Anthuriums Manual Fiji

Anthuriums

A manual for smallholder production in Fiji

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South Sea OrchidsFunded by CTA

Anthurium: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fri

Preface

We at South Sea Orchids (SSO) have a vision that Fiji can develop a world classfloriculture industry that makes a significant contribution to the livelihoods of our people.This can be achieved because we are blessed with a climate that enables us to grow awide range of tropical flowers and leaves; our favourable pest and disease statuscompared with other flower growing countries; a fast growing local market forfloriculture products; Fiji's strategic location with respect to overseas markets; and mostimportantly the skill and motivation of our women growers.

Anthuriums are a highly prized cut flower in Fiji. Their multiple colours and long vaselife mean they are highly sought after by the tourism industry and local people alike. Weneed to meet the demands of this market.

Our small project currently has 44 anthurium growers - ranging in size from 200 to 6,000flowering plants. SSO provides a market outlet and technical support services for thesegrowers. This manual will enable us to better serve our growers. It will be the coreresource material for our workshops and provide a ready reference for the grower's bookshelf It is hoped that our growers with greater knowledge and skill will increase theirincome by producing more quality flowers and better use of inputs.

Andrew McGregor coordinated the production of this manual, with assistance from DonBumess_ Our growers extend a hearty vinaka vakalevu to CTA for providing funding forthe manual.

Aileen BumessProject Manager

CoverClockwise: "Tropical" anthuriums on benches with overhead sprinklers at Tamavua Suva;anthuriums ready for collection by florists at St Andrew's wholesale market in Suva; a plan foranthurium ground beds

Anthurium: AManual forSmall Holder Production in Fiji

Table of Contents

PagePrefaceAnthuriums: The Plant

1The anthuriumflower

1Environmental conditions best for anthuriums

2Improved variety anthuriums

2Anthuriums in Fiji

3Dutch Anthuriums - the plant and its capability

6Getting started

7Anthuriums ready for planting

7Locating your shade house

7Shade house design

7Media and potting requirements

8Planting

10Beds

11Bags on benches

12How to plant your anthuriums

13Care and maintenance

13Fertilizer and fertilizing

13

Detecting nutrient disorders

15Watering requirements

16Pest and disease management

17Cultural control practices

18Chemical control measures

19

Diseases

19

Pests

21Harvesting and postharvest handling

24Markets and marketing

25Tourism

25Local market

25Marketing arrangements

26Growing anthuriums as a small business

27Start-up cost

26Production

27Prices

28Cash flow projections

28Financing and paying offyour loan

29Glossary of Terms 32References

34

iii

Anthurium: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

AnthurlLms

1.Anthuriums (anthurium andreanum) are renown for their wide range of colours

and types and their exceptional long vase life. A common pink "local" variety ofanthurium has long been grown in Fiji and is a regular feature in wreaths and flowerarrangements. However, this "local" variety does not provide a basis for significantcommercial development. Improved variety anthuriums do provide this opportunity.

The anthurium flower2.

The anthurium is a native of the wet forests of the Central American Andes,where it grows as an epiphyte (on trees and rocks). The name Anthurium is acombination of two Greek words: "Anthos"(bloom) and "Oura" (tail). Anthuriumliterally means tail flower.

3.

Anthuriums belong to the Araceae plant family, which includes numerous typesof plants. Some of the better known members of the Araceae family include:philodendron, Alocasia taro (dalo via), calla Lilly and dieffenbachia. Anthuriums, likemost members of the Araceae family, thrive in conditions of low light and high humidity.

4.

The anthurium "flower" Figure 1is not really a flower. It is acolourful modified leaf know asa spathe. The anthurium hashundreds of tiny real flowers,containing both female (pistils)and male (stamen) flower parts.These are located along thespadix, which is a pencil likeprotrusion rising from base of thespathe (figure 1). What iscommonly recognised as theanthurium flower combines boththe spathe and spadix. This isthe flower referred to in thismanual.

5. The anthurium is a

stemperennial evergreen plant thatproduces flowers throughout the year - although higher production occurs during thewarmer summer months. A mature anthurium (around 18 months) produces one flowerfor each leaf The sequence of leaf, flower, leaf continues throughout the life of the plantA healthy anthurium plant can expect last many years, without any noticeable reductionin yield.

1


Environmental conditions best for anthuriums

6. The conditions in which anthuriums will thrive must simulate those of therainforests of Central America, where the plant evolved. This is a shaded tropicalenvironment well protected from extreme weather conditions.

7. In their natural environment anthuriums grows epiphytically (on trees and onrocks). Anthurium roots are naturally in contact with the air. Thus when anthuriums arecultivated its important that they are planted in well aerated growing media. This allowsthe aerial roots to remain in contact with the air and not get too wet.

8. The temperature range for anthuriums is between 14C and 35C, with anoptimum day time temperature of about 22C. The upper limit of the acceptabletemperature range depends on humidity. Good flowering requires high humidity. In thehigh humidity conditions of the Suva area anthuriums would thrive at 35C. In the lowerhumidity conditions of Nadi your anthuriums will feel distinctly uncomfortable at thistemperature. Thus measures would be needed to either reduce the temperature orincrease the humidity.

9. Anthuriums need semi shade conditions. Too much light can cause the colours tofade. If there is little or no shade the leaf temperature will be well above the airtemperature causing the leaf to bum and plant growth to be slowed. In its naturalenvironment anthuriums grow under trees and bushes. When anthuriums are cultivatedshade is provided systematically by shade cloth.

Improved variety anthuriums

10. Improved variety anthuriums have been especially bred for colour, size,productivity and vase life. Up until the 1970s breeding for these characteristics involvedcrossing pollinating plants to obtain desirable characteristics and then taking cuttingsfrom selected plants. This mixed culture system was slow, resulted in a lot of variationin the plants, and could lead to the transfer of disease.

11. Cross-pollinating has now been replaced by tissue culture propagation. Tissueculture allows for the propagation of large number of plants from a selected parent. Eachone of these plants is identical (clones). New varieties are developed by cross breedingand by selecting and propagating the best plants from this offspring via tissue culture.The development of a new anthurium variety takes between eight to ten years (Anthura1998 p, 19).

Types of

12.

Anthurium flowers are characterised by a wide range of sizes andanthuriums

colours. The flowers can be classified into 3 broad types:

standards (usually single colour); obakes (a bi-colour of green and an other colour) ; and, tulip types (tulip shaped flower with a usually upright straight spadix).

2


A desirable shape for a standard anthurium flower is broad, symmetrical and heart shapedwith slightly touching or over lapping basal lobes. The spadix should be shorter than thelength of the spathe and gently reclined to facilitate packing for shipment . Obakeanthuriums tended to be larger and to have a somewhat longer vase life. A long stem is adesirable characteristic in all anthuriums.

13.

World wide, red anthuriums(particularly dark and bright red) tend to bemost populart . Fiji is no exception in thepopularity of red flowers

14,

Anthuriums have been developed for cutflowers and pot plants. The pot plant varietiestend to have numerous smaller flowers andleaves. Some pot plant varieties belong to aseparate anthurium species Anthuriumscherzeianum, which is more suited to coolerclimates Most of the commercial varietiesgrown in Fiji are for cut flowers --- althoughsome pot plant varieties are also good for cutflowers.

Anthuriums in Fiji15.

The first improved variety anthurium plants were imported from Australia and .planted at Colo-i-Suva about 30 years ago. In the warm wet conditions of Colo-i-Suvathey thrived. This original collection has now been dispersed throughout Fiji. Morerecently anthurium plants were imported from Florida by the Golden Cowrie at Navua.

16.

In 1997 SSO imported some 17,000 anthurium plants from Holland. These weredistributed to 33 small growers who were members of the SSO Project. A further 15,000Dutch anthurium plants were imported by SSO at Nasau near Nadi. Holland is regardedas the world leader in the production of anthurium plants. Anthuriums plants cannot beimported into Fiji from Hawaii because of the presence of Anthurium leaf blight(Xanthomonas campestris pv. dieffenbachiae)_

17.SSO has imported Dutch anthuriums under licence from Anthura B.V. Anthuraholds the patent for all these varieties. Under the licence agreement the cut flowervarieties cannot be sold. SSO has permission to sell Anthura pot plant varieties. Table1 shows the wide range of varieties that have been imported.

' In Holland, the world's largest anthurium producer, reds account for 40% of anthurium production,followed by pink 13% (Anthura p 12). Halloran et.al undertook a survey of 350 US florists and found redto be the most popular colour. Bright red was the preferred shade, with dark red also highly ranked.

3


type Size (cmdiameter)

yield potential(stems/m2lyear)

vase lifepotential(days)

standard 13-15

. 80 23

standard 13-15 55 29



Obake 15-17 55 26

Obake 14-19 55 41

Table 1: Some of the anthurium types grown by the South Sea Orchids Project.Name

Acropolis

Champagne

Fantasia

Laguna

Aphrodite

President

4

Anthurium: A Manualfor Small Holder Production in Fiji

Standard

Standard 12-15 80 23








Linda

Tropical

Arizona

Carr

Casino

+ti'-5

Passion

- '

Sonate

Spirit

Safari

5


Choco

Standard

Cognac

Standard

Midori

Standard

Pistache

Standard

Cheers

Standard

15-17 70 34

14-16 75 31

14-16 90 20

14-16 65 28

13-15 85 35

California

Pot plant

Calore

,+4

Standard

14-17

85

41

Dutch Anthuriums - the plant and its capability

18. The Dutch anthuriums have the potential to produce 10 flowers a year if optimumgrowing conditions are created. The yield and vase life rating for the varieties that havebeen imported into Fiji are shown in Table 1.

6

Anihurium: A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

19.In Holland these plants were produced under scrupulously hygienic conditions,with air conditioning, and computer controlled water and fertilizer application. Thusmajor plant loss can occur when they are planted out under Fiji's open conditions if thecorrect package of practices is not followed. Some growers experienced initial losses ashigh as 50%, until an appropriate package of practices was developed for Fiji conditions.SSO's growers have learnt by costly experience, with a number falling by the wayside.However, those who remain are now achieving satisfactory results. The best growers arerealizing around 70 to 80% of genetic potential of their plants. These plants are yielding7 to 8 good quality flowers per year.

Getting started

Anthuriunts ready for planting20.SSO imported small plantlets (approximately 10 cm). Under the conditions ofthe Fiji Quarantine's import permit, these plants were kept under quarantine surveillancefor 6 months at SSO's Nadi floriculture facility. During this time the plants were given ahead start and hardened up (acclimatised) before being distributed to the growers. Duringthis time the young plantlets were lightly fertilised with a complete fertilizer. Younganthurium plants can be easily damaged by over fertilisation. They are also highlysusceptible to diseases, thrips, rain damage, and snails.

21. At 6 months the plants were given their quarantine clearance and ready to startlife in the tender loving care of the out-growers growers. At this time the plants wereabout 25 to 30 cm tall.

Locating your shade house

22.Your shade house should be located in an open space, which provides for goodair circulation, but if possible protection from strong winds. There must be access togood quality water.

Shade house design

23.In all anthurium growing locations in Fiji 80% shade should be used. The shadeis provided by knitted black sarlon cloth.

24.

This manual considers a shade house for a micro (200 plants) and a smallenterprise (2,000 plants). The size of the two shade houses are 4m x 2m x 5m and 30m x15m x 5m respectively. For the village based micro enterprise it is assumed that at least 5micro shade houses will be built in the location. These individual micro enterpriseswould be expected to share the cost of purchasing a roll of sarlon cloth (385m x 1.5).

7


. Anthurium house for 2000 plants 26.

The grower hastwo planting options. The anthuriums can be planted in planter bags placed on benchesor they can be planted on the ground in especially constructed beds on the ground. Mostof the small outgrowers have opted for planting in pots on benches. The advantages anddisadvantages of the two systems are discussed in paragraph 38.

25.

The basic designof the anthurium houseis shown in thephotograph and plan. A"loose" constructiondesign is followed. Theheight of shade house isimportant in providinggood aeration - ideallythey should be 5m high.

27.

For pots the most cost effective benches are constructed from galvanised meshsheets. The standard sheet is 8ft x 4ft (2.4 mtrs x 1.2 mtrs), with a 2in x tin gap. Mediagauge mesh is sufficiently strong for relatively light anthurium bags. The mesh is placedon top of concrete building blocks,stacked two high (plate). Some growershave built wooden benches for theiranthurium pots. While, this option gavean ideal bench height it proved to be moreexpensive and requires a reasonabledegree of carpentry skills. Also some ofthe benches rotted, even thoughsupposedly treated timber was used. Thefloor of the shade house is covered bygravel to allow for a high relativehumidity. Such construction will allow

for clear access to all benches and good aeration.

28.

The house is made bird proof by using l inch chicken wire. These houses havesufficient space to hold 400 and 3,000 pots respectively - thus there is ample room forfuture expansion. An option for anthuriums is to plant them on the ground in especiallydesigned beds.

29.

These shade houses are sufficiently small for irrigation to be via watering can orhose. Hand watering will ensure maximum contact with plants facilitating earlydetection of pests, diseases and nutrient deficiencies.

sfl/:cE l+CXIN--

8


Media and potting requirements

30.The purpose of the planting media is to provide a healthy environment in whichthe roots of the anthurium can grow. It is through its roots that plant absorbs most of itsnutrients and moisture. A healthy root system is critical for the achievement of goodflower yields. The media used has to provide similar conditions to the naturalenvironment in which anthuriums thrives. Due to their epiphytic nature anthuriumsrequire a well aerated media mix for healthy growth. The mix also needs to providesufficient moisture and support for the plant.

31.

In Holland most anthurium are grown in "oasis" (polyphenol foam). Oasis is aninorganic product made from petroleum. It has minute pores which enables it to retainmoisture. For anthuriums 1.5 cm chunks of "oasis" are used, which allows for good aircirculation around the chunks. A major advantage of inorganic material is that it does notdegrade (compost) into soil which has poor aeration. A disadvantage is that it does notsupply any nutrients to plant in its own right.

32.

"Oasis" is an ideal media for planting anthuriums. However, in Fiji it would haveto be imported making it far too expensive for small growers to consider. Thus suitableinexpensive locally available materials need to be utilised.

33.

In Hawaii combinations of locally available organic (including wood shavings,tree fern chips, sugar cane bagasse, macadamia nut shell and coffee bean shells) andinorganic matter (volcanic cinder) materials are used for anthuriums. In Fiji mostgrowers now use rice husk as the main ingredient in their media. Rice husks are light andoffers good aeration for the roots. It is available from Dreketi in Vanua Levu around $4per standard sugar or flour bag. The main problem with rice husk is that is starts todegrade into soil with 12 to 18 months and it constantly needs to be supplemented withnew rice husks.

34.

SSO have chosen to use 100% rice husks asthe media in their Nadi anthurium operation. Othergrowers have supplemented rice husks with othermaterials. The addition of shredded/strippedqanibulu (coconut husk) to the media provides moreanchorage for the roots, moisture holding capacityand provides some nutrients. The rate of

decomposition forqanibulu tends tobe less than forrice husk -thereby extendingthe life of themedia. If you are going to use qanibulu make sure it iscut up into small chunks and soaked in water for at leasta month and then exposed to the sun for a furthermonth. This removes the tannin that will damage

9


sensitive roots and provides for easier shredding by hand. Sugar cane bagasse wouldserve equally well as qanibulu and provides an option for anthurium growers in the West.

35.

A small quantity of sand can be added to the rice husk to provide a little body andextended life to the media. Initially some Fiji growers used sand as the main componentof the media. However, poor aeration was achieved resulting in a high incidence of rootrot. Styro-foam used for packing electrical appliances is usually thrown away. This nonbio-degradable material can be chopped up into small pieces and added to the media toprovide additional aeration and longevity. Look out for styro-foam in piles of rubbish onthe side of the road waiting for the next City Council clean-up. Some growers add a littletuida (sphagum moss) to their media to enhance water holding capacity and rootanchorage. Tuida is gathered and dried in the Naulu, Caubati and Nausori areas and isusually sold during Arbour Week in Suva.

36_

An approximate guideline for the proportion mix of ingredients for a Fijianthurium media is:Ingredients Approx. % (by volume)rice husks 75shredded qanibulu 15sand 4styro-foam 3tuida 3Total 100Planting

37.

Young anthurium plants are around 15cm (6in) high when they are released fromSSO's quarantine house for distribution to growers. At this stage the plants will beabout 6 months old and will have a healthy and a well developed root system. If they arewell cared for, your anthuriums will start flowering 6 to 8 months after planting. Theywill be mature plants in 12 months and achieve 50 percent of their production potential.The plants should be fully grown in 20 to 24 months.

38_

Most small growers in Fiji have opted for planting in bags on benches. SSO haveopted for planting 40% of their anthuriums in ground beds. Both systems offeradvantages and disadvantages, which are summarised as follows:Cost

There are significant cost savings from planting in beds. You don'tneed to build benches and buy plastic bags.

Yield

Higher yield per plant is apparent from planting in well drained beds.The surface feeding roots of the epiphytic anthurium plant are able tospread unconstrained in beds. The plant thrives and flowers more often.However, a closer plant spacing is achieved when anthuriums areplanted in pots, offsetting the lower yield per plant

Flower size A much higher percentage of large flowers are obtained in beds - afurther indication of how comfortable these epiphytic plants are in this

10

Anthurium: A Manualfor Small Holder Production in Fiji

environment. However, a high percentage of large flowers has a downside for the Fiji market. The Fiji local market has a strong preferencefor medium sized flowers. Mature plants in pots predominatelyproduce medium sized flowers.

Disease

Anthuriums thrive in well prepared ground beds of the appropriatemanagement media. However, if one plant is affected by disease it is more likely to

spread to other plants in the bed. In Hawaii all anthuriums were plantedin beds prior to the arrival of Anthurium blight. This devastatingbacterial disease spread rapidly through the beds. To limit the spread ofthe disease many growers changed to planting in bags on benches.

Ease of

Bags on benches are at waist level and easy for working compared withwork

continual bending required for plants in beds

Planting in beds constructed on the ground

39.Given that the two planting systems haveadvantages and disadvantages the grower has theoption of establishing a combination of both. Twosystems are described briefly below.

Beds

40.A suitable design of an anthurium bed is

shown in the diagram. A number of key points needto be taken into account when building a bed:

Good drainage is essential for a successfulanthurium bed.

g

11


The bed should be built on a slight slope (0.1% -10cmper 100meters- is enough if the bed is correctly built).

The bed should be approximately L5 metres (5' wide)wide. Beds any wider make it too difficult to accessplants in the middle of the bed. The beds can be can beas long as the size of the shade house permits. For asmall grower 6 metres (20 ft) would be a reasonablelength. The space for the path between the beds should be around .8 metres wide (3feet).

The ground and the planting media should be separated by black plastic sheet (1 mm).+ Running through the length of the bed should be a agricultural drainage pipe (100mm

-- 4 inch). Place the pipe on top of the plastic sheet. It should be inserted in a smalltrench and covered with gravel. The bottom of the bed should be a slight V shaperunning into the pipe.

The walls of the bed (approx 35 cm or 14 inches high) are constructed by concretebuilding blocks stacked two high (one lying flat on its side with the holes pointingupwards.

The bed should be filled with planting media up to a minimum height of 20cm (8inches). Over time (2 to 3 years) new media will be added up to a height of about30cm (12 inches).

Growers may wish to string a wire, attached to posts along the edge of the bed, tostop the flowers falling over into the path and being damaged.

Plant spacing

41.

For beds the recommended spacing between plants is 1 ft (30 cm).for beds

Thus a 5'x 20'bed would contain around 75 plants. A small grower with 6beds would have 450 anthuriums. Allowing for pathways the size of overall

size of the shade house would around 1,000 sq feet (or 300 sq meters).

12


Bags on benches

42.

The young 15cm (bin) plants (keikis) are planted in a #5 plastic planter bag PB(15 cm in diameter). When a plant fills a #5PB it is transferred to a #12PB (21 cmdiameter) or to a #8 PB (18 cm). The #12 PBs used for anthurium are 14.5 cm high.SSO bulk orders bags from Lees Trading for distribution to the out-growers.Approximately 213 of the bag is filled with media allowing some room for topping upmedia over time. The bag should be turned town to prevent the bag caving in obstructingwater coverage. It is recommended that you put a few extra holes at the bottom of bag toimprove drainage.

Plant spacing

43.

Planting in bags allows for a much closer plant spacing and morefor bags

anthuriums for a given area. The bags can even be allowed to touch,providing an average distance between plants of around 5 in (13 cm). With

this spacing it is possible to have around 550 anthurium plants on a 5'x 20' bench(compared with only 75 mature plants in a 5'x 20' bed.) Having so many plants in asmall area is a big advantage for a small grower with limited space. However, such denseplanting does have disadvantages. Air circulation is restricted, increasing the likelihoodof pest and disease problems. Also the roots often venture into adjacent bags, therebyincreasing the possibility of disease spreading and making repotting more difficult If adense planting is to be adopted it is critical that leaf pruning and bag shaking schedulesare strictly followed. A 7in (18cm) spacing between plants seen as a good compromisebetween planting density and air circulation. This space would give around 270 matureplants on a 5'x 20'bench.

How to plant your anthuriums

44.

Anthurium are epiphytesand thus should be shallowlyplanted - not buried like dalo.Larger plants might fall overbefore their roots are anchored.They can be propped up with lightbamboo stakes. After plantingslow release fertilizer is applied.For planting in bags theapplication rate for slow release fertilizer is 10 ml ('/2 tablespoon) per plant , with the granules spread evenly around theplanting bag. If planting is in bags the rate of application 20ml (1 table spoon) spread evenly on the surface of the bed.

13


Care and maintenance

Fertilizer and fertilizing

45.

The media into which anthuriums are planted provides very little nutrients for theplant. It is important that your anthuriums be supplied with moderate but consistentlevels of complete fertiliser.

46.

Fertilizer is absorbed trough a plants roots and leaves. However, anthuriumleaves contain a thick layer of wax and thus do not absorb fertilizer particularly well(Anthura 1998 p, 53). It is for this reason that most large commercial anthuriumoperations fertilizer via their trickle irrigation system. High cost precludes this as anoption for small growers in Fiji.

Main elements

47.

The three main elements in fertilizer:

Nitrogen (N) (for healthy green leaf growth - this element is required in thegreatest amount).

Phosphorous (P) (for strong roots and stems) Potash (potassium) (K) (for fruiting and flowering).

A typical soluble (dissolves in water) NPK fertiliser for anthuriums has the followinganalysis: 12:5:15 - which means it contains 12% nitrogen, 5% phosphorous and 15%potassium.

Trace elements

48.

The plant requires trace elements in minute quantities: these are iron(Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), boron (B), copper (Cu) and molybdenum

(Mo). Trace elements are usually included in slow release formulations. These are alsosoluble trace element formulations (eg Yeates Gro-Plus() Trace Element Mix), which canbe applied on a quarterly basis.

49.

Magnesium requirements in anthurium plant tissue are higher than for mostfoliage crops, particularly in warmer climates (Oglesby Plants International Anthuriumwww.oglesbytc.com/CultureInfolanthurium.htm ). You expect your anthurium plant tolast many years. Thus special attention needs to be paid to the long term availability ofmagnesium. Under Fiji conditions the addition of a small quantity (112 table spoon perplant) of dolomite lime applied every six months does the trick. Dolomite containsmagnesium and calcium and assists the release of these elements from other sources.

Organic

50.

Chemical (inorganic) fertiliser programs can be supplemented byfertiliser

regular application of soluble organic fertiliser in the form of seaweed and fishformulations. This will help stimulate root development, enhance healthy

plant growth and flowering and increase resistance to disease and fungal attack. Organicfertilisers should be a commercial product (eg Earth Care Seasol). The use ofuncomposted chicken, horse or cow manure can introduce disease into your plants.

14


The pH of the

51.

Soil (or planting media) pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. pHgrowing media

can range from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral (neither acid or alkaline). Thelower the pH below 7 the more acid ("sour") the soil and the higher the pH

above 7 the more alkaline the soil. Different plants have different pH requirements.Anthuriums like somewhat acid conditions - the pH in the media should lie between 5.5to 6.5. A media made from rice husks and qanibulu will lie in this range. However, theconstant use of inorganic fertiliser and tap water for irrigation has an acidifying effect Ifthe growing media becomes too acid essential micro elements are not released to theplant and aluminium toxicity can occur. Some Fiji growers have had this problem,resulting in substantial plant losses. The problem was simply overcome through theaddition of dolomite (112 table spoon per plant) to the growing media every 6 months.Dolomite slowly dissolves over time, helping to counteract the acidifying effects offertilizers and tap water and supplies the plant with calcium and magnesium needed forhealthy growth. The Koronivia Research Station can test the pH level of your growingmedia.

Fertiliser

52.

There are two ways to apply fertilizer to anthuriums: one is in solubleapplication

form through the leaves and aerial roots (foliar fertiliser) and the other viapelletised slow release fertilizer to the roots. Standard NPK fertiliser applied

to crops like dalo should not be used for anthuriums as it will bum the roots. Some Fijigrowers have learned this lesson from bitter experience.

54.

Foliar fertiliser is usually applied via a 6 litre pressure sprayer. A watering canalso be used - but this tends to waste fertiliser. The application rate is 10 ml (2 teaspoon/6 litre). Both the leaves and the aerial roots should be spayed with anthuriumsthe absorption of nutrients through the aerial roots is likely to be stronger than the leaves.

55.

It is recommended that soluble fish or seaweed fertilizer be applied monthly at therate of 15 ml of concentrate per 6litres. Again apply to both the leaves and the aerialroots.

Slow release

56_

Slow release pellets are applied at time of planting your anthuriums.The application rate is 5 ml per plant for anthuriums planted in bags and 10 ml

per plant for anthuriums planted in beds. Most Fiji growers use nutricote() (N=13:P=5.7: K=10.8: Mg=1.2 plus trace elements). Depending on the formulation, slowrelease fertiliser can last 6 to 12 months before reapplication is required.

Foliar fertilizer

53.

The basic principle is to apply a weak solution ('/4 to Y2 normalstrength) often. Most growers in Fiji use two formulations of chemical foliar

fertilizer: F60 Soluble NPK 20:9:17 - plus trace elements (used on a weekly basis on young

plants prior to flowering). F67 ("booster") Soluble N:P:K 13:12:22 - plus trace elements (used on weekly

basis when flowering commences).

15


Detecting nutrient disorders

57.To detect nutrient disorders plants should be frequently inspected for leaf colour,

growth rate, new shoot activity, root activity, flower yield and flower quality. If yourplant is not producing at least 6 good quality flowers per year you are likely to havenutritional problems. There could be other factors at play such as the quality of theplanting media or pest and diseases. However,susceptibility to pest and diseases can be relatedto poor nutrition.

58.

Healthy mature anthurium leaves will bedark green in colour with a waxy appearance.The new leaves are a light shiny green. Anumber of bright aerial roots, often red incolour, will protrude from the stem of a healthyanthurium plant. Anthuria (p, 51) describesthe symptoms of various deficiencies as:

element symptomsNitrogen (N)

Necrosis (dead tissue) spots on the leaves and a yellowing of the oldleaves.

Phosphate (P)

The edges of the old leaves turn yellow. The young leaves have ahard, dark green colour and are much smaller than the youngerleaves.

Potassium (K)

The old leaves look chlorotic (lose their normal green colour) amongthe veins, while the general leaf colour turn light green. The youngleaf is smaller with a reddish or dark green colour. The flowersreveal blue edges and/or spots in spathe with red and orange varieties.The flowers of light coloured cultivars have a glassy appearance.

Calcium (Ca)

Deficiencies show up in young leaves as irregular, chlorotic spots.The leaves become pointed in shape.

Magnesium (Mg) A deficiency shows up in the form of yellowing of old leaves alongthe main veins. The veins often remain green in colour.

The best way to determine the nutrient status of your anthuriums is to undertake a leaftissue analysis. This service is available at the Koronivia Research Station. Laboratoryleaf analysis would help determine optimum fertiliser programs and identify possiblenutrient disorders or imbalances.

16


Watering requirements

59.Anthuriums prefer evenly moist media, which must be well drained. Thus in dryperiods it is necessary to water every day. It is better to slightly under water than overwater. Drying out can cause leaf tip burn, root damage and reduced growth rates. Overwatering can cause root rot and sudden yellowing of the older leaves - anthuriums willnot tolerate prolonged saturation of the planting media. All anthuriums in Fiji aregrown in the open. Thus during periods of prolonged and heavy rain over wateringcannot be avoided, making good drainage even the more important. Root rot canbecome a serious problem when old media decomposes into soil_ At this stage the medianeeds to be replaced or at least supplemented.

60.

There are a number of irrigation options available to growers:

Natural irrigation through rainfall, supplemented by a watering can during dryperiod. This least cost option is adopted by most Fiji growers. Hand wateringalso offers the grower the opportunity to inspect individual plants for indicationsof pest disease or nutritional problems.

Over head sprinklers. The use of mister sprinklers is recommended as it createsconditions similar to the naturalrain forest environment ofanthuriums. Several Fiji growershave adopted this system.

Ground sprinklers that apply waterto the root system without wettingthe leaves. Keeping the leaves dryrestricts the spread of bacterialdisease. For beds a groundirrigation system can be achievedwith "spitters" mounted on risers30 cm above the ground. A moresophisticated system can beadopted for pots - where there is a single dripper spike per pot.

In larger commercial anthurium operations fertiliser application is also through theirrigation systems. This is not an option for Fiji's growers because of the costs involved.

Pest and disease management

64.

There are a number of pests and diseases that impact on anthuriums in Fiji. Theseneed to be managed if good commercial results are to be achieved.

65.

Most pests and diseases have natural enemies that should be encouraged as part ofan integrated pest management (1PM) approach. IPM is an old concept that is back infavour with increasing health and environmental concerns from the misuse and over use

17


of chemical pesticides. Before synthetic chemical pesticides were developed, pests weremanaged by various means including:

application of mineral oils, soaps and plant extracts; use of natural predators, barriers, traps and trap crops; modifying cultural practices affecting crop environments; and, utilising sanitation and quarantine (isolation) practices.

63.

Knowing the "enemy" and predicting its occurrence is critical for successful pestand disease management. Growers should be able to identify potentially damagingorganisms and what effect they have in your plants. Certain fungal diseases thrive inwanner conditions with high humidity, while others favour cool damp conditions.Sticky yellow cards suspended above the plants can be used to gauge populations offlying insects such as thrips and white flies. There should be regular inspection of theplants and their media for non-flying insects such as aphids, mites, mealy bugs and slugs.Some pests leave tell tale signs of their presence even if they are not seen. Slugs leaveslim trails and sucking and chewing insects damage leaves in particular ways.

64.

Plants should also be inspected often for indicators of diseases, such as rottedroots and stems; yellowed or spotted leaves or flowers; and blemishes on the leaves andflowers.

Cultural control practices

Disease free

65. Clean planting material should always be used. Plants that wereplanting

imported by SSO from Holland are certified disease free. However, practicesmaterial

must be followed to keep the plants disease free.

66.

Fiji growers often use "keikis" (small plants taken from a mature plant) forreplanting. Care must be taken to only plant healthy looking off-shoots with a strong rootsystem already developing. However, there is no guarantee that these are disease free.

Sanitation

67.

Within the shade house, strict sanitation is critical if disease problemsare to be minimised. The shade house should be kept free of fallen leaves and

flowers, sick and dead plants, and weeds. There should be a weekly program forremoving all these items as they can be reservoirs for diseases and pests. Once removedthey should be burnt or buried.

68.

Try and minimise the entry of people into the shade house as they can bring indisease from outside. Do not let cats and dogs into your shade house. Workers shouldwear clean clothes every day and regularly clean their foot wear. Large commercialoperations have very strict rules regarding the entry of people into the green house. Forexample requirements for Anthura in Holland are (p, 92):

+ Use visitor coats and shoes for those visiting operations. Have visitors wash their hands thoroughly with disinfectant soap or use a gel

containing alcohol.

18


Make sure there is a disinfect tray near the door, so that visitors can disinfect theirshoes.

69.

Adopting the measures of Anthura arenot practical for Fiji's small growers - but thesame sanitation principles should apply. Youmust continually disinfect the implements youuse for cutting your plants. Dip your cutter inconcentrated soapy water solution (1 cap of dishwashing detergent per 500 ml) or bleachsolution each time you move to a new plant.Also wash your hands in soapy water each timeyou move to work with a new plant.

Pruning leaves

71.

You should clip off all excess leaves to improve the air flow to reducefungal problems. Three or even two leaves are sufficient. You also get less

flowers if you have too many leaves.

Chemical control measures

72.

Chemical pesticides have a place when other effective alternatives are notavailable. They should be used to the minimum extent necessary to avoid serious plantlosses and used in a way that has the least adverse consequences on beneficial organisms.It is not worth using pesticides on minor problems that don't have a significant impact onyour production. The pesticide will kill your pest, but it may also kill all the usefulinsects. It's a bit like firing a shotgun at night into your chicken house to kill a mongoosethat is somewhere in there! If you are to use chemicals you need to wear protectiveclothing, gloves, boots and a face mask.

Types ofpesticides

73. You need to understand the different types of insecticides:

contact sprays are those that kill the insect when spayed on its exteriorsurface;

residual sprays are those that remain active on the plant surface for severaldays and provide longer term control of pests; and,

systemic sprays are those that are absorbed by the plant and kill the insectwhen it sucks the sap.

Diseases

Anthurium

74.

Anthurium blight is probably the most serious disease in anthuriums_blight

This bacterial disease devastated the Hawaii anthurium industry in the 1980s.It has not been officially identified as present in Fiji. However, growers need

70.

Prevent plants from becoming stressed(too dry over watering, too much or too littlefertiliser). Stressed plants are more susceptible to disease.

19


to be continually vigilant for its presence.

75.

The first symptoms are small, scattered, irregulatly shaped, water soaked spotsthat are more pronounced on the underside of the leaves (Higaki et.al . p, 13). They maytake a long time to enlarge but eventually they cover the entire leaf margin and invade thecenter of the leaf. Mature lesions (scares) are black and usually surrounded by a brightyellow halo. If the anthurium becomes systemically infected, the plant will show signs ofyellowing, stunting and loss of lower leaves. Eventually the infected plants die.Avoidance of this disease is the most effective control. You need to frequently look forearly symptoms of Anthurium blight. In Hawaii some growers report effective control byremoving leaves that show symptoms. Limit overhead irrigation to reduce pathogenspread. Also remember that aroids such as dieffenbachia and dalo via are a host for theblight.

Root rot

76.

Root rot is a common disease problem in anthurium. It can be causedby range of fungal pathogens, including Pythium sp., Phytophtora sp., and

Fusarium sp.

77.

The symptoms of root rot are reduced plant height, smaller leaves and flowers,lack of leaf and flower sheen and general lack of plant vigour. In extreme cases of rootrot all the root that have entered the media will be dead. The plant can continue to lingeron through nutrients secured through the leaves - but is unlikely to produce anyworthwhile flowers.

78.

Root rot is usually caused by poor drainage in the media. Old media that hasdecomposed into soil will have poor drainage and root rot is common. Too much sand inmedia mix can also result in poor drainage. Continual over-watering can cause root rot.This can be a problem for growers located in the Suva area. All the more important thatyour anthuriums are planted in a free draining media.

79.

Roots that have been damaged by fertiliser are more susceptible to root rot.Damage caused by burrowing nematodes (Radopholus similis) result in root rots byallowing the entry of fungal pathogens. Nematodes are microscopic worms (eelworms)that feed on roots. The burrowing nematode is a common pest for ginger in Fiji. Thusthis pest might be expected to cause problems for anthurium growers.

80.

Maintaining good drainage is the key to avoiding root rot problems. Every 3 to 4months old decomposed media that has accumulated at the bottom of the bag should beremoved and replaced with new media. This will remove some of the fertiliser and anypesticide residues that have accumulated at the bottom of the bag. At the time ofsupplementing the media any rotten roots should be clipped off Make sure you disinfectyour clippers as you move between plants.

81.

When anthuriums are planted in beds it is not so practical to remove the olddecomposed media. Thus every 6 months or so the media in bed should be topped up

20


with new media. Every 3 or 4 years all the media in the bed will have to replaced withclean fresh media.

82,

The regular spraying of a weak bleach solution (20 ml janolall 0 litres water) is acheap effective way of controlling the spread of fungal diseases. During extended wetperiods twice weekly application is recommended - otherwise once a week is sufficientSome growers in Fiji regularly (once a week) apply fungicide (eg Lanosan) to reducethe level of fungal diseases. However, fungicides will not solve the problem in situationswere the drainage is poor.

81 Each time you supplement the media the bag should also be given a good shake toallow for aeration. Once a month and after a continuous period of rain the bags should beshaken. Shaking the bags must be a regular part of your anthurium work routine.

Stem rot

84.

Another serious fungal problemencountered in anthuriums is stem rot.

This is probably caused by the pathogen Fusarium sp.which is the result of poor drainage. The plant baserots away and eventually collapses. As soon as stemrot is detected the whole plant should be removed andproperly disposed of along with media. The bagshould be washed and sterilised in janola solutionbefore it is used again.

Spadix rot

_...-

85.

Anthracnose (black nose or spadix rot) is another fungal disease. It isthe same disease that causes mangoes in Suva to go black during continual wet weather.This disease effects the tiny individual flowers on the spadix. It starts as a small darkspot and then spreads over the spadix. This discolouration makes the flower

21


unmarketable. The fungal spores are produced in large numbers and are spread by dropsof water and by insects. The disease will spread rapidly if plants are closely placed.Thus it is important to regularly cut excess leaves to improve aeration_ Regularapplication of janola will help to control anthracnose. If the incidence of the diseasecontinues to be high a weekly application of a fungicide such as Lanosan is appropriate.Make sure you follow the directions on the label closely.

Pests

Aphids and

86.

These are the soft bodied insects thatthrips

multiply rapidly and suck the juices from plantreducing its vigour. They can also adversely

affect plant health indirectly by secondary infections. Sootymould is a fungal disease that appears as black dusty layer onthe leaves of the plant and reduces photosynthesis. Aphidsexcrete a sugar substance known as honeydew, which is anideal media for sooty mold development. Ants feed offhoneydew and spread sooty mould as a result. Ants willoften "herd" aphids, and other insects such as mealy bugs, asa source of food. If you notice ants travelling up and downyour anthuriums find out what they are doing there - they might be tending their aphid"farm". If so the aphids should be removed.

87. Thrips bore through the cells and suck up the juices. The damage shows up asmotley blotches on the flowers. Severe damage can cause the leaves to become fragileand to disfigure. Aphids also suck plant sap and inject toxic substances that affect plantgrowth. Aphids are also known to transmit viruses.

88. There are beneficial insects that help control aphids and thrips. These includeladybird beetles. Controlling the ants that herd the aphids will usually significantlyreduce the population. Banding the legs of benches with petroleum jelly or "stickum"can serve as a barrier to ants.

89. Because aphids and thrips are soft bodied and slow moving they are relativelyeasy to kill. However, they are persistent and they build up into large populations in ashort period of time (less than a week). Thus you need to continually check for them.Insecticidal soaps and ultra fine oils (white oil) are effective. For small growersrecycling soapy water used for washing your cloths or dishes can give good results,particularly if some coconut oil is added. The objective is to suffocate or repel the insect.This will also help wash the mould off the tree and save water. Another good organicanswer is to spray the plant with some flour mixed in water - this will dry and trap theinsect in batter! Systemic insecticides such as Orthene, can be used to counter largebuild ups of aphids and thrips. Make sure you follow the directions on the packet. Twoapplications at 10 day intervals are usually necessary to be effective, to account for anyeggs that might have hatched following the first application. Contact insecticides suchas Malathion, mixed with an oil spray can be effective against leaf sucking insects andthe ants that herd them.

22


90.

Many plants are hosts for aphids and thrips and reinfestation can occur quickly.Thus it is important to remove all weeds from in and around your shade house.

Scales and

91.

Scale insects are firmlymealy bugs

stuck to the plant - they areeither armoured and soft scales.

Armoured scales live, feed and lay theireggs under a hard protective covering.This cover is nonliving and is either roundor oval shaped. Soft scale insects have asoft cover. Adolescent scales attachthemselves to the leaves of the plants,where it inserts its needle like mouth part to extract juices. Mealy bugs cover themselvesin white cotton wool substance that makes them even easier to detect. These suckinginsects that tend to congregate at the base and axils of anthurium leaves. They can alsobe found in the roots. Scales and mealybugs excrete honeydew and thus are tended byants leading to more concentrated infestations.

92.

Severe infestations of these pests weaken, and even kill plants. The leaves mayturn yellow and drop early. Soft scales are easier to control than their protected cousins.Armoured scaled insects are mainly spread by infected plants. You need to be verycareful in sourcing planting material from other growers - you should inspect closely forthe presence of scales.

93.

Early detection of scales and mealy bug infestations, before they get out ofcontrol, is critical for the management of these pest. Once they become established theyare very difficult to manage. You can push them off with your thumb nail. A cotton bud,soaked with methylated spirits that dissolves the waxy covering, is a good for getting atmealybugs hidden deep down in the leaf sheaths. All scale insects have to lift their shellevery 15 to 20 minutes to breath and can be suffocated by oily substances. Recycledwashing and dishwashing water with some added coconut oil can work wonders.Insecticides are generally ineffective against those infesting the roots.

Mites

94.

Red spider mites are a major insect problem for Fiji growers. Theseminute sap sucking pests feed off the softer leaves and cause damage to the

stems and flowers. They cause a silvery white film to appear on the leaf where they havekilled the cells. Mites cause browning of the underside of the leaves and at the end of thespathe. They cause young leaves and buds to wither. They spin a characteristic silkenweb. In time these areas turn black as the injured plant tissue oxidises and is invaded byinfection. With severe damage the leaves look dried out and have a yellowdecolourisation. Cutting off old leaves also helps control spider mites. Damage isvisible on the flowers in the form of brown dots on the spathe. A similar pest is the falsered spider mite, but they don't spin the characteristic silken webs of red spider mites.

95.

Early detection of spider mites is critical for effective control. They can bedetected by tiny red specks associated with the silvering of leaves. Natural enemies such

23


as ladybird beetles can help control mites. However, for large populations it may benecessary to use a miticide at two weekly intervals sprayed on the underside of the leavesand flowers. Other pesticides will not help - they will only kill the ladybirds and makethings worse.

Snails and slugs

96.

These pests can turn up at any time and do a lot of damage fast. Theycan incur a huge wound in one night. They also spread disease between plants

and feeding wounds provide an entry point for disease.

97.

Snails and slugs are active at night. During the day, they are found hidden inplants, in plant debris and under rocks and pots. After rain they can be found foragingduring daylight. Constant vigilance is required to keep snails and slugs under control.The first line of defence against snails and slugs is sanitation. You need to remove allplant debris from the vicinity of your shade house and destroy all potential hiding places.Look for them under pots. Use a torch light to find them at night and to kill them.Mollusc pests are repelled by any form of copper (a metal or as copper hydroxide). Thuscopper bands around the legs benches can serve as an effective barrier to snails comingup from the ground.

98.

Chemical baits (molluscides), such as Slugout, can also be used. It should beapplied immediately after symptoms appear in the affected area, following themanufacturer's directions.

99. Caterpillars can cause major damage to

Caterpillars

your anthuriums by chewing large holes in theflowers and young leaves. If you have a severe infestationcan be controlled by a contact insecticide. However, it ispreferable for small growers doing there regular daily roundsto remove these offending critters by hand.

100. The life of cut flower anthuriums depends on both theconditions prior to harvesting and how they are handled afterharvesting. Dutch anthuriums are renowned for their vase life. Healthy flowers that arewell handled should last three weeks before wilting and discolouring. A vase life of onlya week can be expected if the flowers are improperly handled after harvesting. Themain causes of premature flower wilt are premature harvesting water absorptiondisruption along the stem. This is often caused by microbial contamination of the brokenor cut stem ends.

Ripening of the

101. Ripening of anthurium flowers starts at the bottom of the spadixanthurium flower

and moves upwards. As the ripen proceeds the spadix discolours. Formost varieties, when half to three quarters of the spadix is discoloured the

flower is ready to harvest. There is some varietal difference in this measure of maturity.For Midori the flowers ripen quicker - at 50 percent discolouration of the spadix Midoriflowers are ready to cut. Whereas Linda de Mol should have 90 percent discolouration

Harvesting and postharvest handling

24

Anthurium:A Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

before it is cut (Anthura p, 79). To make sure you don't harvest prematurely check thatthe stem directly beneath the flower will be hard and firm. Harvesting unripe flowerswill significantly reduce the vase life.

Not ready to harvest

Ready to harvest

102. Despite the exceptionally long vase life of anthuriums they are easily damaged.Thus you need to be very careful in harvesting and packing. Always use a sharp knife orsharp clippers. The stem is cut diagonally near the bottom. The aim is to cut the stem atmaximum length. You should dip your clip in a strong soapy water solution betweeneach cut. The flowers should be placed in a bucket of clean water as soon as possible.

103. During your harvesting round you should also cut all your damaged flowers. Usethese in your house - they should not be sold.

104. Your flowers are grade in terms of size (measured as diameter below the spadix): miniature < 2 in small 2 to 3 in medium 3 to 4 in large 4 to 6 in jumbo > 6in

Flowers with defects should not be included.

105. You must be careful not to damage your anthuriums in carrying them to thewholesalebuying points atSt Andrew'sChurch in Suvaor at the SSOfacility in NasauNadi. Yourgraded flowersshould be laidflat in a plasticcontainer for

25

Anthurium: ^ Manual for Small Holder Production in Fiji

transportation. A suitable container can be purchased from MI-Is for $25 each. Two ofthese will be sufficient for a small grower.

106. Florists who receive their anthuriums by overnight courier should immediatelyunpack them. Another 1/2 cm should be cut from the stems under water. Thereafterregular fine misting with clean water help maintain freshness.

Markets and marketing

107. A large and growing local market exists for anthuriums. A good tourist carry-onmarket opportunity currently exists for anthuriums. A limited niche market is availablein New Zealand. For the future a market could be developed in Australia, once Fiji hasan adequate production base and if prices can be reduced.

Tourism

108. Hawaii provides a guide to the demand for flowers that can be generated by aflower orientated tourism industry. However, to achieve this level of demand wouldrequire the development of flower culture within the hotel sector. Tourist arrivals havenow returned to around 400, 000. Hawaii has also shown the potential of the "carry-on"trade with departing tourists, particularly from Japan. Anthuriums are permitted into thesource countries of Fiji tourists, with the current exception of New Zealand_ Thelightweight, beauty and long vase life make anthuriums an ideal carry on item. Japanesevisitors in particular are frustrated that they cannot buy suitable gift items.

Local market

109. All communities place a high value on flowers for special occasions andhousehold beautification. Growth in the urban middle class has seen this demand expandrapidly. Meeting this demand has been constrained by the absence of a wholesale marketto distribute production, erratic supply, and high prices. The SSO production andmarketing system is starting to overcome these constraints. In 2002 61, 869 =thoriumstems were sold. In 2003 the number sold increased to 83, 487, a 35 percent increase.

110. It is estimated that the volume of anthuriums sold on the local market couldreadily reach 120, 000 stems at current prices if the supply was available. If there iscontinued strong growth in the economy it is projected that the local demand foranthuriums could exceed 200, 000 stems annually within 5 years.

Marketing arrangements

111. A major constraint to the development of the industry was the absence of awholesale market, where the small growers could sell their cut flowers and the smallflorists could readily source their supplies. Both were spending a lot of time and energytrying to find each other and there was no market growth.

26


112. To overcome this marketing constraint a wholesale cut flower market (orchidsand anthuriums) was established by SSO in 2001. There are now two SSO wholesalemarket outlets - one located at Nasau Nadi (SSO farm) and one situated underneath StAndrews Presbyterian Church Suva. Growers bring their cut flowers to the wholesale

market on their designatedday. At the end of eachmonth the growers are paidfor previous month's deliveryat predetermined prices.

113. Florists have standingorders with the wholesalemarket, which they collect ontheir designated day. Ifsupplies are short, flowersthat are available are sharedpro-rata amongst the florists.If available supply exceedsstanding orders then thesurplus is available on a first

come first served basis. A 30 percent margin (difference between the grower price andthe wholesale price) applies to cover the cost of operating the wholesale market. Thewholesale market has meant that orderly marketing has replaced a previously chaoticmarketing situation. The growers can now concentrate their energies entirely onproducing quality cut flowers. The florists can now aggressively promote their productsassured that a dependable supply base at a reasonable price is in place.

Growing anthuriums as a small business

114. Simple financial models are presented for a micro anthurium grower (200 plants)and a small dendrobium grower (2,000 plants). The micro 200 enterprise would be ofsufficient size to provide some supplementary cash income for a village based grower orfor a part-time urban grower. The small enterprise is seen of sufficient scale to provide abasic income for a household.

Start-up cost

115. To establishment cost of the micro anthurium enterprise is approximately $1,500and the small enterprise around $13,000 (table 2). This is based a bag on benchproduction system. It includes the cost of the shade house, the plants and inputs for thefirst year of operation.

27


Table 2: Establishment cost of small and micro enterprise anthurium production (bag on bench system)200 bags 2,000 bags

Shade house Quantity and prices Cost (5) Quantity and prices Cost(5)Pine posts 4posts (4mx15)@$24/post 96.00 30 posts 720.00#8 wire 2 kgs @ $4.50/18 9.00 15 kgs 67.50Salon cloth (50% Shade) 15 roll (385 m x 1.5m) @ $385 57.75 1 roll 385.00Gravel for potting and floor .25 m @ $154hn 38.50 3.5 m 261.80Welded mesh for bences 4 x 8m @$750 each 30.00 30 225.00Concrete building blocks 50 @ $1 50.00 200 200.00Clips 10 @ $1 10.00 75 75.00Nais 1kg @ $4.50/kg 4.50 7.5kgs 33.751 inch chicken wire 113 of a roll @ $90/roll 29.70 2.5 roils 225.00Labour cost 1 skilled supervisor for 2 days @$50/day

(household to supply its own labour)100.00 5 days 250.00

Total shade house cost

Other capital costs

425.45 2,443.05

Anthurium plants 220 @$4 each 880.00 2,200 8,800.00Plastic potting bags 200 @ 35c eah 70.00 2,000 700.00Rice husks for potting media 10 bags @3/bag 30.00 100 bags 300.001 year fertiliser requirement 3 x 300gm pkt foliar NPK @ $13 39.00 30 x 300gm pid 390.00

2 X 50gm pkt slow release fert @ $7 14.00 20 X 50gm pld 140.001 year fungicide/perticide requirement 1 X 50gm pkt lanosan

$15 15.00 5 X 50gm pkt 75.00bleach (cleaning gravel and fungicide) 2 x 4.51tr @ $4 8.00 10 x 451tr 40.00Seceteurs 1 @$25 25.00 2 50.00Watering can 1 x 5 litre Cm $20 20.00 2 40.00Plastic bucket 2 x $2 4.00 5 x $2 10.00Pressure spray 1 x 5 Itre 75.00Protective clothing for spraying chemicals (masWciothing) 30.00 50.00Total other costs 1135.00 10,670.00Total capital cost 1,560.45 13,113.05

116. If the small enterprise opted for beds rather than benches there would be somereduction in the capital cost. Less would be spent on plants and there be no expenditureon welded mesh and planter bags. More bags of rice husks would be required.

Production

117. Your anthuriums should start flowering 6 to 8 months after planting and reachmaturity after about 12 to 14 months. Your anthuriums will be fully grown plants in 20to 24 months_ In the first year it assumed that each plant will produce 2 small flowers.In the second year each plant producers an average of 5 flowers; of which 30 percent ofthe flowers are small, 50 percent medium and 20% large. Full production is achieved inthe third year, with an average of 8 flowers per plant (40% medium and 60% large). Itassumed that this level of production is maintained indefinitely.

28


Table 3: Projected annual production from the micro and small anthurium enterprisesYear

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 8 9 10Micro enterprise modelNumber of plants

200

200

200

200

200

200

200 200 200 200Number of stems per plant/year

2

5

8

8

8

8

8 8 8 8Total number of stems

400

1,000

L600

1,600

1,600

1,600

1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600Small blooms (>2" dia)

400

300

0

0

0

0

0 0 0 0Medium blooms (3-4")

500

640

640

640

640

640 640 640 640Large blooms (>4")

200

960

960

960

960

960 960 960 960Small enterprise modelNumber of plants

2,000

2,000

2,000

2,000

2,000

2,000

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000Number of stems per plant/year

2

5

8

8

8

8

8 8 8 8Total number of stems

4,000

10,000

16,000

16,000

16,000

16,000

16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000Small blooms (>2" dia)

4,000

3,000

0

0

0

0

0 0 0 0Medium blooms (3-4")

5,000

6,400

6,400

6,400

6,400

6,400 6,400 6,400 6,400Large blooms (>4")

2,000

9,600

9,600

9,600

9,600

9,600 9,600 9,600 9,600

Prices

118. The current (May 2004) SSO anthurium grower prices are used in the model.Size

Price/stemLarge (4 in +)

$0.70Medium (3 - 4 in)

$0.60Small (2 - 3 in) $0.38Mini (< 2 in)

$0.15

Cash flow projections119. Ten-year cash flow projections for the two models, not allowing for any debtservicing, are presented in table 4. Both models achieve a small surplus in the secondyear, which reaches a maximum in year 3 of $1,000 and $9,300 respectively. Theaverage annual cash flow for the two enterprises are approximately $690 and $6,800respectively. In both of these models it is assumed that only household labour is used -that is no wages are paid to hired labour. The average return per day of this labour is$11.50 for the micro enterprise and $20 for the small enterprise. The difference can beexplained by the greater labour efficiency of the larger shade house_ It is of note that thereturn to labour from the anthurium enterprises are somewhat lower than that estimatedfor the dendrobium orchid enterprises 2 .

2 For the dendrobium orchid enterprises the estimated average return per day of household labour is $15.60for the micro enterprise and $29.40 for the small enterprise (South Sea Orchids 2003)

29


Table 4: Cash flow projections for micro and small anthuritun growingYear 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TotalMicro enterprise (200 plants)RevenueSmall blooms tt 400 300 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 700Revenue (S) @ 38c/bloom) 152 114 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 266Medium spray # 0 500 640 640 640 640 640 640 640 640 5,620Revenue (S) @60cl bloom 0 300 384 384 384 384 384 384 384 384 3,372Large spray # 0 200 960 960 960 960 960 960 960 960 7,880Revenue (S) @70c/bloom) 0 140 672 672 672 672 672 672 672 672 5,516Total revenue (S) 152 554 1,056 1,056 1,056 1,056 1,056 1,056 1,056 1,056 9,154ExpensesShade house (from table 2) 425 425Plants 880 880Other capital items 179 179Fertiliser and other agri chemicals 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 760Rice husk replacement 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 135Total expenses 1,560 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 76 2,244Cash flow

-1408 478 980 980 980 980 980 980 980 980 6.910Labour inputsCutting coconut husks for media

Person days2 2 2 2 102

Mixing media and planting 2 2Daily husbandy (watering, fertilising vet) 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 500Harvesting, grading and marketing 4 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 91Total labour input 58 57 62 60 62 60 62 60 62 60 603Average annual cash flow (S) 691Average return per day of family labour 11.5

Small enterprise (2,000 plants)RevenueSmall blooms It 4,000 3,000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7,000Revenue (S) @ 38c/bloom) 1,520 1,140 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2,660Medium spray it 0 5,000 6,400 6,400 6,400 6,400 6,400 6,400 6,400 6,400 56,200Revenue (S) @60dblom 0 3,000 3,840 3,840 3,840 3,840 3.840 3,840 3,840 3,840 33,720Large spray # 0 2,000 9,600 9,600 9,600 9,600 9,600 9,600 9,600 9,600 78,800Revenue (S) @ 70c/bloom) 0 1,300 6,240 6,240 6,240 6,240 6,240 6,240 6,240 6,240 51,220Total revenue (S) 1,520 5,440 10,080 10,080 10,080 10,080 10,080 10,080 10,080 10,080 87,600ExpensesShade house (from table 2) 2,443 2,443Plants 8,800 8,800Other capital items 1,265 1,265Fertiliser and other agrichemicals 605 605 605 605 605 605 605 605 605 605 6,050Rice husk replacement 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 150 1,350Total expenses 13,113 755 755 755 755 755 755 755 755 755 19,908Cash flow

-11,593 4,685 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 67,692Labour inputsCutting coconut husks for media 15 15Mixing media and planting 18 18Daily husbandy (watering, fertilising ed.) 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 3,000Harvesting, grading and marketing 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 300Total labour input 363 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 330 3,333Average annual cash flow (S) 6,769Average return per day of family labour 20

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Table 5: Cash flow projections for micro and small anthurium growing with debt servicing1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total

Micro enterprise modelCash flow before debt servicing

-1,408 478 980 980 980 980 980 980 980 980 6,910Repayment on $1,600 loan (@81'o interest) 332 332 332 332 332 332 332 2,323Cash flow after debt servicing

-1,408 146 648 648 648 648 648 648 980 980 4,586Repayment on $1,600 loan (@13.5% interest) 417 417 417 417 417 417 417 2,919Cash flow after debt servicing

-1,408 61 563 563 563 563 563 563 980 980 3,990

Small enterprise modelCash flow before debt servicing

-11,593 4,685 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 9,325 67,692Repayment on 813,200 loan (@8% interest) 2,489 2,016 2,016 2,016 2,016 2,016 2,016 2,016 2,016 18,617Cash flow after debt servicing

-11,593 2.196 7,309 7,309 7,309 7,309 7,309 7,309 7.309 7,309 49,075Repayment on $13,200 loan (@13.5% interest) 2,616 2,616 2,616 2,616 2,616 2,616 2,616 18,312Cash flow after debt servicing

-11,593 2,069 6,709 6,709 6,709 6,709 6,709 6,709 9,325 9,325 49,380

Financing and paying off your loan120. The start-up capital requirements were estimated at $1,600 and $13,200 for themicro and small enterprise respectively. Table 5 shows cash flow projections after debtservicing if these funds are borrowed. Two interest rates are applied: 8% (the subsidizedrate for indigenous Fijian) and 13.5% (the current FDB rate for commercial loans). It isassumed that loan repayment commence in year 2 and are repaid over 7 years. Boththese enterprises could service these loans with relatively little difficulty.

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Glossary of Terms

cash flow

contact insecticides

debt servicing

foliar fertilizer

genus (singular); genera (plural)

gross margin

keikis

inorganic fertilizer

integrated pest management(1PM)

media

obake

organic fertilizer

perennial

photosynthesis

pH

pistils

qanibulu

spathe

spadix

residual insecticides

stamen

The difference between money received and money spent

Are those that kill the insect when it is sprayed on its exteriorsurface

The ability to repay a loan taken to establish the enterprise

Fertilizer applied through the leaves

A division of the plant family which groups together similarspecies

Income after meeting all operating costs

Small offshoots from plant

Manufactured chemical fertilizer

Pest control that emphasizes non-chemical measures

Material into which anthuriums are planted

Two coloured anthurium - green and other colour

Based on natural material eg sea weed, manure

Long lasting

How plants convert sunlight into energy

The measure of acidity/alkalinity of the media

Female flower parts

Coconut husk

A modified leaf just below and protecting an inflorescenceA pencil like protrusion rising from the base of the spathe.The true anthurium flowers are located along the spadix.

Those that remain active on the plant surface for several daysand provide longer term control of pests.

Male flower parts

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soluable fertilizer

Fertilizer that is dissolved in water before being applied

systemic fertilizer

Those that are absorbed by the plant and kill the insect whenit sucks the sap

wholesale market

A market where businesses buy and sell (not for generalpublic)

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References

Anthura1998

Cultivation Guide Anthurium: Global Know How for Growers around theGlobe. Bleiswijk Holland.

Fiji Islands Trade and Investment Bureau (FTIB)2001

Profiles in Small and Micro Ventures: Floriculture. Suva.

Halloran John and Kuehnle Adelheid1998

What do Anthurium Buyers Want in Their Flowers? Results of a MarketSurvey. Cooperative Extension Service. College of Tropical Agricultureand Human Resources. University of Hawaii Manoa

Henny R.J., A.R. Chase and L.S. Osborne ProfessorAnthurium Production Guide. University of Florida(http://mrec.ifas.unl.edu/Foliage/folnoteslanthuriu.htm)

Higaki Tadashi (editor)1995

Anthurium Culture in Hawai'i. College of Tropical Agriculture andHuman Resources, University of Hawaii.

Reid Michael and Dodge Linda2002

Anthurium: Recommendations for Maintaining Postharvest Quality.University of California Davis. Post Harvest Technology(http://rics. ucdavis. edu/portharvest2/Produce/ProduceFacts/Orn/anthu . shtml)

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Anthuriums Manual Fiji

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