewords "nice, pretty, good, or bad." This is what you should do in your writing. The

following advice is becoming somewhat trite, but please use imagery, metaphor, or simplya better adjective if you find yourself using such words in your piece. Not all words arecreated equal, and some have been used to often that they have become colorless.

Bad Examples: amazing, bad, evil, nice, good, great, big, huge, giant, ginormous, boring,

normal, typical, cool, awesome, neat, wonderful, little, tiny, perfect, extraordinary, special, sad, depressed, down, silly, funny, hilarious, ugly, beautiful, average.

Personal Titles: Descriptions of position attached to names. Mrs., Lord, Dr.

Possessive Adjectives: Show possession. My, your, his, our

Articles: Defines whether object is specific or nonspecific.


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A, the, an Demonstrative Adjectives: Indicates specific things.

This, that, these, those Indefinite Adjectives: Do not point out specific things.

No, any, many, several Numbers: Denote quantity.

Four, Nine, One-hundred Verbs: Describes action, occurrence, or state of being.

Overused Verbs: Again, some words are so overused that they are better left alone. Verbslike "am," "is," and "was" may seem like vital parts of your writing, however every time

you use one of these common verbs, you are ignoring an opportunity to put more detail into your writing which, if executed correctly, could have made your piece more entertaining toread or your scene more readily envisioned.

Poor Examples: I am at the store, I do the things, I get stuff at the store, I go to the store, I have a store, I like shopping, I love pirates

Better Examples: I wake up in the thrift store with no idea how I got there. I partake invarious activities that shall remain unnamed. My mother instructed me to pick up some livelobsters while at the store. I never walk to the grocery store: I skip (that way the milk hasbeen churned to butter by the time I get home). My father's life's work, the local corner

store, had been passed on to me ten years ago, after my father's mysterious murder. I habitually sob tears of joy while entering Claire's. I delight in illegally commandeering boats, music, and the occasional 747. (The views expressed in this guide are those of

fictional characters and are not the views of the writer, nor are they recommended.

Especially sobbing in Claire's.) Auxiliary Verbs: Determines mood or tense of different verb in a phrase.

Will, be, have, do. Lexical Verbs: Any verb that is not an auxiliary, conveys actual action.

Rained, jump, pilfer Dynamic Verbs: Indicates action.

Bought, stole, gave Stative Verbs: Describe situation, condition.

Own, have, like, seem, be

Finite Verbs: Expresses tense, occurs on its own in a main clause. Walked, baked, completed

Nonfinite Verbs (Infinitive): Does not show distinction in tense, occurs on its ownindependent phrases.

Walking, biking, eating Regular Verbs: Forms past tense by adding -d or -ed.

Finished, created


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Irregular Verbs: Forms past tense in irregular way. Ate, built, sold

Transitive Verbs: Followed by direct object. Sells, eats, makes

Intransitive Verbs: No direct object. Sat, walked

Adverbs: Modifies a verb. Adverb of time: Tells when something is done.

Yesterday, last week, already. Adverb of place: Denotes location of action.

Here, there, upstairs, below Adverb of manner: How something is done, typically end in -ly but now always.

Badly, fast, well, sadly Adverb of degree: Describes extent of action.

Almost, very, too, much Adverb of frequency: Describes how often something occurs.

Ever, frequently, seldom, twice, usually Prepositions: Placed before nouns to describe relation.

Preposition for time: Used to describe time of event In, on, at

Preposition for place: Used to describe location In, on, at

Preposition for direction: Describes direction

Toward, to, into Preposition for agent: Shows who/what is cause of the action

By, with Conjunctions: Connect phrases and clauses, showing relationship.

Coordinating Conjunction: When elements have equal relationship. For, and, but, yet

Correlative Conjunctions: Used in pairs to connect equal elements. Either...or, not only...but also, neither...nor

Subordinating Conjunction: Show relationship of subordinate clause to rest of sentence.

After, unless, because, though Conjunctive Adverbs: Show relationship between two independent clauses.

Consequently, nonetheless, similarly, therefore Interjections: Brief phrases that are not grammatically linked to a sentence. Used to show

emotion. Typically used with exclamation points.

Punctuation


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A note on punctuation- Please refrain from using punctuation to make a point. Dictionand syntax can easily be manipulated to indicate sorrow, excitement, surprise, and anything else you might desire. Exclamation points should be used very sparingly, as theyare so often incorrectly used. Feeble attempts at interrobang should also be avoided (!?).

If a character trails off or is interrupted in the middle of their dialogue (aposiopesis), usea -- instead of an ellipses. Bad Examples: !, !!, ?, , '', ?!, !!!11!!1!11!!one!!!, emoticons,

Periods: Used to end a sentence. Single space after. .

Question Marks: Placed at the end of direct questions. Should not be used with other markssuch as exclamation points. Can also be used at the end of tag questions, such as adding is it?to the end of a statement.

? Exclamation Marks: Used at the end of declarations, interjections, or commands. Also to close

questions conveying extreme emotion, such as What on earth are you doing! !

Colons: Used before a list or explanation preceded by an independent clause. :

Semicolons: Used to separate closely related independent clauses, relating their ideas to oneanother.

; Hyphens: Creates compound words (well-known, out-of-date), writing out numbers in word

form, adding certain prefixes to words. -

Dashes: Used to set off parenthetical statements, also to emphasize those statements.

Parentheses: Used in order to include unimportant information that would not fit into thesentence grammatically (at least, not well). Tends to de-emphasize the information.

( ) Brackets: Used to include explanatory words or phrases within a quote and to make edits to a

quote so that it fits into a sentence. Also used for [sic] to show that inappropriately used/spelledwords in a quote are from the original piece and not a blunder of the author.

[ ]

Ellipses: Used to omit words from a quotation to save space. Also can indicate a pause in theflow of a sentence.

Apostrophes: Used to form contractions and some possessive forms.

Quotation Marks: Identifies some material as being quoted or spoken. Also identifies titles of

some works. Single quotation marks only used when material is quoted within another quote.


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Slashes: Used to indicate a choice between two or more words. A slash is translated into the

word or. /

Commas: Separates the elements in a series. Used with a conjunction to connect twoindependent clauses. Sets off introductory elements (Running toward third base, he suddenlyrealized how stupid he looked). Sets off parenthetical elements. Sets apart adjectivesdescribing the same subject. Sometimes used to set off quoted elements. Can isolate phrasesthat express contrast (Cold like ice, not fire). DONT OVERUSE COMMAS!

,

Sentences

Sentence Structure

Simple: Has one independent clause, no dependent clauses, and an unlimited amount of phrases. The boy ate. The boy ate the perfectly toasted piece of toast that had a smattering of butter and

marmalade. Compound:

Has two or more independent clauses, no dependent clauses, and an unlimited amountof phrases.

The boy ate pizza, and it was tasty.

The boy ate his marmalade slathered toast; he ate it in four minutes. Complex:

Has one independent clause, one or more dependent clauses, and an unlimited amountof phrases.

Since the toast was covered in marmalade, the boy loved to eat it. Compound-Complex:

Has two or more independent clauses, one or more dependent clauses, and an unlimitedamount of phrases.

The boy ate the marmalade covered toast, and it took him four minutes because he washungry.

Clauses and Phrases: Clauses:

Have a verb, a subject noun doing said verb, and generally a predicate as well. Can be dependent or Independent.

Independent- Is a full thought, and fully formed sentence, can stand onits own.


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Hes doing the thing. Dependent- has a subject and verb, but requires another clause to stand

on its own. Usually has a subordinate conjunction. Since he did the thing.

Phrases: Can have nouns and verbs, but no subject. IE: None of the nouns may be doing the

verb. hopping the fence. slathered in marmalade.

Functions of a Sentence Imperative

Mandating something.

Do the dishes. Feed me.

Exclamatory A sentence expressing strong emotions.

I just want the dishes done! I need food!

Interrogative Asking a question

Why arent you doing the dishes?

Please feed me? Declarative

Making a statement. Im doing the dishes. I will feed myself.

Subject/predicate/direct objects/etc

Actions of Effective Writers

Primary Writing Styles:

Expository: presents both sides of an argument and allows for the reader to make up their ownmind about the topic.

Examples: news reports, letters, biographies. Persuasive: attempts to convince the reader that the authors viewpoints are correct.

Examples: letters to the editor, political speeches. Imaginative: entertains, amuses, or provokes the reader. Will often times be used to make the


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reader look at the issue discussed in a new light. Examples: Short stories, diaries, journals, film, theatre, radio, monologues.

Abstain from connecting phrases:Connecting phrases may be helpful when you were learning to write (perhaps they were even

recommended by your teachers), however your focus should now be shifting from the continuity of your language to the continuity of your argument. Relying on such constructs to create logical progression inyour writing belies the presence of a poorly developed argument. In order to properly convincesomeone of your argument, your writing should be inherently persuasive. By constantly alerting your reader to the fact that you are "providing supporting detail" or "qualifying an argument," you make your argument easier to ignore. If you need more proof, please enjoy this comic:

Examples: however, although, due to the fact that, on the other hand, although, because of this

Poor Dialogue:When you write dialogue in a piece, your goal should not be to accurately represent the speech

of a real person, as contradictory as it sounds. Instead, you should be trying to convey meaning.Personality should be invoked through diction, syntax, and the verbs you choose to denote speech,rather than the blather encountered in regular conversation. You should cut all that out. This makes your dialogue twenty times less boring and much clearer in meaning.

Bad Examples: oh, um, err, eh, like, you know?, right?, okay? you see, or something, well,whatever, stuff, and such.

Refraining from Varagies:When you make an argument, make sure you strongly convey your ideas. Not to the extent that

you ignore the opposition, however please don't water down your argument with "sort of's" and "alittle's". If you are arguing something that is uncertain, present your views strongly and quickly qualify


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them, rather than turning your speech into a limp noodle. Bad Examples: kind of, sort of, a bit, absolutely, actually, completely, especially, just, a little,

mostly, practically, pretty much, quite, really, slightly, so, totally, very, stuff, things.

Be Careful with Colloquialisms:Colloquialisms are lovely, however do not often have a place in written argument. The use of

colloquialisms can define your piece as unprofessional and unoriginal, damaging your point, and canoccasionally cause grammar errors as well. Take extra care when examining your piece for colloquialisms, because many such words and phrases are so ingrained in your vocabulary that they can

be difficult to identify on sight. Bad Examples: text speak/acronyms, "freaking out," totally, literally, junk, crap, funnest.

Vary Sentence Structure: Nothing makes for a boring paper like an over abundance of short or long sentences. Short

sentences can have power, but this power dies when they are used repeatedly. Long sentences canexpress complicated ideas, sophistication, or a variety of other tones, however without any shorter sentences, such a piece would be impossible for the audience to stomach.

Bad Example: When I was a little girl, I had an imaginary friend. And when I grew up, he came back. Hes called the Doctor. He comes from somewhere else. Hes got a box called the tradesthats bigger on the inside and can travel anywhere in time and space. I ran away with him, andweve been running ever since. (This makes me cry tears of pain. Every time.)

Repetition:Avoid repetition in your writing, both in argument and vocabulary. Of course there exist

rhetorical reasons for repletion (e.g. parallelism, epizeuxis, and cataphora), however repetition shouldonly be penned through a conscious choice. If you needlessly repeat your argument, you risk alienatingyour reader by underestimating their intelligence or boring them past death. A piece that repeats a wordtoo many times makes it seem like the author has no vocabulary, regardless of the complexity of theword that is being repeated.

George Orwells Rules Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you are used to seeing in print -

To a novice writer, it might sound like the best way to get better at writing is to imitate thewriters around you. However your argument will, and should, always be unique from theargument of someone else, which necessitates the creation of new metaphors and new figures of speech in order to draw your reader in and make them think about your points in a unique way.Using the metaphors of someone else only makes your writing tired and unoriginal, not matter how novel your thoughts.

Never use a long word when a short one will do - Long words do not have any inherentadvantages over short words, and relying on them will not make your writing any better.


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Honest. If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out - Wordiness has been spoken of before, but

to reiterate, a sentence can be just as powerful as a paragraph, if you use your words correctly.Cutting out words makes your writing easier for readers to absorb and forces you to have areason for every word in your piece.

Never use the passive where you can use the active - There are uses for the the passive tense,however it is amazing how much more seems to happen in a piece if passive tense is avoided.Active tense is much better at engaging the audience in your argument, and should be usedwhenever possible.

Never use a foreign phrase, scientific word, or jargon word if you can think of an everydayEnglish equivalent - When it comes to foreign words, there is a fine line between creating ascene or showing your intelligence and alienating your audience. The average reader willencounter difficulty if you use too many words they are unfamiliar with. Generally, if you can saythe same idea in English, please do so.

Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barbarous - There are cases wherethese rules will not work. Although you are still a developing writer, I trust your common sense,so dont adhere to these rules simply because of your novice status.

Questions While Writing from Decker the Wrecker What am I trying to say? - Everyone has read an argument like this. The logic began solidly,

however at some point the author used too many words, skipped too far ahead logically, or forgot the middle of their argument, turning the rest of the piece into something only vaguelycomprehensible. Always have an explicit goal for what you are writing. If your thoughts are not

organized, your writing will not be either, rendering it ineffective. What words will express it? - You should keep word choice in mind at all times while you are

writing. Don't just run to the thesaurus when you run out of synonyms for "red," but try tomanipulate words so that their connotations work for you. Every word should build on another.

Not one word of your piece exists in a vacuum. What image or idiom will make it clearer? - You needn't always include an elaborate metaphor

in every paper, however stay constantly on the lookout for connections between your thoughtsand those of others. Metaphor, analogy, or imagery can be used more subtly for a richer piece.

Is this image fresh enough to have an effect? - Not all imagery is created equal. Although youare on the right track for thinking of an analogy or image, before putting it to use in your paper you must carefully reflect on the utility of your choice. The true power in imagery is itsencouragement of deeper thought about your argument, an effect that can be severely damaged

by the use of cliches or frequently used images. Could I put this more shortly? - Unless you have an important reason for using an excessive

amount of words (i.e. Infinite Jest), wordiness will not improve your argument. Wordiness issharply distinct from a high vocabulary. Many words poor are no substitute for one perfect one


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and this misconception will slowly kill your paper. Your appeals should effortlessly and subtlyflow off the paper and into the minds of your audience. This will not occur if they have to readthrough and remember 5 compound-complex sentences before your argument moves amicrometer.

Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly? - This should be obvious, but please do not writeanything you are strongly opposed to in order to satisfy these credentials. Ever rule has itsexceptions, and the best writers break things occasionally.

No

Phrases That are Not Phrases:Anyways - "Anyway" exists, but not "anyways". This word is quite informal and vague, so you

probably shouldn't be using it anyway. Oh, wait. Nevermind. could care less - If you take the time tothink about this logically, this phrase makes no sense whatsoever. Replace this with "couldn't care less"

try and - The correct phrase is "try to."

Commonly Misused Words Affect vs. effect - Affect means to influence and is most often used as a verb. Effect is a

result and is most often used as a noun. When affect is used as a noun, it will mean adisplayed mood and is used almost solely in psychology. Effect, when used as a verb, meansto bring about a result.

Examples: The natural disaster affected me in ways I could never have imagined. Theeffects were truly disastrous. I used my turbulent feelings to effect a change in thecommunity, volunteering in disaster relief efforts.

Then vs. than - "Then" is used to show chronological order, and "than" is used to compare twoobjects or circumstances.

Examples: I would rather kiss a frog than a shark. I went to the swamp, and then to theocean, where I kissed both.

There vs. they're vs. their - "There" is a noun that denotes a place. "They're" is a contraction for "they are," and "their" is a plural possessive pronoun.

Examples: Their grammar makes me cry. Your pencil is over there. They're much tootall to fit through that door frame.

To vs. too - to is a preposition, and shows the physical relationship between two things, while

too is an adverb that denotes something as excessive or can be replaced with as well. Examples: That is quite too much tea, good sir. I should have to venture to the

bathroom to dispose of so much excess tea. Its vs. it's - "its" shows possession, and "it's" is a contraction that expand to mean "it is". A good

rule of thumb: if you can replace "its" with two words ("it is") you are using it incorrectly. Examples: It's raining in my basement. I don't like the new iPhone because its parallax


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effects make me sick. Quite - This word means "to the utmost or most extreme degree." If you are using this word to

mean "somewhat," you are doing something terribly wrong. Examples: This tea is quite lovely.

Literally - This word means "free from exaggeration, exactly." "Literally" is commonly used in popular culture to denote something clearly exaggerated, however this is not the way it should be used in your writing. Only use this word if you have legitimate cause to do so based on itsdefinition. Otherwise your writing would be much more poignant if you used a proper metaphor or hyperbole instead of settling for the shallow way popular culture defines something asincredible.

Bad Examples: Getting electrocuted is literally the funnest thing I have ever done! Better Examples: I thought he had some common sense, but he quite literally searched

for bovines when I told him he could "wait until the cows came home." Beyond belief/unbelievable - These phrases literally mean "unable to be believed." Similar to

"literally," do not use these phrases if your true intent was to create a hyperbolic statement. Your writing would be much stronger with a metaphor, hyperbole, or well-placed expletive

Of, off, in, an - Beware those typographical errors!

Misused Expletives:A well-placed expletive can do wonders for your work, so don't ruin its effect by saturating every pagewith them. Especially when it comes to humor, the use of expletives simply for the sake of swearing candetract from the meaning and power of your work. Excessive swearing occasionally has a place indialogue to represent the diction of a certain culture, however in most cases, a high density of expletives

only reveals your immaturity. Examples: Please create your own. This is a school publication .

Misused rhetorical device:If you ever find yourself incorporating a rhetorical device into your writing just because you can,

please see a mental health professional right away. Although rhetorical devices can lend great power toyour words, they are merely names for methods used by effective writers and do not create a good

piece simply through their inclusion. Some devices are easier to misuse than others, which will beexplored below.

Hypophora and rhetorical questions - Asking questions of your reader can make quite an

effective argument, however it is important for your argument to be able to progress on its own,without feedback from the audience. Before posing questions to your readers, make sure thatyou know how they will respond.

Scesis onomaton - This is reiterated down below when speaking of repetition, however redundancy in writing is more often a vice than a strength. Such repetition of ideas should beused sparingly, and you should think carefully about whether the point you are trying to make


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truly is important enough to emphasize it so many times. Apophasis - Although apophasis sounds attractive: a god-given warrant to pass over your

opposition's points, this device can easily be used illegitimately, as in not for rhetorical effect butsimply due to lazy thinking on the part of the writer. Before using this device, please ensure thatthe validity of your argument will not suffer for its inclusion.

Hyperbole - As is the nature of exaggeration, this device should be used sparingly. The overuseof hyperbole can result in a tired piece that bores rather than stimulates the audience.Exaggerate only that which is truly important, not anything that befits exaggeration.

Eponym - If you do not exercise care, eponyms shall quickly become cliche and disgusting. Bytheir nature, it is difficult to devise a useful eponym, because the person or situationsimultaneously needs to be well known without being frequently used. These should be usedwith care. (Refrain from calling someone an Einstein in your writing. Please.)

Epithet - MLKJ used some wonderful epithets in our summer reading, if youd like to check some out. However if you are planning to use one, make sure that the two words you are

juxtaposing differ enough to provoke reader interest in your argument. Pleonasm - This rhetorical device is most often used accidentally in juvenile writing, when it is

used. As Orwell cautions, it is best to use as few words as possible to express an idea. Unlessyou have meditated thoroughly on the repercussions of being so redundant, please eliminate thisin your writing when you see it.

Form, Audience, Purpose (Henceforth Known as FAP) Form: type of document

Ex. diary, news article, narrative

Audience: readers of the document Explicit Audience: obvious intended audience Implicit Audience: not expressed audience

Ex. members of government, members of the United States, members of society Purpose: reason for document

Explicit Purpose: obvious purpose Implicit Purpose: not expressed purpose

Ex. to tell a story, to inform about a topic, to persuade action

Argument

Argument Types Inform- tell members something that they didnt already know.

Ex. R & Ls House of Ribs: www.R&L.com Convince- to convince instead of win out over others, often used to earn attention.

Ex. There is no magic point at which a genuine college-level education become, but


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anything below an IQ of 110 is problematic. If you want to do well, you should have anIQ of 115 or higher. Put another way, it makes sense for only about 15% of the

population, 25% if one stretches it, to get a college. -Charles Murray Persuade- used to provoke action from analysis.

Ex. By focusing on fat Americans the critics of consumption are saying implicitly at least,that people should consume less. They are arguing for a world in which Americans

become more like those who live in the poorer countries of the world. Yetimplementing such a viewpoint is a super-sized mistake. Our aspiration for the worldshould be to give the poor advantages of affluence enjoyed by those in the West. Livingstandards in countries such as Ethiopia and Niger should be, at the very least, as high asthose in America today. In that sense we should all aim to be fat Americans. -DanielBen-Ami

Explore- puzzling over a status quo or trend, addressing serious societal problems. Make Decisions- allied with explore; used to make good, sound decisions.

Ex. The move to close The News of the World was seen by media analysts as a potentially shrewd decision: jettisoning a troubled newspaper in order to preserve themore lucrative broadcasting deal and possibly expand the companys other Britishtabloid, The Sun, to publish seven days a week. -Rupert Murdoch

Meditate/ Pray- used to transform, usually to make peace of mind or equilibrium through atheme.

Ex. Feel how it feels to hold a man in your arms whose arms are used to holding men.Offer God anything to bring your brother back. Know you have nothing God could

possibly want. Curse God, but do not abandon Him. -Mitchell Lassell

Academic- held to the standards of a professional field, usually formal. Rogerian- approach audiences non-threateningly to establish common ground/ trust.

Argument Occasions Past- forensic arguments, used to debate actual events or enhance knowledge.

Ex. Robert Bryces article on the U.S. militarys gas consumption in Iraq (Gas Pains,May Atlantic) is factually inaccurate, tactically misguided, and a classic case of a redherring. -Captain David J. Morris

Present- epidemic/ ceremonial arguments, used to reinforce or debate cultural values, and are

often heard during public occasions. Ex. Ours was the first revolution in the history of mankind that truly reversed the course

of government, and with three little words: We the people. We the people tell thegovernment what to do, it doesnt tell us. We the people are the driver, thegovernment is the car. And we decide where it should go, and by what route, and howfast. -Ronald Reagan

Future- deliberative arguments, used to establish policies/ debate about what will or should


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happen in the future, no guarantees. Ex. As portable screens became more powerful, lighter, and larger, they will be used to

view more.Hold an electronic tablet up as you walk along the street, and it will showan annotated overlay of the real street ahead -- where the clean restrooms are, whichstores sell your favorite items, where your friends are hanging out. Computer chips areso small, and screens so thin and cheap, that in the next 40 years semi-transparenteyeglasses will apply an informational layer to reality.In this way screens will enableus to read everything, not just text. Last year alone, five quintillion transistors wereembedded into objects other than computers. Very soon most manufactured items,from shoes to cans of soup, will contain a small sliver of dim intelligence, and screenswill be the tool we use to interact with this transistorized information. -Kevin Kelly

Argument Miscellaneous Persuasion leads to actions while an argument leads to convictions. Stasis Theory- categorizes arguments in sequence of aspects, but variance in perspectives can

cause a change in answers: Did something happen? What is the nature of the event? Quality and cause? Are there actions that should be taken?

Appeals Logos: (Logical) means persuading by the use of reasoning and data.

-Note: Data can be statistics and facts. ex. There have been more unsolved bombings of Negro homes and churches in

Birmingham than in any other city. -Letter from Birmingham Jail ex."Its a matter of common sense that people deserve to be treated equally.

The Constitution calls it self-evident. Why, then, should I have been denied aseat because of my disability?"

ex. "In 25 years of driving the same route, I havent seen a single deer." ex. "Research compiled by analysts from NASA, as well as organizations from

five other nations with space programs, suggests that a moon colony is viablewith international support."

Ethos: (Credibility), or ethical appeal, means convincing by the character of the author,appealing to morals.

ex. I say this as a minister of the gospel, who loves the church; who wasnurtured in its bosom; who has been sustained by its spiritual blessings and whowill remain true to it. - Letter from Birmingham Jail

Pathos: (Emotional) means of persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. We all make


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decisions--even important ones-- based on our feelings. Manipulate this and create a reaction.Usually more effective when persuading than when youre arguing. Some ways you can uselogos are to tell a passionate story or use metaphors.

ex. Explain to your six-year-old daughter why she cant go to the publicamusement park that has just been advertised on television, and see tearswelling up in her eyes when she is told that Funtown is closed to coloredchildren. - Letter from Birmingham Jail

ex. "Im not just invested in this community I love every building, every business, every hard-working member of this town."

ex. "Where would we be without this tradition? Ever since our forefatherslanded at Plymouth Rock, weve celebrated Thanksgiving without fail, makingmore than cherished recipes. Weve made memories."

Rhetorical Modes A rhetorical mode is a strategy--a way or method of presenting a subjectthrough writing or speech. Some of the better known rhetorical modes are, for example, "argument" and "cause and effect." strategies or methods for presenting subjects; however, the modes areamong the most basic.

Narration: Narration" or a "narrative" provides details of what happened. It is almost like a listof events in the order that they happened, except that it is written in paragraph form. Anarrative doesn't have to show any cause and effect; it only needs to show what happened in theorder that it happened.

ex. Once upon a time, a long time ago, in a land far, far away.....

Description: "Description" means "illustrative detail." A description paper often takes a personor object and then describes that person or thing in great illustrative detail. To help the readersunderstand your subject through evidence of their senses.

ex. The he tree's vivid yellow flowers and bright green foliage make it anexceptionally striking sight.

Example: "Exemplification" means "the giving of an example." An exemplification paper usuallystarts with a main idea, belief, or opinion--something abstract--and then gives one extendedexample or a series of shorter examples to illustrate that main idea. In fact, an exemplification

paper is a paper that illustrates an abstract idea. Should always be very specific, never general. ex. Despite public outrage, on July 19th, 2006, President Bush vetoed Stem

Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 (H.R. 810), which was a bill proposing to amend the Public Health Service Act to provide for humanembryonic stem cell research.

Comparison/Contrast: "Comparison/contrast" means to show how subjects are alike and/or different. A simple comparison/contrast paper often has two subjects and describes how theyare alike and then how they differ. For example, a comparison/contrast paper on two forms of


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weekend entertainment, camping and dancing. ex. Camping with the family is a much better way to bond than dancing.

Process Analysis A method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something.

Process analysis writing can take one of two forms: (1) it can provide information abouthow something works (informative) or (2) it can explain how to do something(directive).

ex. How to brush your teeth: 1. Put toothpaste on the toothbrush 2. Rinse toothbrush with water. ect.

Classification/ Division: "Classification" means that a subject--a person, place, event, or object--is identified and broken into parts and subparts. A classification paragraph begins amain idea and discusses the subcategories of that topic, comparing and contrasting them witheach other. It helps readers see order in your subject by understanding the kinds or groups itcan be sorted into.

ex. People looking to lose weight have a few options: exercise, diet, weight loss pills, and surgery. Exercising involves going to a gym, working out at home, or joining some sort of class or sports team. Those who are dieting can talk to adoctor about a plan for them. Weight loss pills can be taken, if proper

precautions and directions are followed. Individuals who are severelyoverweight can talk to a doctor about having surgery to lose the weight that theyneed.

Cause and Effect: "Cause and effect" simply means that you start with a subject (an event, person, or object) and then show the causes (reasons) for it, and the effects (results) of it."Cause" means the reasons why or for something, or the source of something. "Effects" simplyare results or outcomes. Cause-and-effect writing shows a chain of connected events, each thelogical result of the one before it. A simple cause-and-effect paper discusses the chain of eventsrelated to a person, event, or object, showing what are the causes and what are the results.

ex. It is raining, therefore the ground is wet. Definition: An extended definition simply defines a subject in a fuller or more extended--more

thorough--way than does a dictionary. Create distinctions from other subjects.

Argument/ Persuasion: To have readers consider your opinion about your subject or your proposal for it and then (typically do something about it. It is something debatable: "Men havewalked on the moon" is a fact, but "People will walk on Venus in the next ten years" is anopinion. Anything that reasonably can be debated is an argument. A simple argument paper usually presents a debatable opinion and then offers supports in favor of it, or sometimes anargument paper will discuss both sides of an issue and then give good reasons for choosing oneside over the other.


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ex. A vacation to Florida is an experience you will never forget, offering sun, funand beautiful beaches. Book your trip today.

AP Language and Composition Study Guide

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