Anthology 1 Geography SEP Program

8/9/2019 Anthology 1 Geography SEP Program

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Geographical Space Components and Characteristics

Geographical Space Characteristics

Geography studies the humanized space ( Where a human society is in interaction with the environment).

Geographical Space is the perceived space and continuously transformed by the relationship between its

natural, social, economic, politicand culturalcharacteristics. he geographical space has changedthrough time because of natural processes as well as human intervention.

Geographical Space Characteristics Components

!ach characteristic is formed by a group of components, for e"ample the ones shown on the chart below#

Natural Social Cultural Economic Politic$ soil$ water$ climate(weather)$ relief$ flora$ fauna

$populationdynamics% growth% migration$ ethnics% languages% religions

$ artisticdemonstrations$ cultural globalization$ people&s culturalheritage

$ economic activities$ trade flows$ communication channelsand means

$ political organization$ international conflict$ international organizations

Geographical Space Categories

'iversity means variety and is the result of the combination of natural, social, cultural, economic and politicaspects to local, national or worldwide levels. limate, relief, natural resources, how population uses them,etc., produce a great diversity of the geographical space and that is why there are different regions,landscape, views and territories with environmental, cultural and economic characteristics that mae themuni*ue.Analysing these components and characteristics we will know if the space we are talking about isurban, rural, semi rural, etc!

Spatial Analysis Categories

Geography studies thehumanized space ( Where a human society is in interaction with the environment).

Geographical Space is the perceived space and continuously transformed by the relationship between itsnatural, social, economic, politic and cultural characteristics. he geographical space has changedthrough time because of natural processes as well as human intervention.


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+nalysis of the geographical space will lead you to understand that you belong to a time and a space andthat we are related with the natural and social changes that surround us. here are main categories forspatial analysis and they are#

Place or Site" -s the smallest unit of analysis, is any place where a human can carry out hisher dailyactivities, it can be a neighborhood, a par a city. -t is a place which creates a feeling of belonging andidentity with a community. (room, house, school, neighborhood, club, par, etc.).

En#ironment" is the surrounding area of where we live. When we refer to the physic or biologiccharacteristics of a place we are taling about the natural environment, for e"ample the /ungle around the+mazon 0iver. he social or human environmentis which contains cultural or economic demonstrationslie hichen -tz1 or te petroleum zone of 2inatitl1n. 3ou can also tal about a rural or urban environment.

$andscape" -s the group of components perceived by the eyes and that has specific characteristics lievegetation, climate, relief, etc. -t can be natural (woods, desert, /ungle, etc.) or social or modified (rural,urban, semi urban, etc.)

%egion" -s a geographical space characterized by some natural, cultural or economic elements that

differentiates it from others. 4or e"ample close areas that share the same climate may form a climate region(cold, warm, tropical, etc.). We can also tal about agricultural regions, language regions or cultural regions.

&erritory" -s the space that shares the same government. -t is limited by artificial or natural frontiers (state,country, municipality, etc.). -t&s study belongs to national or local scale.

%elationship of Geographical Space Components in a Place, En#ironment,$andscape, %egion and &erritory!

he interaction between the components results in all the elements (natural, social, cultural, economic andpolitic) being related. 4or e"ample the different climates influence the variety of natural regions, in theeconomical activities of each place and the social and politic organization of its inhabitants.

here is an enormous diversity in our country and world. his diversity is so big because the combinations ofthe components vary and the people who inhabit them gives each special characteristics. ( 5roadway Streetin 6ew 3or, Garibaldi&s S*uare in 2e"ico ity, etc. where the demonstration of artistic follore gives each acharacteristic aspect that distinguishes them from other places.

he main division form of recognizing an environment is urban or rural, but urban or rural zones can be very

different according to the country , region territory, etc.


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'tility of Graph and Number Scales on maps

http#www.brainpop/r.comsocialstudiesgeography(lin for e"tra information)

Geographic Space can be analysed to different scales# worldwide, national or local.

+ map can show continents, countries, states, and cities or show the roads and landmars of a town. -t canshow routes of a transportation system, such as bus or subway lines, different landforms and elevations,different inds of natural resources, or varying temperatures in a specific area. + map can also showhistorical data, such as changes in population, housing development, or crime. + globe is a map on a roundmodel that shows places on !arth.

+ map ey or map legend is a chart that e"plains what symbols mean on a map. 7n many navigationalmaps, a blac dot stands for a city, a star stands for a state8s capital, and a star inside a circle stands for acountry8s capital. +irplanes stand for airports and blac or yellow lines stand for highways, roads, or streets.'ifferent maps have different symbols, though many share the same basic symbols.

2any maps have a compass rose, which is a tool that displays directions. he cardinal directionsare north, east, south, and west. he intermediate directions are the points in between the cardinaldirections# northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest.
http://www.brainpopjr.com/socialstudies/geography/http://www.brainpopjr.com/socialstudies/geography/


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2any maps also have a scale, which is a tool that compares distance on a map to distance on !arth. hescale helps the user figure out real%life distances by looing at a map. 4or e"ample, suppose there is a mapwhere 9 inch represents 9 mile. wo landmars that are : inches apart on the map are : miles apart on!arth. 'ifferent maps have different scales so you should always refer to the map ey or legend to loo forthe scale.

0emember that a map is a visual representation of a much larger area of land. -n order to be useful, a mapmust by necessity be small enough to be handled by an individual.

5ecause the !arth is round and maps are flat, it is impossible to create a map with a perfect scale. Someparts of the map will be too large, while others will be too small. he larger a territory represented by a map,the greater that the distortions in scale will be.

-t is important that we recognize how to read, understand, and utilize scale as we e"amine the various mapsthat we encounter. here are three common methods used by map maers to depict scale. hese methodsare referred to as the graphic method, the verbal method, and the fractional method.

&he Graphic (ethod

+ Graphic Scale depicts scale using a line, with separations mared by smaller intersecting lines, similar to aruler. 7ne side of the scale represents the distance on the map, while the other side represents the truedistances of ob/ects in real life. 5y measuring the distance between two ob/ects on a map and then referringto the graphic scale, it is easy to calculate the actual distance between those same items.


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here are many benefits to using a graphic scale. 4irst and foremost, it is a straight forward, easy way todetermine scale. Secondly, if a map8s size is enlarged or decreased, the scale is also enlarged or reduced,meaning that it is still accurate.

&he )erbal (ethod

he verbal method of depicting scale simply uses words to describe the ratio between the map;s scale andthe real world. 4or e"ample, a map might say something lie,


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$arge Scale (ap )ersus Small Scale (ap

+ map which depicts a small territory is referred to as a large scale map. his is because the area of landbeing represented by the map has been scaled down less, or in other words, the scale is larger. + large scalemap only shows a small area, but it shows it in great detail. + map depicting a large area, such as an entirecountry, is considered a small scale map. -n order to show the entire country, the map must be scaled downuntil it is much smaller. + small scale map shows more territory, but it is less detailed.

(ap %eading + (easuring istances

-! Scale"

7b/ects on the map are drawn to scale# this means the length is changed by the same proportion as thewidth.

!"ample#

he most used are usually 9#==== (most common) or 9#>=== scale maps.

4or a 9#==== map# 9 cm on the map e*uals ==== cm on the ground (which is the same as saying 9 cm ?== m or > cm ? 9=== m).

4or a 9#>=== map# 9 cm on the map e*uals >=== cm on the ground (which is the same as saying 9 cm ?>= m or @ cm ? 9=== m).

-n map reading we usually measure distances in ilometres (m) instead of metres (m).9 m ? 9=== m.

.! Estimating istances"

+s said above, a grid s*uare measures 9 m by 9 m. he diagonal distance(from bottom left to top rightsay) on a grid s*uare is appro"imately 9. m. + *uic method of measuring a straight line on the map is tocount grid s*uares#

!"amples#

A -f a straight road covers @ grid s*uares on the map, it will measure appro"imately @ m on the ground.

A -f the straight edge of a forest covers :.> grid s*uares on the map, it will measure appro"imately :.> m onthe ground.

A -f a road runs diagonally across two grid s*uares it will measure about : m on the ground.

Blease note this is a rough method only. -t is not suitable for accurate measurements.


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/! Accurate (easurement of istances

Ceight ? : cm

Dength ? E cm

0educed by =F#

Ceight ? 9. cm

Dength ? : cm

Bart +# o measure a straight line between two points#

A se a ruler and convert the ruler measurement to the distance on the ground.

A +lternatively, lay the straight edge of a piece of paper between the points and mar the paper

where they are. ransfer the paper edge to the scale bar at the bottom of the map and read off thedistance on the ground.

Bart 5# o measure a winding route#

A se a piece of paper with a straight edge and Hwor8 it along the route on the map.

I


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0emember which mar on your paper strip is the start of the route.

'on8t tae the paper strip off the map J /ust mar it and rotate it when you get to a bend on your route.

When you8ve put the last mar on your paper strip (eg. the end of your route) lay the strip over thescale bar at the bottom of the map.

0ead off the distance between the start and end mars on your paper strip.

3ou can also use string to measure distances on the map. Knot or mar your string at the start of theroute and wor it round in the same way you would the paper strip. Broper map measurers can also bepurchased from outdoor shops.

Bractice this method to get good at it. 2easuring distances is a very important.

Geographic Coordinates and &ime 0ones

Latitude and Longitude

Datitude and longitude lines are use to locate coordinates on the earth or on a map.

-n classical Greece and hina, attempts were made to create logical grid systems of the world to answer this

*uestion. he ancient Gree geographer Btolemy created a grid system and listed the coordinates for places

throughout the nown world in his boo Geography. 5ut it wasn;t until the middle ages that the latitude and

longitude system was developed and implemented. his system is written in degrees, using the symbol L.

$atitude

When looing at a map, latitude lines run horizontally. Datitude lines are also nown as parallels since they

are parallel and are an e*ual distance from each other. !ach degree of latitude is appro"imately EM miles(999 m) apartN there is a variation due to the fact that the earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate ellipsoid

(slightly egg%shaped). o remember latitude, imagine them as the horizontal rungs of a ladder (Oladder%tudeO).

'egrees latitude are numbered from =L to M=L north and south. Pero degrees is the e*uator, the imaginary

line which divides our planet into the northern and southern hemispheres. M=L north is the 6orth Bole and M=L

south is the South Bole.

$ongitude

he vertical longitude lines are also nown as meridians. hey converge at the poles and are widest at the

e*uator (about EM miles or 999 m apart). Pero degrees longitude is located at Greenwich, !ngland (=L). he

degrees continue 9Q=L east and 9Q=L west where they meet and form the -nternational 'ate Dine in theBacific 7cean. Greenwich, the site of the 5ritish 0oyal Greenwich 7bservatory, was established as the site of

the prime meridian by an international conference in 9QQ@.

1ow $atitude and $ongitude 2ork &ogether

o precisely locate points on the earth;s surface, degrees longitude and latitude have been divided into

minutes (;) and seconds (O). here are E= minutes in each degree. !ach minute is divided into E= seconds.

Seconds can be further divided into tenths, hundredths, or even thousandths. 4or e"ample, the .S. apitol

is located at :QL:;>:O6 , RRL==;>ROW (:Q degrees, : minutes, and >: seconds north of the e*uator and RR

degrees, no minutes and >R seconds west of the meridian passing through Greenwich, !ngland).


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hree of the most significant imaginary lines running across the surface of the !arth are the e*uator, the

ropic of ancer, and the ropic of apricorn. While the e*uator is the longest line of latitude on the !arth

(the line where the !arth is widest in an east%west direction), the tropics are based on the sun;s position in

relation to the !arth at two points of the year. +ll three lines of latitude are significant in their relationship

between the !arth and the sun.

&he E3uator

he e*uator is located at zero degrees latitude. he e*uator runs through -ndonesia, !cuador, northern

5razil, the 'emocratic 0epublic of the ongo, and Kenya, among other countries he e*uator divides the

planet into the 6orthern and Southern Cemispheres. 7n the e*uator, the length of day and night are e*ual

every day of the year % day is always twelve hours long and night is always twelve hours long.

&he &ropic of Cancer and the &ropic of Capricorn

he ropic of ancer and the ropic of apricorn each lie at >:. degrees latitude. he ropic of ancer is

located at >:.L 6orth of the e*uator and runs through 2e"ico, the 5ahamas, !gypt, Saudi +rabia, -ndia, and

southern hina. he ropic of apricorn lies at >:.L South of the e*uator and runs through +ustralia, hile,

southern 5razil (5razil is the only country that passes through both the e*uator and a tropic), and northern

South +frica.

he tropics are the two lines where the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two solstices % near une and

'ecember >9. he sun is directly overhead at noon on the ropic of ancer on une >9 (the beginning of

summer in the 6orthern Cemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern Cemisphere) and the sun is

directly overhead at noon on the ropic of apricorn on 'ecember >9 (the beginning of winter in the 6orthern

Cemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern Cemisphere).

he reason for the location of the ropic of ancer and the ropic of apricorn at >:.L north and south

respectively is due to the a"ial tilt of the !arth. he !arth is titled >:. degrees from the plane of the !arth;s

revolution around the sun each year.

he area bounded by the ropic of ancer on the north and ropic of apricorn on the south is nown as the

Otropics.O his area does not e"perience seasons because the sun is always high in the sy. 7nly higher

latitudes, north of the ropic of ancer and south of the ropic of apricorn, e"perience significant seasonal

variation in climate.

Prime (eridian

While the e*uator divides the !arth into 6orthern and Southern Cemispheres, it is the Brime 2eridian at zero

degrees longitude and the line of longitude opposite the Brime 2eridian (near the -nternational 'ate Dine) at

9Q= degrees longitude that divides the !arth into the !astern and Western Cemispheres. he !astern

Cemisphere consists of !urope, +frica, +sia, and +ustralia while the Western Cemisphere includes 6orth and

South +merica. Some geographers place the boundaries between the hemispheres at >=L West and 9E=L

!ast so as to not run through !urope and +frica. he Brime 2eridian and all lines of longitude are completely

imaginary lines and have no significance with regard to the !arth or to its relationship with the sun.

Dins for more information#

http#geography.about.comcslatitudelongitudealatlong.htm

http#www.idsgeo.comgeography%gameslatitude%longitude%map%game.php
http://geography.about.com/cs/latitudelongitude/a/latlong.htmhttp://www.kidsgeo.com/geography-games/latitude-longitude-map-game.phphttp://geography.about.com/cs/latitudelongitude/a/latlong.htmhttp://www.kidsgeo.com/geography-games/latitude-longitude-map-game.php


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&ime 0ones

ime zones are areas of the !arth that follow the same definition of time. 4ormerly, people were using

apparent solar time, resulting in the time differing slightly from town to town. ime zones partially rectified the

problem by setting the clocs of a region to the same mean solar time. ime zones are generally centered on

meridians of a longitude that is a multiple of 9TN however as the map below shows, the shapes of time zones

can be *uite irregular because of boundaries of countries. +ll time zones are defined relative to oordinated

niversal ime(), the time zone containing Dondon.('nderlined words take you to links for further

information).
http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/co/Coordinated_Universal_Timehttp://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/co/Coordinated_Universal_Timehttp://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/lo/Londonhttp://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/lo/Londonhttp://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/co/Coordinated_Universal_Timehttp://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/co/Coordinated_Universal_Timehttp://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/lo/London


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$ocation of Places and &ime 0ones on (aps

o e"actly locate a place in the world is done using the geographical coordinates given by its latitude,longitude and altitude.

o now the time of a place located at the east you need to add an hour for each 9L of longitude (to thewest% to the left in a map) and to now the time of a place located to the west you need to subtract an hourfor each degree (to the east J to the right on a map).

efinitions"

Cro3uis" simplified form of a small area map!

Plan" Small representation of portions of geographical space ( city, neighborhood).

(ap" !arth&s surface representation.

Atlas" ollection of maps.

Globe" :' 0epresentation of !arth

(AP P%45EC&64NS


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%epresentation

escription Ad#antages isad#antages 6llustration

Cylindrical7%obinson ,(ercator and Peterspro8ections are allcylindrialpro8ections!9

A cylindrical pro8ectionmap is the mostcommon type of map!

(athematicallypro8ected on aCyllinder conceptuallytangent to the E3uator!:est 'ses" &orepresent all earth!:est 'ses" &orepresent all earth!

Areas close tothee3uator ha#e #ery littledistortion! All areas onthe map areproportional to thesame areas on theEarth! irections arereasonably accurate in

limited regions!istances are true onboth standard parallels!&he pro8ection workswell for mapping areasthat e;tend e3ually fromthe center point, suchas North America

&he closer to the polesthat one tra#els, the moredistorted the mapbecomes!Greenlandappears to be many timeslarger than it reallyis!Areas and shapesof large areas are

distorted! istortionincreases away fromE3uator and is e;treme inpolar regions! (ap,howe#er, is conformal inthat angles and shapeswithin any small area7such as that shown by'SGS topographic map9is essentially true!

Conic A conic pro8ection mapis created by placing acone shaped screen on

a globe! &he resultingpro8ection is moreaccurate than thecylindrical pro8ectionmap discussed abo#e!1owe#er, the furtherwe tra#el down themap, the moredistorted and lessaccurate the mapbecomes!(athematicallypro8ected on a conesecant at two standardparallels!

Parallels are semicircles and meridiansget all together at thepoles!

:est 'ses" &orepresent parts of theworld, speially middlelatitudes!

Any straight line on themap is a rhumb line7line of constant

direction9! irectionsalong a rhumb line aretrue between anytwopoints on map!Good forna#igation!

istances are true onlyalong E3uator! Areas andshapes of large areas are

distorted! istortionincreases away fromE3uator and is e;treme inpolar regions! (ap,howe#er, is conformal inthat angles and shapeswithin any small area! &hemap is not perspecti#e,e3ual area, or e3uidistant! A rhumb line is usuallynotthe shortest distancebetween points!

A


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western hemispheres! Polar" *orrepresenting Artic andAntartic areas!

(ercators Pro8ection"!"aggerates surfaces over Q=L latitude. Bolar continental zones loo bigger thanthey really are.%obinsons Pro8ection# Bseudo%cylindrical pro/ection in which continents appear longer but show moreprecise dimensions. Shows good shape of continents and oceans.Peters Pro8ection# -ts advantage is to show a more realistic dimension of continents, with less distortion atmiddle latitudes, but deforms e*uatorial and polar zones.here are two other common forms of representing the !arth#(ollweide"Cas and elliptical shape and areas loo very deformed. sed to represent e"actly zones close toGreenwich meridian.Goode"7ceans are very deformed. 2aintains good shape of continents but oceans are very deformed.

2ercator

Beters (Beterson)


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0obison

Satellite images, GPS and G6S

2hat are satellite photographs=

Satellite photographs are a type of photograph used by geographers

Satellite photographs are images of the !arth;s surface. he information for these images is captured and

transmitted using specialised cameras, scanners or sensors which are fitted to an artificial satellite (ie not

moons or stars). hese man%made satellites orbit the !arth from a distance of up to 9=== ilometres above

the surface.


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6n ->?@, the first satellite photographs of the Earth were created by a weather satellite. his was lessthan a year after the first satellite images of the moon were captured. Since then, satellite images have been

used for a wide variety of purposes. 4wing to satellite photographs being able to show cloud patterns

with great clarity, they are often seen on tele#ision as a part of the weather forecast!Bopular action

movies and television programs have also made satellite imagery synonymous with military and government

intelligence and security agencies. Satellite imagery is also used in the fields of cartography 7creating

maps of the Earths surface9 geology, engineering, oceanography 7scientific study of the ocean9 and

agriculture!


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Ad#antages and disad#antages

4ne main ad#antage of satellite imagery is that it can show a large area . While obli*ue and aerial photographs may

have a scale in which one centimetre on the page represents a few hundred metres on the ground, satellite images can

represent tens of ilometres in a single centimetre.

Satellite images can also pro#ide more information than con#entional photographs . Scanners and sensors not

only show vegetation and settlement patterns, but also make measurements of the Earths surface and detect

different fre3uencies of electromagnetic radiation!ollected information ranges from the amount of water vapour in

the atmosphere, to the temperature of the land and sea.

+lthough satellite imagery is very useful, it does have some downfalls. Satellite imagery is time consuming, since it

taes a long time to process the large pictures using such a high resolution. o create an ade*uate image from space,

optimum conditions are also re3uired. Weather patterns can be unpredictable and the sun, which is the ma8or

source of light, needs to be in an ideal position. -f the conditions are not optimum, it may be days or even wees

until the satellite will return to the area which is re*uired to be photographed.

2hat is GPS=

&he Global Positioning System 7GPS9 is a satellitebased na#igation system made up of a network of

.B satellites placed into orbit by the '!S! epartment of efense. GBS was originally intended for

military applications, but in the 9MQ=s, the government made the system available for civilian use. GPS

works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the world, .B hours a day!

1ow it works

GBS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal information to earth.

GBS receivers tae this information and use triangulation to calculate the user;s e"act location. !ssentially,

the GBS receiver compares the time a signal was transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received. he

time difference tells the GBS receiver how far away the satellite is.&he recei#er can determine the users

position and display it on the units electronic map! GPS allows people to determine the time and

their speed anywhere in the world!


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A GPS recei#er must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a . position

7latitude and longitude9 and track mo#ement.2ith four or more satellites in #iew, the recei#er can

determine the users / position 7latitude, longitude and altitude9!7nce the user;s position has been

determined, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as speed, bearing, track, trip distance

distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time and more!

1ow accurate is GPS=

&odays GPS recei#ers are e;tremely accurate, thanks to their parallel multichannel design. Garmin;s

9> parallel channel receivers are *uic to loc onto satellites when first turned on and they maintain strong

locs, even in dense foliage or urban settings with tall buildings. Certain atmospheric factors and other

sources of error can affect the accuracy of GPS recei#ers! Garmin GPS recei#ers are accurate to

within -D meters on a#erage!

6ewer Garmin GBS receivers with 2AAS (Wide +rea +ugmentation System) capability can improve

accuracy to less than three meters on average. 6o additional e*uipment or fees are re*uired to tae

advantage of W++S. sers can also get better accuracy with 'ifferential GBS ('GBS), which corrects GBS

signals to within an average of three to five meters. he .S. oast Guard operates the most common 'GBS

correction service. &his system consists of a network of towers that recei#e GPS signals and transmit

a corrected signal by guide transmitters! 6n order to get the corrected signal, users must ha#e a

differential guide recei#er and guide antenna in addition to their GPS!
http://www8.garmin.com/aboutGPS/waas.htmlhttp://www8.garmin.com/aboutGPS/waas.html


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&he GPS satellite system

&he .B satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the earth about -.,@@@ miles

abo#e us!hey are constantly moving, maing two complete orbits in less than >@ hours. hese satellites

are travelling at speeds of roughly R,=== miles an hour.

GPS satellites are powered by solar energy!hey have bacup batteries onboard to eep them running in

the event of a solar eclipse, when there;s no solar power. Small rocet boosters on each satellite eep them

flying in the correct path.Cere are some other interesting facts about the GBS satellites (also called 6+US+0, the official .S.

'epartment of 'efense name for GBS).

What -s G-SV

2aps have been used for thousands of years, but it is only within the last few decades that the technology

has e"isted to combine maps with computer graphics and databases to create geographic information

systems or G-S. he themes in the above graphic are only a small e"ample of the wide array of information

that can view or analyze with a G-S. G-S is used to display and analyze spatial data which are tied to

databases. his connection is what gives G-S its power# maps can be drawn from the database and data canbe referenced from the maps. When a database is updated, the associated map can be updated as well. G-S

databases include a wide variety of information including# geographic, social, political, environmental, and

demographic. G6S uses layers , called themes, to o#erlay different types of information, much as

some static maps use mylar o#erlays to add tiers of information to a geographic background! G6S is a

series of o#erlapped maps!Each theme represents a category of information, such as roads or fores

co#er! As with the old mylar maps, the layers which are underneath remain #isible while additiona

themes are placed abo#e!

1ow G6S 2orks

6t is estimated that appro;imately F@ of all information has a spatial or geographic component! 6n

other words, most information is tied to a place! So when making decisions about siting new

facilities, creating hiking trails, protecting wetlands, directing emergency response #ehicles

designating historic neighborhoods or redrawing legislati#e districts, geography plays a significant

role. his is where G-S comes in. Geographic -nformation Systems (G-S) technology is a computer%based

data collection, storage, and analysis tool that combines previously unrelated information into easily

understood maps. :ut G6S is much more than maps! A G6S can perform complicated analytica


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functions and then present the results #isually as maps, tables or graphs, allowing decisionmakers

to #irtually see the issues before them and then select the best course of action!+dd the -nternet, and

G-S offers a consistent and cost%effective means for the sharing and analysis of geographic data among

government agencies, private industry, non%profit organizations, and the general public.

Earth $ayers, Plate &ectonics, Seismic and )olcanic Areas

http"HHwww!learner!orgHinteracti#esHdynamicearthHinde;!html

6ntroductionhe earth thin it;s solid as a rocV 7ur planet might seem fi"ed and rigid, but a closer loo reveals that itis constantly shifting under our feet. 'elve into the earth;s interior, learn about its tectonic plates and theirmovements, and discover how mountains, volcanoes, and earth*uaes are formed.
http://teachermonse.blogspot.mx/2012/10/earth-layers-plate-tectonicssseismic.htmlhttp://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/index.htmlhttp://teachermonse.blogspot.mx/2012/10/earth-layers-plate-tectonicssseismic.htmlhttp://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/index.html


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2hats inside the earth=

-n the early part of the >=th century, geologists studied the vibrations (seismic waves) generated byearth*uaes to learn more about the structure of the earth;s interior. hey discovered that it is made up ofthese distinct layers# the crust, the mantle, and the core.

Plate &ectonics

Scientist +lfred Wegener -n the early 9M==s, the German scientist Alfred 2egener noticed that thecoastlines of +frica and South +merica looed lie they might fit together. Ce also discovered evidence thatthe same plant and animal fossils were found along the coasts of these continents, although they were nowseparated by vast oceans. -n addition, he noticed that geologic formations, lie mountain ranges, on the twocontinents also matched up. -n 9M9, Wegener published his boo, he 7rigin of ontinents and 7ceans,suggesting that the earth;s continents were once /oined together in one large mass. Ce called the originallandmass (or supercontinent) OPangaea,the Gree word for Oall the earth.O

200 million years

ago

135 million years

ago

65 million years ago 50-40 million years

ago

Pangaea begins to

break up and splitsinto two major

landmasses

Laurasia in te nort!made up o" #ort

$meri%a and &urasia!and 'ondwana in te

sout! made up o" te

oter %ontinents(

'ondwana splinters

"urter te )out$meri%a-$"ri%a

landmass separates

"rom te $ntar%ti%a-$ustralia landmass(

*e +ndian landmass

breaks away "rom te

$ntar%ti%a-$ustralialandmass(

,ajor ri"ting o"

Laurasia! wit te#ort $meri%an

landmass separating

"rom &urasia(

)out $meri%a and,adagas%ar separate

"rom $"ri%a(

'reenland separates

"rom #ort $meri%a(

$ustralia separates

"rom $ntar%ti%a andmoes nort(

*e +ndian landmass

%ollides wit $sia(

+ccording to Wegener, over time OBangaeaO split apart and the different landmasses, or continents, drifted totheir current locations on the globe. While other scientists of the time vehemently re/ected Wegener;s ideas,they became the basis for the development of the theory of plate tectonics. ontinents on the 2ove >==million years ago 9: million years ago E million years ago =%@= million years ago Bangaea begins tobrea up and splits into two ma/or landmasses Daurasia in the north, made up of 6orth +merica and!urasia, and Gondwana in the south, made up of the other continents. Gondwana splinters further theSouth +merica%+frica landmass separates from the +ntarctica%+ustralia landmass. he -ndian landmassbreas away from the +ntarctica%+ustralia landmass. 2a/or rifting of Daurasia, with the 6orth +mericanlandmass separating from !urasia. South +merica and 2adagascar separate from +frica. Greenlandseparates from 6orth +merica. +ustralia separates from +ntarctica and moves north. he -ndian landmasscollides with +sia. he modern plate tectonics theory, which has become widely accepted since the 9ME=s,states that the earth;s outer layer, or lithosphere, is broen into several large slabs called plates. heseplates, which hold the continents and oceans, are slowly but constantly moving around the planet.


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he movement of the plates not only supports our understanding that continents are not fi"ed and movedover time, but also e"plains how and why earth*uaes, volcanoes, and other geologic events occur. Blates X

5oundaries he earth;s continents are constantly moving due to the motions of the tectonic plates. loselye"amine the map below, which shows the 9 ma/or tectonic plates. +s you can see, some of the platescontain continents and others are mostly under the ocean. he type of crust that underlies the continents iscalled continental crust, while the type found under the oceans is called oceanic crust. ontinental crust isthicer about >= to @= miles (: to R= m) thic and usually older than oceanic crust, which is only @ toE miles (R to 9= m) thic. +ll the plates have names, usually referring to landmasses, oceans, or regions ofthe globe where they are located. &he border between two tectonic plates is called a boundary !+ll thetectonic plates are constantly moving very slowly around the planet, but in many different directions.Some are moving toward each other, some are moving apart, and some are sliding past each other. 5ecauseof these differences, tectonic plate boundaries are grouped into three main types.


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Slip, Slide, I Collide

0ed%hot lava and plumes of ash spew out of a volcano in the Bhilippines. +n undersea earth*uae in the-ndian 7cean spawns a tsunami that crashes into -ndonesia. he Cimalayan 2ountains grow taller everyyear. 2any of the most dramatic geological phenomena we e"perience on !arth volcanic eruptions,earth*uaes, tsunamis, and more are caused by the slipping, sliding, and colliding of tectonic plates. +syou might e"pect by now, most ma/or geologic events occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates,where huge, massive pieces of the earth;s crust interact. !ach ind of plate boundary is associated withparticular events, so if you now about the movements taing place at a plate boundary, you can oftenpredict what;s liely to occur there volcanoes, earth*uaes, mountains, trenches in the futureY Slip,Slide, X ollide onvergent 5oundaries olliding Blates +t convergent boundaries, tectonic plates collidewith each other.


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he events that occur at these boundaries are lined to the types of plates oceanic or continental thatare interacting. Subduction Pones and Uolcanoes +t some convergent boundaries, an oceanic plate collideswith a continental plate. 7ceanic crust tends to be denser and thinner than continental crust, so the denseroceanic crust gets bent and pulled under, or subducted, beneath the lighter and thicer continental crust. hisforms what is called a subduction zone. +s the oceanic crust sins, a deep oceanic trench, or valley, isformed at the edge of the continent. he crust continues to be forced deeper into the earth, where high heatand pressure cause trapped water and other gasses to be released from it. his, in turn, maes the base ofthe crust melt, forming magma. he magma formed at a subduction zone rises up toward the earth;s surface

and builds up in magma chambers, where it feeds and creates volcanoes on the overriding plate. When thismagma finds its way to the surface through a vent in the crust, the volcano erupts, e"pelling lava and ash. +ne"ample of this is the band of active volcanoes that encircle the Bacific 7cean, often referred to as the 0ingof 4ire. -llustration depicting how island arcs are formed. + subduction zone is also generated when twooceanic plates collide the older plate is forced under the younger one and it leads to the formation ofchains of volcanic islands nown as island arcs. !"amples include the 2ariana -slands in the western Bacific7cean and the +leutian -slands, off the coast of +lasa. Since the collision and subduction of plates is not asmooth process, large, powerful earth*uaes are another phenomenon that result from this type ofinteraction.

!arth*uaes generated in a subduction zone can also give rise to tsunamis. + tsunami is a huge ocean wavecaused by a sudden shift on the ocean floor, such as an undersea earth*uae. -f the wave reaches land, itcan cause incredible destruction, lie the +sian sunami, which illed more than >==,=== people in 99countries across the -ndian 7cean region in 'ecember >==@. ollision Pones and 2ountains What happens

when two continental plates collideV 5ecause the roc maing up continental plates is generally lighter andless dense than oceanic roc, it is too light to get pulled under the earth and turned into magma. -nstead, acollision between two continental plates crunches and folds the roc at the boundary, lifting it up and leadingto the formation of mountains and mountain ranges.


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&ransform :oundaries J Grinding Plates

+t transform boundaries, tectonic plates are not moving directly toward or directly away from each other.-nstead, two tectonic plates grind past each other in a horizontal direction. his ind of boundary results in afault a crac or fracture in the earth;s crust that is associated with this movement. 4aults and !arth*uaesransform boundaries and the resulting faults produce many earth*uaes because edges of tectonic platesare /agged rather than smooth. +s the plates grind past each other, the /agged edges strie each other,catch, and stic, OlocingO the plates in place for a time. 5ecause the plates are loced together withoutmoving, a lot of stress builds up at the fault line. his stress is released in *uic bursts when the platessuddenly slip into new positions. he sudden movement is what we feel as the shaing and trembling of anearth*uae. he motion of the plates at a transform boundary has given this type of fault another name astrie%slip fault. he best%studied strie%slip fault is the San +ndreas 4ault in alifornia. -t is located at theboundary between the Bacific and 6orth +merican plates and runs roughly Q== miles (9,:== m) through


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6orthern and Southern alifornia. +s the two plates grind past each other the Bacific Blate movingnorthwest and the 6orth +merican Blate moving southeast the motion produces numerous earth*uaesalong the fault. While many are small and cause only minor trembling, the San +ndreas 4ault has also beenthe site of ma/or events# the 9QR 4ort e/on earth*uae, the 9M=E San 4rancisco earth*uae and fire, andthe 9MQM Doma Brieta earth*uae. 2any scientists believe that the San +ndreas 4ault is due to unleashanother large earth*uae a Obig oneO in the coming decades.

9. Which of these layers is found directly above the earth;s coreV

a. +sthenosphere

b. -nner orec. 2antled. 7uter ore

>. Which scientist is credited with proposing the ideas that led to the development of the plate tectonicstheoryV

a. harles 'arwinb. +lbert !insteinc. -saac 6ewtond. +lfred Wegener

:. 2id%ocean ridges are places where tectonic plates are doing whatV

a. ollidingb. Sliding past each other


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c. Spreading apartd. 6one of the above

@.What is happening at the subduction zone of the uan de 4uca and 6orth +merican BlatesV

a. Blates are sliding past each other.b. Blates are spreading apart.c. 7ne plate is being pulled under another.d. 6one of the above.

. What type of crust is found under the continentsV

a. ontinental crustb. 7ceanic crustc. Geologic crustd. 6one of the above

E. What is the name of this tectonic plateV

a. +frican Blateb. +ntarctic Blatec. +rabian Blated. -ndian Blate

R. 2ountain formation can result when which of the following occursV

a. wo oceanic plates collide.

b. wo continental plates collide.c. wo oceanic plates spread apart.d. 6one of the above.!

Q. alifornia;s San +ndreas 4ault is identified as which of the followingV

a. 5lind thrust faultb. 'ip%slip faultc. 6ormal faultd. Strie%slip fault

M. Which of these statements is correctV

a. ontinental crust is thicer than oceanic crust.b. ontinental crust is thinner than oceanic crust.c. 7ceanic crust is thicer than continental crust.d. ontinental and oceanic crusts have the same thicness.

9=. Which of the following geologic events can occur at a transform boundaryV


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a. !arth*uaeb. 2ountain formationc. Uolcanic eruptiond. 0ift formation

99. When did the Cimalayan 2ountain 0ange begin to formV

a. ,===%E,=== years agob. >=%:= million years agoc. @=%= million years agod. 9==%9= million years ago

9>. Which of the earth;s layers is broen into several large tectonic platesV

a. +sthenosphereb. rustc. Dithosphered. 7uter ore

9:. What is the name of this tectonic plateV

a. ocos Blateb. 6azca Blatec. Scotia Blated. South +merican Blate

9@. What is the earth;s outermost layerV

a. rustb. Dithospherec. 2antled. 7uter ore

9. What leads to the creation of island arcsV

a. ollision of two oceanic plates.b. ollision of two continental plates.


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c. ollision of a continental and an oceanic plate.d. +ll of the above.

9E.What type of crust is found under the oceansV

a. ontinental crustb. 7ceanic crustc. Geologic crustd. 6one of the above

9R. When did the supercontinent Bangaea start to brea upV

a. >= million years agob. @= million years agoc. 9== million years agod. >== million years ago

9Q. What ind of plate boundary is found at the meeting point of the Bhilippine and Bacific BlatesV

a. +sian boundaryb. onvergent boundaryc. 'ivergent boundaryd. ransform boundary

9M. his animation depicts which of the followingV

a. !arth*uaeb. 2ountain formationc. Subduction zoned. 0ift formation

>=. What is the earth;s only li*uid layerV

a. +sthenosphereb. -nner orec. 2antled. 7uter ore

>9. his solid layer of the earth is made of mostly iron and nicel.


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a. rustb. -nner orec. 2antled. 7uter ore

>>. Which of these concepts is part of the theory of plate tectonicsV

a. ontinents are fi"ed and don;t move.b. + great flood shaped the earth;s surface.c. ontinents are in slow constant motion.d. 6one of the above.

>:. What is 67 liely to happen at a divergent boundaryV

a. 2ountain formationb. 0ift valleyc. Seafloor spreadingd. Uolcano formation

>@. What is the name of this tectonic plateV

a. +ustralian Blateb. -ndian Blatec. Bacific Blate

d. Bhilippine Blate

>. +ppro"imately >> million years ago, the earth;s continents were grouped into one landmass. What is thelandmass calledV

a. !uropab. urassicc. Bangaea

d. Bangaea ltima

>E. he tectonic plates float on which semili*uid layerV


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a. +sthenosphereb. rustc. -nner ored. Dithosphere

>R. What ind of plate boundary is found where the 6orth +merican and aribbean Blates meetV

a. aribbean boundaryb. onvergent boundaryc. 'ivergent boundaryd. ransform boundary

>Q. What is the border between two tectonic plates calledV

a. 5oundaryb. ollision zonec. 0iftd. rench

>M. What ind of plate boundary runs across -celandV

a. onvergent boundaryb. 'ivergent boundaryc. 6ordic boundaryd. ransform boundary


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)olcanic %egions of the 2orld

+bout = volcanoes have erupted on !arth;s surface since recorded historyN about E= are active each year.4ar more have erupted unobserved on the ocean floor. 2ost volcanoes e"ist at the boundaries of !arth;scrustal plates, such as the famous 0ing of 4ire that surrounds the Bacific 7cean plate.

4rom the outside, a volcano loos e"actly lie a mountain would with a tall conical shape. Cowever, inside

the mountain there is a vent or a crater that connects magma or molten roc that is found deep under the

earth8s surface to the top of the mountain.

When the magma travels through the vent and erupts outside the volcano, it is called lava and in addition to

lava, the volcano can spit out gases and pieces of roc. Geologists and scientists often study volcanic

eruptions but they can be sudden, une"pected and destructive since the flowing lava will destroy anything

and everything within its reach. he statuses of volcanoes can be of three types# dormant, e"tinct and

active. + dormant is a volcano that has not erupted for a very long time but there are chances that it might

erupt again in the future. + volcano that is e"tinct has no possibility of erupting anytime in the future while an

active volcano erupts regularly, normally once every couple of years or even more often than that.

Uolcanic eruptions happen because of the high temperature that e"ists under the surface of the !arth. his

high temperature can cause the !arth8s mantle to melt into molten roc or magma. Since this is a denser and


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lighter form, it has a tendency to float upwards to the magma chambers. Dater on, this magma is liely to

push itself upwards towards the vent of the volcano and cause an eruption. +part from that, the pressure of

the gases that becomes dissolved in the magma is another reason why the magma is pressurized to push

upwards. -n addition, when the *uantity of magma in the magma chambers increases there is lielihood that

magma will rise upwards causing an eruption.

Shield volcanoes have wider rims, gentle slopes and their lava is very hot and very runny.

omposite volcanoes have steep slopes and thic lava. he pressure in this ind of lava can build up over

time so when the volcano does erupt, the scene is spectacular

Stratovolcanoes are made from different types of lava and their eruptions, roc and ash shoot up to large

heights. that are made from different types of matter, matter meaning roc, ash and lava, and their eruptions

usually shoot up to high heights

inder cone volcano are comparatively smaller and they come from eruptions of short%time eruptions, maing

a cone of only about @== meters.

)olcano latest news

Uolcanoes are both a ma/estic beauty of nature and a terrible force of destruction, which is why geologists

and e"perts around the world monitor and study volcano latest news to predict their eruptions and plan

accordingly.

he Uolcano latest news revolves around the 6yamuragira volcano in the 'emographic 0epublic of ongo

where volcanic eruptions began on E 6ovember >=99. he volcanic eruptions at 6yamuragira volcano

continued on 9th of 6ovember >=99. +ccording to volcano latest news, the lava fountains increased in

height and the volcano showed no signs or eruption abatement. -n addition to this, on 9M 6ovember >=99.

)olcanoes and Earth3uakes

+n earth*uae is different from a volcano. +n earth*uae, which is also called a tremor, is caused by an

une"pected release of energy within the crust of the !arth that eventually leads to seismic waves. hese

waves are energy waves that travel through !arth because of an earth*uae. !arth*uaes occur when the

plates of the earth start moving due to a wave of energy leading to shaing the ground with a noticeable

force. Within one year, there are about half a million earth*uaes that occur all over the world. 7ut of the

total ==,=== earth*uaes that can be detected by seismographs, only 9==,=== of these are felt and 9==

caused damage.

(e;icos )olcanic A;is2e"ico8s active seismic zones have created numerous volcanoes, many of which are still active. Uirtually allthe country8s active and recently dormant volcanoes are located in a broad belt of high relief which crosses2e"ico from west to east# the Uolcanic +"is.


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+ltitudes in this region vary from a few hundred to several thousand meters. he principal peas are shownon the map. hey include many of 2e"ico8s most famous mountains, such as Bopocatepetl and -"tlaccihuatl,near 2e"ico ityN Bico de 7rizaba, 2e"ico8s highest peaN BaricutZn, the only completely new volcano in the

+mericas in recent timesN and olima, considered the most active at present. 2any of the volcanoes are

surprisingly young. 4or instance, a study using arbon-9@ dating on the palaeosoils (ancient soils) under 9>

volcanoes in the oluca area yielded ages ranging from :Q,E== to Q@== years before present.

-t is unclear precisely why this broad belt of 2e"ico should be so active. !lsewhere in the world all ma/ortectonically active areas have been lined in terms of their location to the margins of tectonic plates. Some2e"ican geologists believe that 2e"ico8s Uolcanic +"is is a rare e"ample of activity associated with a platemargin.

)olcanoes and Earth3uakesby :asil :ooth

7n +pril 9Q, 9M=E, a disastrous earth*uae struc San 4rancisco. Dasting less than a minute, it destroyed mosthe city and illed R== people. -n 9MRE the worst nown earth*uae illed over E=,=== people in ienBrovince, hina. )olcanoes and Earth3uakes tells us about famous earth*uaes and describes the naforces that created them.

http#www.youtube.comwatchVv?[zncRQ!=! U-'!7
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xznc78EkT0Ehttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xznc78EkT0E


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3ou probably now that earth*uaes can be huge natural disasters. 5ut why do they happenV he !arth;ssurface is formed of massive slabs of roc called plates. hese plates, also called tectonic plates, are alwaysmoving. Sometimes they /ust slide past one another. +t other times they actually collide with one another.Blate movement causes the buildup of tremendous *uantities of energy in the roc. When the energy isreleased, it produces vibrations that travel through the roc, leading to earth*uaes. 'uring earth*uaes,faults, or giant cracs, are produced by the pressure of the moving roc.

!arth*uaes and volcanoes occur along the edges of the plates. Scientists have developed a theory thate"plains how these giant plates move, thereby creating, destroying, and re%forming continents and oceansover long periods of time. his theory is called thetheory of plate tectonics.

+ccording to the theory, there are two types of plates, oceanic and continental. Uarious types of movementoccur along the different inds of plate boundaries. Blate collisions create landforms such as coastalvolcanoes, island arcs, and mountain chains. When plates move apart, they produce new ocean floor asmagma from the mantle rises up through volcanoes and deposits new roc along the plate boundaries. -nsome areas plates slide alongside each other, neither creating nor destroying land.

When the plates move, they cause vibrations that produce earth*uaes. housands of earth*uaes taeplace every year, but only a few of them are destructive enough to be considered disasters. 2anyearth*uaes are so mild that few people notice them. Scientists have developed an instrument called a

seismograph, which measures and records the intensity of earth*uaes. 5ecause seismographs are verysensitive, they help scientists predict earth*uaes, too. hey can record even minor shocs and changes inthe !arth;s layers, and this helps to monitor the build%up of stresses that lead to earth*uaes. 5y comparingthe data from seismographs in different locations over the world, scientists can get a better picture of theforces at wor underground.

Acti#ity

)olcanoes and Earth3uakes
http://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#platehttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#faulthttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#theoryofhttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#theoryofhttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#seismographhttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#platehttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#faulthttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#theoryofhttp://www.eduplace.com/kids/scienceglossary/index.html#seismograph


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Cave you ever felt the floor below you shaeV he ground we wal on seems solid until an earth*uaestries. Suddenly the earth heaves and slides. hings topple off shelves. 'eep cracs open in the groundwhere none were before. -n the past few years, people everywhere have witnessed these events as ma/orearth*uaes struc their countries. he activity below will help you better understand how earth*uaes affectpeople around the world.

9. hoose a partner. -magine that you are both investigative reporters. 3ou have been ased to write anews story about the ma/or earth*uaes that too place in aiwan and urey in 9MMM. 3our newsstory must give your audience enough information to understand how earth*uaes wor and to

visualize the destruction earth*uaes cause. 0emember that your story should also answer who,what, where, when, why and how.

>. 0esearch the earth*uaes that happened in aiwan and urey. se newspaper and magazinearticles, and visit the 3ahooY Web site athttp#headlines.yahoo.com4ull\overage3ahooligans!arth*uaes to learn more about theseevents.

:. +nswer the *uestions below to help organize your information.

Earth3uake 6nformation Chart

When did the earth*uaes tae placeV

Where did the earth*uaes happenV 'escribe theplaces, the people who live there, and the types ofbuildings that are found there. What happened to theplaces during the earth*uaeV

Why did the earth*uaes happenV 'escribe the type ofland formations in the area. ould the two earth*uaesbe relatedV
http://headlines.yahoo.com/Full_Coverage/Yahooligans/Earthquakeshttp://headlines.yahoo.com/Full_Coverage/Yahooligans/Earthquakeshttp://headlines.yahoo.com/Full_Coverage/Yahooligans/Earthquakes


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'escribe the recovery efforts, and how people arepreparing for possible future earth*uaes.

@. se your answers to help you write your story. hen review what you have written. 2aesure your wor includes enough detailed information to e"plain what happened during theseevents.

. reate storyboards to illustrate your news story. hoose the most interesting parts of thestory and create pictures to highlight these parts. -f available, use a drawing or paintingprogram to create your storyboards.

E. Bresent your news story and storyboards to your classmates as if you were broadcastingyour story on the evening news. 2ae sure you pay close attention to your classmates;

stories as they may help you present your own.

he 9M=E San 4rancisco earth*uae is the most famous +merican earth*uae. Uisit the 2useum ofthe ity of San 4rancisco Web site at http#www.sfmuseum.org9M=E=E.htmlto learn more aboutthis deadly *uae. 0ead eyewitness accounts, see photos of the *uae and its aftermath, and readnewspaper articles. hen, with your family, compare the 9M=E earth*uae to a modern *uae. Coware the two similarV Cow are they differentV

Blate tectonicshttp#www.youtube.comwatchVv?9%CwB0\@mB@

!arth*uaes http#www.youtube.comwatchVv?%z6yUBs/Qzc

Blate simple rev\ http#www.youtube.comwatchVv?G3US\3hEd
http://www.sfmuseum.org/1906/06.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-HwPR_4mP4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-HwPR_4mP4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zNyVPsj8zchttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYVS_Yh6dTkhttp://www.sfmuseum.org/1906/06.htmlhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-HwPR_4mP4http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zNyVPsj8zchttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYVS_Yh6dTk


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%E$6E*


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he relief (or terrain) is the different shapes that the surface of the !arth has adopted over millions of years.-t can divided into continental (surface relief) and oceanic (submarine relief).

he relief is the result of internal internal forces, which form it and e"ternal forces, which transform it.

C4N&6NEN&A$ %E$6E*

A2ountains# elevations of the terrain above the surrounding land with steep slopes or sides and an altitude ofmore than E== metres. When they are together in == metres above sea level. hey are formed by large rivers.

ABlateaus# large plains raised more than >== metres above sea level. he highest plateaus are the ibetanCigh Blateau (+sia) and the 5olivian (South +merica).

A5asins (or depressions)# sunen or drepressed areas below the surrounding areas. Some are below sealevel .

C4AS&A$ %E$6E*

oastal relief# coasts are where the continents meet oceans and seas. he coastal relief forms are#

ABeninsula# an area of land surrounded by water on all sides e"cept one.

A-sthmus# connects a peninsula to a continent.

Aape# part of the coast which e"tends into the sea

AGulf# a large area of sea or ocean partially enclosed by land. + bay is a small gulf

A-sland# an area of land surrounded by water on all sides

A+rchipelago# is a group of islands


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A5eaches# flat coastal area with sand or stones.

Aliffs# high coastal area with steep roc formations.

A!stuary# area formed when the sea flows into de mouth of a river

A4iord# strip of sea that comes into the valley of a river land between high cliffs.

4CEAN6C %E$6E*

A ontinental shelf# is the e"tension of the continents under the seas or oceans. hey are vast plateaus whichreach a depth of 9=%>== metres.

Aontinental slope# is a steep incline found between the continental shelf and the abyssal plain.

A+byssal plains# are large flat areas of the deep ocean floor (@,=== or ,=== metres below sea level). -n themwe can find#

A7ceanic ridges# large mountain ranges that rise up :=== metres from the ocean floor. Some of the highestpeas rise above the surface and form islands such as the Cawaiian -slands.

A 7ceanic trenches# are large, deep depressions in the ocean floor. he deepest one is the hallenger 'eep(99=== metres) in the pacific 7cean.

142 &1E %E$6E* 6S *4%(EV

Continental drift

-n 9M9> +lfred Wegener developed the continental drift theory. +ccording to it, there was only one continent,which broe up millions of years ago. his continent was called Bangea

&ectonic plates

he !arth8s crust is divided into different plates called tectonic plates. hey are in continous movement(speed of two to ten centimeters per year).

Some plates from move apart letting the magma come out. Some other plates collide, creating folds whenthe terrain is fle"ible or faults when it is e"tremely rigid. +lso, the collison of plates has produced manymountains, such as the Cimalayas range which is still rising.

he movement of tectonic plates can produce volcanoes and earth*uaes#

A+ volcano is an opening in the surface of the !arth through which very hot rocs, magma comes out. Whenmagma is outside the volcano it is called lava. Uolcanoes are generally found on the edge of tectonic p lates.

A!arth*uaes are also caused by plate tectonicsN when two plates crash, the ground vibrates. his vibrationis called an earth*uae. When the crashing is on the ocean floor the earth*uae can produce waves calledtsunamis.

C7W -S C! 0!D-!4 0+6S4702!'V

!"ternal forces shape the relief. his transformation involves three types of action#

A !rosion# is the fragmentation and dissolution of rocs, soil and mud.

A ransportation# eroded materials are transported by wind or water.

A Sedimentation# is the accumulation of sediments such as mud, sand or mud.


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here are four main agents of erosion# temperature, water, wind and living things.

9. &emperature" abrupt changes in it can brea rocs. -t happens in mountains or deserts, where there is agreat difference between daytime and night time temperatures.

>. 2ater"

] When it infiltrates through rocs and freezes, water e"pands and breas the rocs.

] Solution is when water dissolves some inds of rocs, such as limestone producing caves.

] 4luvial erosion# -n the upper course the river erodes materials creating deep valleys and canyons -n themiddle course the slopes are gentler and rivers transport the eroded materials -n the lower course, near thesea, land is flat and water deposit sediments on the river&s bans forming alluvial. plains.

] 2arine erosion# waves and currents wear away coasts creating cliffs. Sediments transported by the seawater are deposited and form beaches.

:. 2ind"transports particles of sand or soil from their original place and deposits them. Sand dunes areformed this way.

@. $i#ing things" Blants and animals transform the relief through their activities. Cuman beings mae thefastest and more dangerous impact through activities such as farming, mining, deforestation, building roads,tunnels or reservoirs.


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Earths 4cean

!arth;s ocean covers more than EQF of our planet;s surface. here are five ma/or ocean basins. he Bacific

7cean is the largest. -t8s so large that it covers a third of the !arth;s surface. he +tlantic 7cean is east of the

+mericas and west of !urope and +frica. he -ndian 7cean is south of +sia and the 2iddle !ast and east of

+frica. he+rctic 7ceanis in thenorth polar region.he Southern 7ceansurrounds+ntarcticain the south

polar region.

Seawater is salty. +nyone who has taen a gulp of waterwhile swimming in the ocean nows that. he

saltiness of the water is called salinity. he chemistry of the seawaterincludes more than salt. -t depends on

what become dissolved in it over time.

7cean water is always moving. -t moves around surface ocean currents in the upper @== meters of the

ocean. Water moves around the ocean by upwelling, a process that brings water from the deep ocean to

shallow areas, as well as down welling, a process that sends water from the surface to the deep ocean.

urrents along coastlinesmove water as well as sand. 2oving water transports heat from the Sun around

the planet, which has an effect on climate. omple" climate models called coupled ocean%atmosphere

models tae into account both the atmosphere and the ocean to describe the !arth.

!ach day ocean water moves with the tides, shifting where the water meets the shorein an endless cycle.

idal cycles are perhaps most easy to see at estuaries. he ocean;s tides are one type of tide created by
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gravitational force.

7ver a long time water circulates from the deep oceanto shallow ocean and bac again to the deep. his

circulation of seawater is called the global ocean conveyor or thermohaline circulation. +s !arth8s climate

warms the global ocean conveyor might change its pattern.

he height of the ocean surface is called sea level. 7ver a long time, sea level can change for a number of

reasons. oday sea level is rising rapidly as !arth8s climate warms.

oral reefs are affected as the ocean changes because of global warmingand other changes such as

pollution. +s the greenhouse gas carbon dio"idebecomes dissolved in seawater the ocean becomes more

acidic, which is harmful to coralsand other marine life.

Waves, tides and currents are what drive the sea. Waves we associate with the beach and having fun. ides

signal the stages of the moon and the time of day. urrents provide passage for international boats that bring

us food and goods from faraway lands. +ll three contain energy of motion and potential energy. he slightest

change in any of these affects us in many more ways than you thin.

4ill in the names
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4cean Currents

7cean currents have a serious impact on our lives in other ways as well. hey are responsible for theaccumulation of nutrients in rich patches, which are prime fishing grounds. 2any species of marine life taeadvantage of ocean currents for their seasonal migrations. !ven modern problems such as the accumulation

of debris in Ogarbage patchesO on the oceans is driven by currents.

he movement of ships is also impacted by currents % traveling along a current saves fuel, while travelingagainst it costs more fuel. -n the old days of sail ships, this impact could be even more serious %% the+gulhasurrentin the southwest -ndian 7cean was a serious obstacle to Bortuguese sailors trying to reach -ndia.

ypically, ocean currents are divided into two types# surface currents (which usually e"tend no more than

about @== meters below the surface), and deep water currents (also nown as the thermohaline circulation)

which occur in much deeper layers of the ocean.
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2A)ES

!veryone has seen waves on a lae or oceans. 5ut what are theyV Waves are actually energy. !nergy, not

water, moves across the ocean;s surface. Water particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes.

sunamis, often erroneously called tidal waves, result when underwater earth*uaes and volcanic eruptions

disrupt the water;s surface. 2ost other waves are caused by wind driving against water. When a breeze of

two nots or less blows over calm water, small ripples form and grow as the wind speed increases until

whitecaps, comprised of millions of tiny air bubbles, appear in the breaing waves. Waves may travel

thousands of miles before rolling ashore and dissolving as surf.

+ wave;s size and shape reveals its origins. + steep, choppy wave out at sea is fairly young and was probably

formed by a local storm. Slow, steady waves near shore which rear high crests, and plunge into foam come

from far away, possibly another hemisphere.

6o two waves are identical, but they all share common traits. !very wave, from a tiny ripple to a huge

tsunami, has a measurable wave height, the vertical distance from its crest (high point) to its trough (low

point). Wind speed, duration, and fetch (the distance it blows over open water) determine how high a wave

grows. he ma"imum height in feet is usually one half or less the wind speed in miles per hour. Wave height

decreases gradually as the wind dies and the wave approaches shore. When it touches bottom, it slows, the

bac overtaes the front, forcing it into a pea, curves forward, and dissolves into a tumbling rush of foam

and water called a breaer.

%i#ers

0ivers are very important to !arth because they are ma/or forces that shape the landscape. +lso, they

provide transportation and water for drining, washing and farming. 0ivers can flow on land or underground

in deserts and seas.


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+ river;s contribution to the water cycleis that it collects water from the groundand returns it to the ocean.

0ivers may come from mountain springs, melting glaciers or laes.

+ delta is where a river meets the sea. + special environment is created when the fresh water from the river

mi"es with the salty ocean water. his is environment is called estuary.

he longest river is the 6ile 0iver in +frica, and the +mazon 0iver in South +merica carries the most water.

he muddiest river is the 3ellow 0iver in hina.
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Geographic Conditions that *a#or :iodi#ersity in the 2orld and (e;ico
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:iodi#ersity+ biomeis made of many similar ecosystems. +n ecosystem is often much smaller than a biome, although

the size varies.

Ecosystems are the interactions between the living things and the nonliving things in a place. -n an


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ecosystem, the plants,animals, and other organisms rely on each other and on the physical environment J

the soil, water, and nutrients, for e"ample.

!ven though they are living in the same place, each species in an ecosystem has its own role to play. his

role is called a niche. he niche for one species might be to climb trees and eat their fruit, while the niche for

another species might be to hunt for small rodents. 4or a tree, a niche might be to grow tall and mae food

with the Sun8s energy through the process of photosynthesis. -f the niche of two species is very similar, they

might compete for food or other resources.

Sometimes ecosystems get out of balance. -f, for e"ample, it rains a lot and a type of bird that thrives with

e"tra water increases in numbers, other species in the ecosystem might be crowded out. he birds might

tae food or space or other resources from other species. hey might eat all the food. Sometimes an

ecosystem naturally gets bac into balance. 7ther times an ecosystem will become more and more out of

balance. oday, human actions are having an impact on ecosystems all over the world. 2aing buildings and

roads, fishing and farming all have an impact on ecosystems. Bollution on land, air pollution, and water

pollutionis sending many ecosystems out of balance too.

&undra-n the very cold places of the world, survival isn;t easy. he soil is frozen, its top surface thawing only during

summer, and no trees can grow. 3et plants and animals that are adapted for the harsh conditions thrive. his

biome is called tundra. 2ost of the world;s tundra is found in the north polar region. -t is called+rctic tundra.

here is a small amount of tundra on parts of+ntarcticathat are not covered with ice. Blus, tundra is found

on high altitude mountains and is called alpine tundra.
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Bermafrost is the term given to frozen soil. 'uring the winter months, permafrost reaches the surface of the

tundra. -t is very cold during the winter, with temperatures reaching %E= degrees 4ahrenheit (%9 degrees

elsius). Uery few animals are active in these harsh conditions.

-n the summer time, the tundra changes. he Sun is out almost >@ hours a day, so the tundra starts to warm

up. he permafrost melts at the surface, and plant life grows. Cowever, the permafrost only disappears for a

few inches below the surface. here isn;t enough soil for trees to grow, so only small plants are found in the

tundra.

+t the same time, a variety of animals come out to feast on the plants. -nsects come to feed on the animals,

and birds appear to en/oy the insects.

&aiga


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Coniferous forests

oniferous forests are made up mainly of cone%bearing or coniferous trees, such as spruces, hemlocs,

pines and firs. he leaves of these trees are either small and needle%lie or scale%lie and most stay green all

year around (evergreen). +ll are softwoods able to survive cold termperatures and acidic soil.

oniferous forests are found mainly in the northern hemisphere, although some are found in the southern

hemisphere.

he northern coniferous forests are called taiga or boreal forests. hey cover vast areas of 6orth +merica

from the Bacific to the +tlantic, and range across northern !urope, Scandinavia, 0ussia and across +sia

through Siberia and 2ongolia to northern hina and northern apan.

Short summers and long winters

oniferous trees thrive where summers are short and cool and winters long and harsh, with heavy snowfall

that can last as long as E months. he needle%lie leaves have a wa"y outer coat which prevents water lossin freezing weather and the branches are soft and fle"ible and usually point downwards, so that snow slides

off them. Darches are one e"ample of a coniferous tree found in some of the coldest regions. nusually for

coniferous trees they are deciduous, that is they shed their leaves in winter.

oniferous trees such as cypresses, cedars and redwoods are found in warmer regions.

$ife on the forest floor

!ven evergreen trees eventually shed their leaves and grow new ones. he needles fall to the forest floor

and form a thic springy mat. hread%lie fungi help to brea down or decompose the fallen needles. hese

fungi provide nutrients from the decomposed needles bac to the roots of the trees. 5ut because pine

needles do not decompose easily, the soils are poor and acid.

hese forests grow under widely differing conditions of climate and soil % from the tropics to the subarctic,

and from heavy clays to poor sands. Cowever, coniferous trees are especially conditioned to the winter

climate. he trees of the taiga grow at the highest latitude of any forest. he most common are spruce, pine

and firs.

%each for the skyK

ypresses, cedars and redwoods grow uprightN the tallest of them can reach >=m in height. he trees are

usually pyramid%shaped. Short, lateral branches grow *uite close together but they are so fle"ible that the

snow simply slides off. he leaves are small, hard and evergreen.

Dittle light penetrates the thic canopy of trees to reach the forest floor. 5ecause of this gloom, only ferns and

a few herbaceous plants grow here. 2osses, liverworts and lichens are also found on the forest floor and

grow on tree truns and branches. here are few flowering plants.


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&ropical %ainforestsropical rainforests are home to thousands of species of animals, plants, fungi and microbes. Scientists

suspect that there are many species living in rainforests have not yet been found or described.

here are areas of rainforests where plants are densely paced. +reas where sunlight can reach the surface

are full of interesting plants. -n other areas a canopy, made from the branches and leaves of tall trees,

shades the ground below, preventing smaller plants from growing.

0ainforests get their name because they receive a lot of rain % an average of Q= inches (>=: cm) a yearY

0ainforests are found at and near the e*uator, where it is always warm and muggy. he temperature doesn;t

change very much during the year.

&he esert

'eserts are full of interesting *uestions. Cow can anything survive in a place with hardly any waterV Why is it

so dry to begin withV

3ou can find at least one desert on every continent e"cept !urope. !ach desert is different in some way, butthey all have one thing in common. -n order for an area of land to be considered a desert, it must receive less

than 9= inches of water a year.

loudsare scarce in deserts. Without clouds, there can;t be rain, snow, or any other precipitation. louds

also shade the land, so without them, the desert gets mighty hot as the Sun beats down during the day. +t

night, the desert can become very cold, because there isn;t moisture in the air to hold onto the heat.

he geologyof each desert is uni*ue. Some deserts have sand dunes % great waves of sand weatheredfrom

roc, that move over time as wind blows the sediment. 7ther deserts have no dunes but instead have uni*ue

rocformations carved by wind and streams that only flow at times when there is moisture.

2any plants and animals survive in these vast, dry lands. Dearn more about life in the desert by e"ploring the

lins below

Grasslands

7ver one *uarter of the !arth;s surface is covered by grasslands. Grasslands are found on every continent

e"cept +ntarctica, and they mae up most of +frica and +sia. here are several types of grassland and each

one has its own name. Brairies, plains and savannas are all grasslands.

Grasslands develop where there isn;t enough rain for forestsbut too much rain for deserts. Grasslands arefilled with % you guessed it % grass. here are many types of grass, though. 4ields of wheat are considered

grasslands, even though they are often cultivated by people. Grass is special because it grows underneath

the ground. 'uring cold periods the grass can stay dormant until it warms up.

&he Sa#anna

+ savanna is a rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees, which can be found between a

tropical rainforest and desert biome. 6ot enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests. Savannas are
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Anthology 1 Geography SEP Program

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