Annual Report 2010 - SUCCESS REPORT_201… · 2011-06-07 · SUCCESS-2010-A72000-RA-01 SUCCESS...

Annual Report 2010

Author(s):

Arvid Nøttvedt (CMR), Kjersti Iden (IFE), Harald Johansen (IFE),

Magnus Wangen (IFE), Eyvind Aker (NGI), Tore Ingvald Bjørnarå

(NGI), Elin Skurtveit (NGI), Per Aagaard (UiO), Helge Hellevang

(UiO), Ivar Aavatsmark (Uni Research) and Abdirahman M. Omar

(UniResearch).

with contributions from

Charlotte G Krafft (CMR), Rolf-Birger Pedersen (GEO/CGB), Øyvind

Brandvoll (IFE), Kristin T. Kjøglum (IFE), Nina Simon (IFE),

Dominique Durand (NIVA), Andrew Sweetman (NIVA), Truls

Johannessen (UiB/GFI), and Gudmund A. Dalsbø (UiO).

Issued: Approved by:

January 2011 AN

Report no.: Revision no.:

SUCCESS-AR-C-2010-01 001

SUCCESS-2010-A72000-RA-01 SUCCESS Annual report 2010

SUbsurface CO2 Storage –Superior Strategy and Critical Elements

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Table of Contents

1 Summary of status ......................................................................................... 4

2 Vision .............................................................................................................. 5

3 Research plan and strategy ........................................................................... 6

4 Consortium partners ..................................................................................... 7

5 Organization ................................................................................................... 8

6 Research activities 2010 ................................................................................ 9

6.1 WP1 ........................................................................................................ 9

6.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................. 9

6.1.2 Summary of status....................................................................... 9

6.1.3 Scientific progress ..................................................................... 10

6.2 WP2 ...................................................................................................... 19

6.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 19

6.2.2 Summary of status..................................................................... 19


6.3 WP3 ...................................................................................................... 22

6.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 22



6.4 WP4 ...................................................................................................... 37

6.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 37



6.5 WP5 ...................................................................................................... 49

6.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 49



6.6 WP6 ...................................................................................................... 56

6.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 56



7 National cooperation ................................................................................... 64

8 International cooperation ........................................................................... 65

9 Education and recruitment ......................................................................... 67



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10 Public outreach ............................................................................................ 68

Appendix A Personnel & Key Scientists ..................................................... 69

Appendix B Statement of Accounts ............................................................ 72

Appendix C Publications .............................................................................. 73

Appendix D Presentations ............................................................................ 76



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1 Summary of status

A Consortium Agreement was duly signed and a formal kick-off meeting for the SUCCESS centre was organised April 8

th, 2010, including the FME-SUCCESS and KMB-INJECT projects. Consequently,

contracts were signed between the Christian Michelsen Research AS (host) and the Norwegian Research Council (NFR) for the FME-SUCCESS, as well as between the Institute for Energy Technology (host) and NFR for the KMB-INJECT project. The contracts for the FME-SUCCESS and KMB-INJECT commence as of January 1

st, 2010.

The centre has agreed on a reporting structure with tertiary scientific and economic reporting, of which the year end report forms the basis for the annual reporting to NFR. This report represents the first scientific annual report for the SUCCESS centre. The report is made according to the work package subdivision of the centre. The focus of WP1 activities in 2010 has been on gathering data to characterize and generate reservoir models for selected CO2 reservoirs on the Norwegian shelf, as well as experiments and theoretical work on mineral dissolution and precipitation kinetics. Coupled geo-mechanical simulations of CO2 injection into reservoirs have also been done. In 2010 the activity in work package 2 has consisted of measurements to determine acoustic velocities and rock resistivity as a function of CO2 saturation and comparison of numerical methods for computation of thermodynamic equilibrium for multicomponent mixtures. The activities in WP3 have been focused on sampling cap-rocks, their characterization and methodology development, although some experiments (geochemical and geomechanical) and simulations were done. WP3 aims at combining material properties of cap-rocks on micro- and macro scale with evaluation of basin scale capture of CO2 through the whole overlying sediment column. The activities in work package 4 have focused on literature studies of rock physics models, the use of EM technology (electromagnetism) for CO2 detection and a feasibility study on monitoring techniques for seabed heave and leakage detection. The activities in work package 5 have consisted of preparation and planning of research on the benthic ecosystem using a benthic chamber lander, investigation of the quantities which affect thermodynamic equilibrium for CO2 in the surface water of the North Sea, and testing and development of methods for shipboard sampling to detect possible CO2 leakages to the sea. The work of WP6 is in its introductory phase, as the Inject contract was not signed until late 2010. The research will be particularly relevant for CO2 storage operation, especially in the vicinity of the injection area. We therefore depend heavily on data from pilots and selected storage reservoirs. So far the work has focused on Svalbard and the LYB CO2 Pilot. The University Centre of Svalbard (UNIS) has made an overview of university courses nationwide that are suitable for MSc and PhD students focusing on CCS. UNIS is starting a new course (AG-341) on capture and storage of CO2 in May 2011, while other schools are preparing more specialized courses.



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2 Vision

The main objective of the SUCCESS centre is to provide a sound scientific base for CO2 injection, storage and monitoring, to fill in gaps in our strategic knowledge, and provide a system for learning and development of new expertise. The SUCCESS centre addresses important areas for CO2 storage in the subsurface: storage performance (properties and flow), sealing properties, monitoring, operations and consequences for the marine environment. The “CO2-School” is in addition a major educational program facilitated by the project and the Norwegian universities. The CO2 school is a collaborative effort between SUCCESS and the BIGCCS centre on CCS in Trondheim. The selected activities, which are considered to fill important knowledge gaps or be critical elements, involve fundamental experimental and theoretical work, analysis of samples from outcrops and case studies, development of mathematical models, modeling activities and testing in case study environments. The centre will as far as possible try to bridge gaps from details to concepts and applications, from small to large scale, and to transfer data and knowledge between many related fields.



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3 Research plan and strategy

The CO2 behaviour and interaction in the subsurface, from pore scale to reservoir scale, and in marine environment, has been studied by various approaches and methodologies. The activities and applied methodology in the centre include case studies, experiments, method and software development, modelling/ simulation and work flow. The scientific approach is to use theoretical considerations and numerical simulation tools to design laboratory experiments and in-situ data gathering. The participating research institutions have a wide range of state of the art laboratory facilities to conduct reservoir characterization, flooding experiments, geochemical and geomechanical testing, which are available to all consortium partners. Field experiments of CO2 injection and monitoring is being performed at the UNIS CO2 LAB and other field pilots. The ecological impact from CO2 exposure in the marine environment (subsurface biosphere and benthic ecosystem) is studied by experiments, theoretical work, and natural analogues. A range of characterisation methods for solids, liquids and gases are available to the partners. Also available, are a number of forward and inverse modelling tools, covering both industry standards and in-house developed ones. Several fluid flow models are in current use, as the petroleum-industry-standard Eclipse (reservoir modeling), RetrasoCodeBright (coupled geochemical-geomechanical with heat transport) and others. Analysis of the flow equations will combine analytical with numerical investigations. A common structure of work packages (WP) has been designed for the SUCCESS centre. All work packages are important for obtaining the main objectives of SUCCESS.

• WP1: Storage - Geo-characterization and geochemical/ geomechanical response

• WP2: Storage - Fluid flow and reservoir modeling. Unstable displacement.

• WP3: Sealing properties

• WP4: Monitoring of reservoir and overburden

• WP5: The marine component

• WP6: Operations

• WP7: CO2 SCHOOL



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4 Consortium partners

CGGVeritas Contact: Arne Rokkan

RWE DEA

Contact: Anne Skjærstein

ConocoPhillips AS

Contact: Kåre R. Vagle

Statoil AS

Contact: Gunn Mari Grimsmo Teige

Christian Michelsen Research AS (CMR )

(Host) Contact: Christopher Giertsen

Uni Research AS (CIPR)

Contact: Arne Skauge

Dong Energy AS

Contact: Jørgen Rentler Neuman

University of Bergen (UiB)

Contact: Helge Dahle

Institute for Energy Technology (IFE)

Contact: Bjørg Andreassen

University of Oslo (UiO) Contact: Anders Elverhøi

Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI)

Contact: Fabrice Cuisiat

University Centre of Svalbard(UNIS)

Contact: Gunnar Sand



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5 Organization

Christian Michelsen Research (CMR) is the contractor and host institution for the centre, and collaborating institutions are Institute for Energy Technology (IFE), Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA), Uni Research, the University of Bergen (UiB), the University of Oslo (UiO) and the University Centre in Svalbard (UNIS). CGGVeritas, ConocoPhillips, Dong Energy, RWE.DEA and Statoil are industry partners in the centre Arvid Nøttvedt and Charlotte Krafft (CMR) serve as the administrative centre manager and coordinator. A team of two scientific leaders, Dr. Ivar Aavatsmark (Uni Research) and Prof. Per Aagaard (UiO), coordinate the scientific work of the Bergen and Oslo hubs, respectively, and are part of the centre management team. The centre management report to a steering committee with representatives from the consortium participants and voting rules according to the Consortium Agreement and FME directives. Each work package is managed by a work package leader.

SUCCESS organization chart as of April 1st

, 2011

In 2010, a schedule of regular centre management team meetings and meetings within each work package was established. The meetings of the management team are of administrative character, while the meetings in the work packages are more topics oriented. In 2011 two internal research conferences are planned, in which also the industry partners will participate and contribute. An even stronger cooperation with the industry is planned through focusing the scientific efforts in the centre towards some selected CO2 field pilots and reservoirs (LYB CO2, Snøhvit). Joint activities so far have been successful, but could be strengthened further.

Scientific advisory committee

External members

Innovation advisory committee

External members

WP1: Storage (Geo)

Activity leader

Per Aagaard

WP2: Storage (Flow)

Activity leader

Ivar Aavatsmark

WP3: Sealing

Activity leader

Harald Johansen

WP4: Monitoring

Activity leader

Eyvind Aker

WP5: Marine component

Activity leader

Truls Johannessen

WP6: Operations

Activity leader

Magnus Wangen

WP7: CO2 school

Activity leader

Alvar Braathen

Centre managers

Administrative leader: Arvid Nøttvedt

Two scientific leaders:

Per Aagaard & Ivar Aavatsmark

Executive board

Majority from industrial partners

General assembly

All partners and EB chairman



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6 Research activities 2010

6.1 WP1

6.1.1 Introduction

This is the progress report for work package 1 (WP1) Storage – Geocharacterization and geochemical/geomechanical response, for the period January till December 2010. The SUCCESS centre – Subsurface CO2 storage – Critical Elements and Superior Strategy addresses several important areas for CO2 storage in the subsurface: storage performance, sealing properties, injection, monitoring and consequences for the marine environment. WP1 focus on CO2-water-rock interactions and implications for geomechanical and petrophysical properties of caprock and reservoir. For 2010 four sub work packages were defined. WP1.1 Complete reservoir model for 1-2 CO2 reservoirs (UiO) WP1.2 Review of fluid phase equilibria and fluid properties in CO2-rich systems (UiO) WP1.3 Kinetic data on CO2 interaction with shale and sandstone (mineral dissolution/precipitation)

(UiO) WP1.4 Review of geomechanical response to CO2 injection (UiO, NGI) Main activities have been literature studies on existing approaches to estimate fluid properties, experiments and theoretical work on mineral reaction rates, and compilation of data for reservoir models. For the current reporting period activities in work packages WP1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 are reported according to workplan provided by Christian Michelsen Research AS in May 2010 and budget for 2010. WP1.4 is postponed due to a delay in the work permit for the assigned student, but will be started by early 1 tertial.

6.1.2 Summary of status

Activities in WP1 for 2010 focused on gathering data to generate reservoir models for selected reservoirs, a literature study on approaches to estimate properties of CO2-rich fluids, experiments and theoretical work on mineral reaction rates, and compilation of data for reservoir models. To better understand the effect of large- and small scale heterogeneities on the fait of stored CO2, we aim to build new reservoir models. Based on available data and relevance for CO2 storage, four reservoir formations or regions have been targeted. These four reservoirs are the Barents Sea Tubåen Fm., the Johansen Fm. in the northern North Sea, the Utsira Fm. at Sleipner, and sand units with storage potential in the Skagerrak region Existing models to predict fluid properties of CO2 rich fluids have been reviewed. The objective was to give the necessary background for further work on improving and developing suitable models that can be implemented in numerical tools. We found that present engineering EOS, such as Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK), can not accurately predict densities for fluids with strong intermolecular forces, and better EOS are therefore needed. The method that looks most promising at present to solve for the phase properties of such mixtures are various versions of the statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT). At present, a great deal of research is focused on developing SAFT models that can predict the properties of complex mixtures such as the H2O-CO2-H2S-salt system for a large range of T and P.

The extent of short- and long-term solution and mineral trapping of CO2 is essential in order to evaluate the total storage potential in an aquifer/reservoir. Two challenges in predicting the long-term potential of mineral storage have been identified: (1) present data on the growth rate of minerals are scarce and with large uncertainty; and (2) general reaction rate equations used to model dissolution and growth fail to predict natural systems. We have performed calcite (CaCO3) growth rate studies to



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better understand the mechanisms of carbonate growth, and presented a new kinetic model that better captures the physics of mineral nucleation and growth. All planned activities within WP1.1 – 1.3 have started and show progress according to plans and budgets. WP1.4 is postponed and will start by 1 Tertial 2011. Research collaboration with University of Minnesota has been initiated during this period, and researchers from Montana State University have been visiting UiO and NGI for exchange of research activity information. The 2010 WP1 research activity has resulted in several publications and the work has been presented both in national and international conferences.

6.1.3 Scientific progress

Overview Status and main results for research activities within WP1 is given in the following. Four sub work packages have been defined for 2010.

WP1.1 Complete reservoir model for 1-2 CO2 reservoirs Seismic data and geo-models collected and assembled Based on available data and relevance for CO2 storage, four reservoir formations or regions have been targeted (Fig. 1). These four reservoirs are the Barents Sea Tubåen Fm., the Johansen Fm. in the northern North Sea, the Utsira Fm. at Sleipner, and sand units with storage potential in the Skagerrak region..

Figure 1. An overeview of target CO2 reservoirs from the shallow Skagerrak sand units and Utsira Fm.

in the south, to the deeper Johansen Fm. and Tubåen Fm. further to the north.

The Johansen Formation (Troll) The Johansen Formation has been chosen as a suitable case study for the development of appropriate methods for sub-surface geological reservoir characterization with respect to potential storage capacity and injectivity of CO2. This formation is highly heterogenous with large variations in the distribution of porosities and permeabilities on different spatial scales.



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The Johansen Formation is a deep, saline aquifer underlying the Troll Field off coast Norway. It is currently being considered for large scale CO2 storage from two planned gas power plants at Kårstø (2012) and Mongstad (2014), respectively. Both of the plants will operate with full scale CO2 handling, as proposed by Norwegian authorities, and the estimated total storage capacity needed is in the order of 4 Mt CO2/year [1,2]. The work towards building a geological facies model of the Johansen Formation based on analysis of existing core- and seismic data and analogue studies is in progress. During fall 2010 available data such as wire line logs were collected, and the only excisting core from the Johansen Formation was logged and sampled. An application for access to the seismic dataset GN1001 was submitted to Gasnova and is currently being processed. The Stø Formation (Snøhvit) In April 2008 Statoil started injecting CO2 into the Tubåen Formation at a depth of approximately 2600 meters. Ph.D. students V.T.H. Pham and T.E. Maast at UiO developed a new model for the Tubåen and Normela formations based on available 3D seismic data and logs. This model takes into account the highly heterogeneous porosity and permeability distributions in the two formations. After developing the reservoir model, numerical modeling including hysteresis properties for CO2 storage was done. For a more information on the model and the numerical simulations we encourage you to read [3]. The Utsira Formation (Sleipner)

Figure 2. Top and Base Utsira reflections and well logs at the Sleipner CO2 injection are used to construct a new

model for the Utsira reservoir.

As a continuation of earlier work on the Utsira Fm. at Sleipner, a work is in progress by Dr. Manzar Fawad (UiO) to assemble seismic data and build a new geological model for the reservoir at the CO2 injection. The work to build a geomodel is in progress and will at first be based on the obtained Top and Base Utsira seismic reflections (Fig. 2), well logs, and interpolations between the Top and Base surfaces.



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Skagerrak-Kattegat storage plays As a part of the Skagerrak-Kattegat project, Dr Manzar Fawad compile seismic data for possible storage plays in the Skagerrak region (Fig. 3). The work is in progress and the first reservoir models are expected to be finalized by 1st Tertial 2011.

Figure 3. Storage plays in Skagerrak. The Gassum Fm. is a possible candidate for CO2 injection and a

reservoir model for this formation is in progress.

WP1.2 Review of fluid phase equilibria and fluid properties in CO2-rich systems Review of EOS for CO2-rich fluids Fluid phase equilibria and fluid properties in CO2 rich systems determine fluid PVT conditions and fluid solubilities. Any prediction of properties of complex mixtures such as the H2O-CO2-H2S-salt system rely on how well the chosen equation of state (EOR) represents the fluid interactions. Present EOR have weaknesses for fluids with strong intermolecular forces, and better EOR are needed. Predictions of phase properties of pure compounds or mixtures, such as phase densities, depends on the strength of intermolecular forces. Simplified, phases can be divided into three regions based on bond energies: (1) Simple fluids such as pure CO2, CH4 etc.; (2) associating fluids such as H2O and H2S; and (3) phases with chemical bounds. For the simple fluids, where molecules interact by weak repulsion and dispersion forces (van der Waals attractions), equation of states (EOS) such as Peng-



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Robinson or Soave-Redlich-Kwong can predict the phase properties well. As bond energies increase and intermolecular forces such as Coulombic forces, strong polar forces, and complexing forces get important, such simple EOS can no longer predict phase properties well. Examples of fluids that are in this category are electrolyte solutions, polar solvents, and hydrogen-bonded fluids, and mixtures of simple and stronger-bonded fluids. The method that looks most promising at present to solve for the phase properties of such mixtures are various versions of the statistical associating fluid theory (SAFT), developed based on a statistical mechanical approach. At present, a great deal of research is focused on developing SAFT models that can predict the properties of complex mixtures such as the H2O-CO2-H2S-salt system for a large range of T and P. Other efforts involve using the excess thermodynamic properties coupled with proper equations of states for the fugacities, and to fit the empirical model parameters to experimental data. Such models are hampered by a large number of parameters that need to be adjusted, and gives a more limited predictive potential than the SAFT approach. As part of SUCCESS, professor Chen Zhu at the Indiana State University and Professor II at Department of Geosciences, UiO, will be a key-person for the development of EOS to predict the phase properties of systems such as the H2S-H2O-CO2-salt system. The most likely approach will be to use SAFT calculations to predict phase data such as densities and mutual solubilities in phase mixtures. Because the data will be produced by a statistic mechanical approach, the model itself cannot be incorporated into the multi-phase flow codes. In parallel, professor Bjørn Kvamme at University of Bergen will test out classical engineering EOS (Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) and Peng-Robinson (PR)) for RetrasoCodeBright. These will also be extended with volume corrections in order to provide better data for liquid densities. Extensions to electrolyte solutions will be evaluated.

WP1.3 Kinetic data on CO2 interaction with shale and sandstone (mineral dissolution/precipitation) The effect of sulfate (SO4

2-) on the growth rates of calcite (CaCO3)

A major challenge to sequestering carbon in subsurface geologic formations is that numerous other gases are commonly produced during hydrocarbon combustion. Sulphuric gases are one of these common by-product gases of hydrocarbon combustion. The high reactivity and oxidation capacity of sulphuric species make them difficult to store on land. By their co-injection with CO2 it may be possible to store the sulphate safely underground. One of the potential consequences of the co-injection of sulphuric gases with CO2 during carbon storage efforts is that the presence of this gas might alter the reactivity of the minerals present in the subsurface. The presence of aqueous sulphate has been shown to accelerate the dissolution of basaltic glass [4]. The effect of the presence of sulphate in calcite precipitation, however, has yet to be measured. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of dissolved sulphate on calcite precipitation rates at conditions present at subsurface carbon sequestration sites. Calcite precipitation experiments were performed on calcite seeds described above in 30 mL mixed flow polypropylene reactor systems at pH ~9.0 [5]. Fig. 4 shows the logarithm of measured calcite precipitation rates as a function of the saturation state log(Ω-1). Calcite precipitation rates decrease rapidly with decreasing saturation state at relatively high supersaturation (log(Ω- 1) = 0-0.3, depending on the amount of sulphate present), while the precipitation rate tend to be independent of saturation state closer to equilbrium. At a given saturation state, the presence of aqueous sulphur is suggested to decrease calcite precipitation rates; the presence of 20 mM lowers calcite dissolution rates by a factor of 2 at a constant Ω of 2.6 (Fig. 4). The observation that sulphate slows somewhat calcite precipitation has both positive and negative consequences for CO2 storage. A positive consequence is that if the presence of sulphate slows calcite precipitation this might prevent pore clogging and decreasing permeability in the target reservoir. On the other side, a negative consequence is that less CO2 might be mineralized as calcite. For a more comprehensive description of the experiments and results we encourage the reader to read [5].



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Figure 4. The logarithm of the measured steady state calcite precipitation rates versus log(Ω-1) and the

indicated concentrations of sulphate. The dashed curves are for the aid of the reader.

Improvement of existing transition state theory (TST) based mineral rate equations There has recently been expressed doubt on the validity of using reaction rate equations based on TST to predict growth rates from far-from-equilibrium dissolution rate data [6]. For example, comparisons between experimental dolomite and magnesite growth rates with estimated rates from dissolution rate data using TST, show orders of magnitude differences. Contrary to what is observed in nature, the TST approach predicts growth of these phases down to low temperatures. Other challenges in using laboratory data to predict the reactivity of natural systems for long time spans is the apparent difference in reactivity of laboratory and natural system, and the difficulty to define reactive surface areas for natural systems. The aim of this work was to show that the mathematical expressions that are most commonly used to model mineral reaction rates are less general than most modellers appreciate, and to suggest an alternative expressions that better capture the physics of mineral growth, but which still provide a simplified equation that is easy to include into numerical tools.

The most common way of modelling both mineral dissolution and precipitation rates is using a simplified form of the TST derived rate law as given by:

1Sk

t

ni , (1)

Where n is moles of mineral i, t is time, S is reactive surface area, Ω = exp(ΔG/RT) is the saturation state where ΔG denotes the free energy of the reaction, and k+ is the far-from-equilibrium dissolution rate coefficient. Equation (1) predicts rapid growth of Mg-carbonates such as magnesite and dolomite, and overestimate growth rates by >3-4 orders of magnitude relative to growth rate experiments (Fig. 5). As k- is commonly orders of magnitude smaller than k+ at low temperatures (more than 10 orders of magnitude for magnesite and dolomite at low temperatures [7]), to predict the carbonate formation accurately, k+ in equation (1) has to be replaced with realistic k-. Moreover, the growth rate should have a second-order dependence with respect to saturation state, as most growth rate studies suggest a spiral-growth mechanism to be responsible for the growth, rather than the linear equilibrium surface as suggested by equation (1). Finally, equation (1) requires that a reactive surface area is defined for secondary phases eventhough the minerals have zero initial mass. This makes no physical sence, but can easily be improved by adding a mineral nucleation rate term that generates mass for growth.



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Figure 5. Comparisons between TST-predicted and laboratory experimental growth rates of magnesite

(a) and dolomite (b). Magnesite and dolomite growth rate data from [8] and [9] respectively, and

dissolution rate coefficients used for the TST extrapolation from [10]. The comparison suggests that

equation (1) overpredict the growth rates at low saturations by ~4 orders of magnitude at these

temperatures. The difference increase further at lower temperatures as the apparent activation energy

for growth are significantly higher than for dissolution.

A simplified model was therefore suggested by [1] and later used to model the long-term potential for carbon storage in the Sleipner CO2 injection [7]. For dissolution rates, equation (1) was used including a pH-dependence term [7], whereas growth and nucleation were modelled by:

2

23

2

ln

1exp1

TkSk

t

njkN

i , (2)

where kN is the nucleation rate coefficient (mol/s), T is absolute temperature, and Γij is a constant where nucleation rate parameter such as surface tension, molar volume, and the geometric surface shape factor have been lumped together [7]. By runing a sensitivity test on the nucleation rate parameters, [7] showed that the model was highly sensitive to changes in Γ, with reasonable values for carbonates such as magnesite, dolomite and siderite in the range 10

10 to 5x10

10 (using kN = 1

moles/s). The subscript ij used for Γ denotes pair coefficients between nucleating phases and substrate, and illustrate that the dependence of nucleation rates on interfacial tensions. These values are uncertain, and we recommend to run sensitivity tests on Γ. Figures 6 and 7 (Fig.3 and 9 in [7]) show the temporal changes in mineral fractions and saturation states for the Utsira Reservoir using equation (2) for the growth and nucleation rates (Fig. 6) and comparing to predictions using TST in Fig. 7. The simulations suggest that clay minerals in the Utsira sand are the main suppliers for cations for secondary carbonate growth, and that the reactions are reasonable fast (< 100 years) in a long-term perspective (Fig. 6c). The simulations further suggest that the potential for carbonate formation is limited to the FeMgCa carbonate ankerite, and at a late stage dawsonite (NaAl(OH)2CO3). The porosity changes are insignificant as the dissolution and growth balance [7]. Finally, the simulations show that the two models for growth (equations (1) and (2)) provide large differences in predicted amounts, timing and nature of secondary carbonate growth following CO2 injection (Fig. 7). For a more comprehensive report on the reactivity of the Utsira Sand we encourage you to read [7].



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Figure 6 (Fig. 3 in [7]). Mineral reactions following the CO2 perturbation for the base-case simulation

(Γ = 2.0x1010

- 4.0x1010

, kN = 1). Left (a, c, e) are the temporal evolution of mineral mass fractions of

slow reacting silicates (a), fast reacting silicates and magnetite (c) and carbonates (e). Right column

shows the corresponding saturation states SI = log(Ω).



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Figure 7 (Fig. 9 in [7]). Comparison of carbonate mineral changes (a, b) and corresponding saturation

states (c, d) between the current BCF + CNT model and the traditionally used TST-derived model. The

largest difference between the models is the formation of dolomite and dawsonite, which forms a high

fraction of the secondary carbonates using the TST-model. Mg-carbonates such as magnesite and

dolomite are not expected to form at low temperatures such as in the Utsira Sand at Sleipner (~37 °C).

WP1.4 Review of geomechanical response to CO2 injection Task postponed to 1 Tertial 2011 due to a delay in workforce.



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References

1. Gassnova (2007) Beslutningsgrunnlag knyttet til transport og deponering av CO2 fra Kårstø

og Mongstad. Report no 06/177. 2. Eigestad, G.T., Dahle, H.K., Hellevang, B., Johansen, W.T., Riis, F., Øian, E. (2009):

Geological modeling and simulation of CO2 injection in the Johansen formation. Computat. Geosci. 13: 435-450.

3. Pham THV, Maast TE, Hellevang H, Aagaard P (2010) Numerical modleing including hysteresis properties for CO2 storage in Tubåen formation, Snøhvit field, Barents Sea. International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Technologies 10, Amsterdam, 19.-23. September 2010. Energy Procedia, in press.

4. Flaathen, T.K., Gislason, S.R. and Oelkers, E.H., 2010. The effect of aqueous sulphate on basaltic glass dissolution. Chem. Geol. 277, 345-354.

5. Flaathen, T.K., Oelkers, E.H., Gislason, S.R. and Aagaard, P., 2010. The effect of dissolved sulphate on calcite precipitation kinetics and consequences for subsurface CO2 storage GHGT-10 19-23

Sep., Amsterdam, Netherlands. Energy Procedia, in press 7p.

6. Hellevang, H. and Aagaard, P. On the use of Transition-State-Theory (TST) to predict the potential for carbonate growth in sedimentary basins. in GSA. 2010. Denver, CO., USA.

7. Pham, V.T.H., Lu, P., Aagaard, P., Zhu, C. and Hellevang, H. (2011). On the potential of CO2-water-rock interactions for CO2 storage using a modified kinetic model. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control. In Press, Corrected Proof. doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2010.12.002.

8. Saldi, G.D., Jordan, G., Schott, J., Oelkers, E.H., 2009. Magnesite growth rates as a function of temperature and saturation state. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (19), 5646-5657.

9. Arvidson, R.S., Mackenzie, F.T., 1997. Tentative Kinetic Model for Dolomite Precipitation Rate and Its Application to Dolomite Distribution. Aquatic Geochemistry 2, 273-298.

10. Pokrovsky, O.S., Golubev, S.V., Schott, J., Castillo, A., 2009. Calcite, dolomite and magnesite dissolution kinetics in aqueous solutions at acid to circumneutral pH, 25 to 150 °C and 1 to 55 atm pCO2: New constraints on CO2 sequestration in sedimentary basins. Chemical Geology 265 (1-2), 20-32.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2010.12.002



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6.2 WP2

6.2.1 Introduction

This progress report contains the progress of work package 2 in the SUCCESS project. Work package 2 contains modeling of fluid flow during and after the CO2 injection period. The work will focus on processes which are generally not covered by ordinary petroleum reservoir simulations. Such processes are trapping mechanisms (structural, residual, mineral and dissolution trapping) and unstable or labile processes. Flow paths may be determined by fine scale phenomena (leakage, mixing, capillarity), and this requires special attention to multiscale modeling. Some of the processes are important for the injection period while others have much larger time constants. For special cases the dimensionality may be reduced, and this reduction may be necessary to obtain reliable results. The activities in work package 2 are: Subtask 2.3. Interaction between numerical methods for geochemical reactions and flow equations. Participants: Uni/University of Bergen, UiO. Subtask 2.4. CO2 flooding experiments with CT-scanner. Participants: NGI. Subtask 2.7. Challenges of Utsira simulation. Participants: University of Bergen. Subtask 2.8. Unstable processes. Participants: Uni/University of Bergen. Subtask 2.9. Improved algorithms for thermal equilibrium: Uni/DTU Active partners in this activity period have been NGI, University of Bergen, UiO, Uni and DTU. Activities 2.3, 2.7 and 2.8 are in the start-up phase without any results yet.


The first measurements to determine acoustic velocities and rock resistivity as a function of CO2 and brine saturation in sandstones have been performed. These data are relevant for later development of proper rock physics models. Methods for multicomponent flash calculations are compared. The comparison includes the reduced variable approach, the shadow region concept and tie-line based methods. The results of the comparison will be available in 2011. In the other activities the work is in its starting phase, and there are therefore no results in those activities. One PhD student (Trine Mykkeltvedt) has started her work in the fall 2010, and one post.doc. (Maria Elenius) will start her work in the summer 2011.


Overview Most of the activities in work package 2 have just started, and there is therefore little to report at this stage. Results are reported in Subtask 2.4. In Subtask 2.9 the work will be completed and reported in 2011.

Uni Research activity:

Subtask 2.3. Interaction between numerical methods for geochemical reactions and flow equations. Master student Pål Lode has completed his first year of the master study. Solvers for stiff differential equations have been studied and implementation of an ESDIRK code is developed. A code for studying the interaction between the reaction equations and the flow equations is under



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development. Formulations based on grouping of the unknowns and the equations have been studied. It is still not clear how this will affect the performance when the solution of the flow equations is considered. New and more realistic reaction equations have been formulated in cooperation with Helge Hellevang at UiO. Subtask 2.7. Challenges of Utsira simulation. This activity contains the professor II position of Christian Hermanrud at Department of Earth Science at the University of Bergen. He has supervised three master students: Kine Kristiansen (vertical leakage in the Barents sea), Paul Odeh (determination of the formation temperature in the Utsira Formation during CO2 injection), Saideh Shekari (petrophysical properties of deformed sandstone reservoirs). Subtask 2.8. Unstable processes. Trine Mykkeltvedt began as a PhD candidate December 2010 in this activity. She will study the movement of a CO2-tongue under a cap rock. The purpose of the study is determination of the impact of parameters affecting the distance and the speed of the CO2-tongue. Analytical and numerical methods will be combined to achieve this goal. The PhD position is at the Department of Mathematics. Maria Elenius will start as a researcher (post.doc.) in this activity June 2011. Subtask 2.9. Improved algorithms for thermal equilibrium. This activity is in cooperation with the Department of Chemical Enigineering at the Technical University of Denmark, DTU. Methods for multicomponent flash calculations are compared. The comparison includes the reduced variable approach, the shadow region concept and tie-line based methods. The results of the comparison will be available in 2011.

NGI activity:

Rock physics experiments with X-ray CT scanner Subtask 2.4 CO2 flooding experiments with CT-scanner Laboratory core flooding experiment was run to investigate the joint use of electrical resistivity, ultrasonic velocities and 3D images of fluid distribution to improve current understanding of CO2 and brine behavior during drainage and imbibition in reservoir rocks. A new experimental setup (Figure 8) has been designed using a specially built core holder that is made of a composite structure of steel and carbon-fiber. The central part of the cell, where the rock core is placed, is made up of pure carbon-fiber which is highly transparent to X-ray. The facility allows continuous injection of fluids into the sample at room temperature and the cell can handle up to 30MPa cell pressure. The top and bottom cap of the cell are electrically separated such that electrical resistivity across the sample can be measured. Electrical measurements were made by using the top and bottom pedestals as electrodes while 1 kHz and 4V excitation is sent through the bottom pedestal. The potential difference between top and bottom pedestals is used to calculate the resistivity of the core at given fluid saturation. Piezoceramic crystals were used for measurement of compressional and shear ultrasonic velocity at a frequency of 500 kHz. The system is equipped with a logging facility where pore pressure, temperature, flow rate and volume are continuously recorded. Two-head Isco™ syringe pump was used to keep a constant pore pressure during injection, while GDS™ pumps were used to control back pressure and cell pressure. The test specimen was cylindrical Rothbach sandstone measuring 100 mm in length and 38 mm in diameter, with a porosity of 23% and an average permeability of 400 mD. Brine saturated specimen was drained by injecting CO2 and later imbibed with brine while monitoring changes in resistivity and ultrasonic velocity measurements. CO2 saturation calculation based on CT values showed a steep saturation gradient at start of drainage and the gradient flattened with more CO2 injected into the sample (Figure 9 and 10). Ultrasonic compressional velocity (Vp) measurements depicted a continuous decrease with increase in CO2 saturation while the resistivity of the sample increased. A CO2 saturation of 53% was achieved at the end of drainage after injection of 20 pore volume (PV) CO2. This resulted in a decrease of Vp by 7.2% while the amplitude decreased by as much as 48% (Figure 3). The resistivity of the sample increased to 13.9 Ωm from initial value of 3.2 Ωm at 100% brine saturation (Figure 11). During imbibition, the sample was resaturated close to 100% after 10 PV brine injection. The absence of significant amount of residual CO2 might be a result of dissolution CO2 in the brine. Change in Vp due to CO2 saturation level variation was relatively consistent during drainage and imbibition (Figure 11). Additional experimental work is in progress and further studies will improve our understanding of the fluid dynamics and physical processes there in.



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Figure 8. Schematic diagram of experimental setup at NGI laboratory used for the experiment. T and R inside the

core holder stand for ultrasonic transmitter and receiver.

Figure 9. Average CO2 saturation along the length of the core, drainage (left) and imbibitions (right). Saturation

levels are calculated from CT images

Figure 10. CO2 saturation (section images not to scale) along the length of the core of drainage (left) and

imbibitions (right). Saturation levels are calculated from CT images using Eq. 2. Images depicted are made by

averaging 15pixel radius and bottom and top 1cm of the sample are not indicated due to interference from top and

bottom caps.



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Figure 11. Plot of change ultrasonic compressional velocity (top left) and amplitude (top right) against injected

volume of CO2 during drainage. Variation in ultrasonic compressional velocity (bottom left) and rock resistivity

(bottom right) against average CO2 saturation in the whole sample.

The work is done by the Ph.D. student Binyam Alemu at UiO. He receives financial support from the RAMORE project and support in the laboratory at NGI is covered by SUCCESS. The result of the first experiment was presented during GHGT-10 conference in Amsterdam, September 2010.

6.3 WP3

6.3.1 Introduction

This report contains the work performed during the first 12 months of the project. Up to April 2010 most efforts were spent on administrative and contractual issues, although sampling activities started as early as March 2010. Most of the technical work in this report has been performed in the period April-December. Focus has mainly been on sampling, sample characterization, gathering of background information, and method development. A limited amount of experimental and modelling work has also been executed. The main focus of the seal activity has been on two levels. On the large scale focus has been on the “Seal Sequence Concept”, which has involved identification of all important seal objects, their position in the sedimentary basin, their interdependence on each other, and their function with respect to CO2 retention capacity. An evaluation of the cementation of fractures by carbonates has also been initiated. On the small scale of individual objects, the focus has been on material properties, and specifically on their predicted dynamic behaviour as a response to the stress introduced by CO2 injection. Two particular objects/materials have been in focus in this period: microfractures and clay minerals, that represent an important component of caprocks and overburden sediments. A theoretical concept for porosity waves (e.g. dynamic changes in porosity and permeability due to stress variation) has also been initiated.



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IFE has been working on the characterization and experiments of pure clay mineral samples (phyllosilicates), and on whole rock shale samples. This is a first step towards the investigation of variable multi-mineral shale material. NGI has been doing experiments on CO2 breakthrough processes in shale, designed to evaluate the sealing efficiency of a caprock under conditions of geological CO2 storage in a saline aquifer. The main objective has been to define the stress conditions for opening/reopening of micro fractures in the caprock and to see how this influences CO2 flow processes in shale. All activity on WP3 is in line with project description and the annual workplan.


The status of WP3 is that the work is essentially proceeding in line with expectations. The scientific progress is judged to be good, although the strong focus on sampling, characterization and method development, has not permitted the big leaps forward in terms of process understanding and model development in this period. I see no need for specific corrective actions at this moment. The petrographic and mineralogical characterization of shale samples from Longyearbyen borehole Dh4, and from Snøhvit, is well on the way. 128 in house NOCS mudrock samples from a previous shale diagenesis project has also been re evaluated for the purpose of CO2 seal property assessment. We have also extracted data on overburden natural gas composition, carbonate cement and carbonate cemented fractures. The purpose of this to use such data as an analogue for CO2 long term behaviour in the subsurface Very distinct experimental experiences have been obtained from both IFE and NGI work, forming a good platform for future work. Basin modelling tools at IFE (BAS, MIG) have been adapted to handle water injection wells (a fore-runner for CO2 injection), and fill-spill type of CO2 migration as a post processing routine. Use of these tools for the investigation of possible leakage scenarios will now be initiated. Work has also been started on a new modelling concept for dynamic porosity and permeability evolution (porosity waves). A rough scheme for a mass balance based book keeping concept for the bulk CO2 retention capacity of a mudrock sequence has been developed on the basis of pre existing data from mudrock diagenesis studies.


Overview Work performed at IFE and NGI during the report period is described below. The work is addressing the composition and petrophysical properties of seal materials (Snøhvit, Svalbard, NOCS), the reactive behaviour of shale mineral constituents, and the behaviour of microfractures under the stress of CO2 injection and migration.

IFE

Seal sequence concept / basis for experimental work Evaluation of existing data from the Norwegian Continental Shelf (NOCS) has been used as an analogue for the study of long term behaviour of CO2. There is a dual purpose for this exercise: firstly this will be used when data from lab and field experiments are going to be extrapolated to longer time scales, and secondly this will provide baseline data for the interpretation of monitoring work. It will also be an important basis for the understanding on how various geologic objects co-interact on large spatial scales (seal sequence concept). Gas compositional and isotopic NOCS data from mudgases, covering the overburden at petroleum prospects, gives a good picture for the spatial variation of natural gas contents and types, including CO2 contents. Sleipner and Snøhvit are by no means the only fields/wells to display a high CO2 content. Figure 12 displays an example from well 7316/5-1 with high CO2 contents. The majority of



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gas samples are however below 3-4 vol% CO2, so that one may conclude that CO2 rich gas is probably a frequent, but short-lived phenomenon. 3 effective sinks are responsible for effective reduction of CO2 content:

Dissolution in water

Formation of carbonate cement

Bacterial reduction to secondary methane Sorption, water dissolution and the formation of dissolved HCO3

- are other important sinks.

Examples of fields/wells with high CO2 contents include: Siri, 2/6-5, 9/2-5, Sleipner Vest, Frigg, Troll, Huldra, Veslefrikk, Oseberg, Hild, Gullfaks, Visund, Agat, Kristin, Tyrihans, Smørbukk, Njord, Idun, 6607/12-1, Victoria, 7019/1-1, 7119/12-3, Snøhvit, 7122/2-1, 7316/5-1 and 7324/10-1. Carbonate cement is another important source of information for the turnover of CO2 related processes. Stable isotope data evidence that organic C is by far the most important source of CO2 for carbonate cements, and the total quantities of cements is a very robust record for the magnitude of CO2 turnover. The carbonate cements from the Frigg field reservoir is a particularly interesting example. The dominating cement C source is from biodegradation of oil, which has resulted in both very large amounts of cement, but also of secondary biogenic methane. We have quantified the following budget for these processes:

46 carbonate cemented layers each 0.5 m thick (average) Volume fraction of carbonate in cemented layers: 0.333 465 m reservoir thickness 150 kg/m3 density of reservoir methane gas 29% porosity

Isotope data indicate that the maximum CO2 pool prior to CO2 reduction must have been 4-5 times larger than its size during carbonate cementation. About 1 billion tons of CO2 is estimated to have been trapped as CaCO3. 2-3 Frigg reservoirs would have been filled with this amount of CO2. The majority of the methane in the Frigg Field may also have been sourced by CO2 reduction. The amount of oil altered to produce this amount of CO2, and ultimately CH4, would have filled 10-20% of the Frigg field. Similar processes seem to have operated in the Troll Field. CO2 reduction is another important sink in natural systems, and sometimes the process may form huge Oil Rimmed Gas fields (ORGA). The extensive tar sand deposits of Canada and Venezuela are also examples of similar processes. A very thick and prominent seismic reflector from the 25/10 area in the North Sea contains carbonate as the dominant mineral (Figure 13). Stable isotope work show that the majority of the CO2 in these carbonates is of biogenic (bacterial origin), and the carbonate cementation process is probably similar to that described for the Frigg field. This is however a layer in the overburden, and it very nicely demonstrates how self-immobilization of huge CO2 quantities in the subsurface has operated in the geologic past. XRD data from our in-house mineralogy database for NOCS mudrocks indicate that more than 10wt% is a probable average content of carbonate in the shales/mudrocks (Figure 14). Pockmarks are frequently very rich in biogenic carbonates (Troll, Nyegga, Svalbard), and represent the most shallow manifestation of the CO2 immobilization processes in seal sediments. Figure 15 is a summary of NOCS carbonate isotope data. The frequent occurrence of both negative and positive values indicate a dominant organic C source. Together all these data sources demonstrate that:

Large amounts of biogenic CO2 has been common in NOCS sediments

Huge quantities of CO2 has been effectively retained as carbonates in NOCS basins

Gas baselines show strong depth-time variation

Fractures are frequently closed by carbonate cementation (see below)



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Figure 12. Contents of CO2 and CH4 from 7316/5-1 sediments

Figure 13. Seismic carbonate reflector from NOCS 25/10

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Figure 14. Average carbonate content of NOCS mudrocks from XRD data

Figure 15. Carbon isotope variation from NOCS carbonate cement

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Review of geochemical reactions in faults and fractures Fractures may be important leakage pathways for CO2 in the subsurface. Fractures may be generated in experiments, but it is almost impossible to use experiments to study the healing of fractures by cementation. Analogue samples may however put some light on these processes. IFE has systematically sampled mineralised fractures from sediments through almost 25 years, and possesses a large amount of samples and data, which we think is a relevant analogue for the study of long term fracture behaviour in the subsurface. In addition to petrographic work, stable isotope analysis is a powerful tool for the understanding of fracture cementation. Figure 16 below (Snorre – fracture cementation) illustrates several important observations:

The fracture walls are frequently covered by small crystals

Later crystals are much larger (crystal competition)

Isotopes show that the C for late crystals are sourced externally (CO2 migration)

Organic (probably bacterial) CO2 is a dominating source

Figure 16. Veins and stable isotope data from the Snorre Field

Figure 17 displays calcite fractures from the Balder Fm in the Frigg Field. Several interesting features are evident:

Veins are multiple generations

Both subhorizontal and subvertical veins are present (stress field variations)

Some veins are cut by later invasion of sediment matrix

Isotopes evidence that fracture filling is related to reservoir cementation

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Figure 17. Display of multiple generations of veins and deformations textures in the Balder tuff/shale

interval in the Frigg Field

Figure 18. Veins and stable isotope data from the Snorre Field



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Figure 18 also shows fracture fillings from the Snorre Field. Again both subhorizontal and subvertical vein generations are present. In this case we did a particularly detailed isotope study of the vein system. The growth bands are emphasized by staining with Alizarin and Potassium Ferri Cyanide. Several general observations are important:

There is no carbon isotopic overlap between subhorizontal and subvertical veins Subhorizontal veins have light isotopes (Snorre, Frigg, many other fields)

There is clearly a relation between stress field and pressure on one hand, and the mode of bacterial activity and isotope signatures on the other. More work is needed to understand this relationship.

The lessons learned from the analogue data from natural processes in CO2 rich situations are several:

It is unrealistic to assume an even low CO2 baseline in the subsurface above storages

This baseline has to be mapped by the acquisition of gas data

Subsurface sediments evidence episodic high natural CO2 occurrences

The dominating source for CO2 appears to be bacterial processes

Two important sinks tend to reduce CO2 contents over time:

carbonate cementation

CO2 reduction to biogenic secondary methane

Fractures are commonly filled by cement related to high CO2 contents

Stress fields are highly variable during vein growth

The subsurface has a high capacity to immobilize CO2 by carbonate formation and several other processes.

Experimental data on individual seal elements (cap rock, well materials) 18 shale samples were collected from cores from drill hole D4 in the Svalbard CO2 Project, during a visit in March 2010. They cover a depth range from 85 to 688 m, and should thus be representative for all the overburden sequence that has been cored. 6 of the samples have been sealed and frozen immediately after drilling, and they will later be used for method development on baseline assessment (content and type of gas), and they will also be used in various experimental investigations of cap rock sorption capacity.

We have initiated an extensive mineral characterization scheme for the shale samples: including visual description, XRD, DTA/DTG, SEM, microprobe analysis and optical microscopy, both on whole rock shale material, and also on various monomineralic phyllosilicate mineral separates (smectite and chlorite) of various origins. These materials will be subject to extensive experimental work and post-experiment characterization.

Experimental work on flow and reactivity, as well as possible changes of petrophysical and geomechanical properties, has been initiated on a selection of cap rock materials (shales, siltstones, pure clay fractions.

Shales samples from the overburden in borehole DH4 in the Svalbard CO2 project, and from the Snøhvit Filed, have been collected for several purposes:

Shale mineralogy and petrophysical properties

Methods for gas baseline assessment

Experiments on gas extraction and saturation

Experiments on gas sorption and diffusion

Experiments on flow and reaction in shales

Svalbard samples represent the Rurikfjellet and Agardfjellet Formations in Janusfjellet subgroup, constituting the caprock sequence of the target reservoir for CO2 injection. The characterisation includes optical microscopy, photo documentation, XRD and clay mineral analysis of selected samples. The data set includes a few shale horizons within the reservoir (DeGeerdalen Formation) as well. The upper part of Agardfjellet Fm ( 461-612m) are dark, organic rich shales, high in quartz with some albite, pyrite and occasional dolomite. The clays are mica/illite with additional presence of a 7Å, Fe-rich chlorite (Fig. 19). Very thin fractures are seen, generally open, but also locally partly cemented. The lower part of the caprock sequence (down to about 669m) are more silty however with similar



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mineralogy (Fig.20). A conglomeratic, inhomogeneous zone defines the boundary towards the De Greendale FM and the target reservoir sequence.

Cap rocks samples from Snøhvit (collected for Raymore project)represent the Snøhvit, Ask Ladd and Albatross Fields and are characterised by XRD, optical microscopy, TOC/TIC, and Mercury porosity measurements on three samples from 7120/6-1 (Snøhvit). (IFE/KR/F-2010/027). Clay mineral analysis has further been done on 7 samples. Figure 21 show that illite and gadolinite are the dominating clays from the Snøhvit samples. Figure 22 and 23 show micro photos of shales from Dh4 on Svalbard.

The Svalbard samples are high in organics, the clays are mica/illicit in addition to an Fe-rich 7Å chlorite. The Snøhvit caprocks are generally more silty, some porosity is present, and the clays are dominated by kaolinite. Thus there is a significant difference between the two which may imply an important difference in sealing properties.

We have also compiled data from mudrocks from other fields (NOCS). These data comprise detailed mineralogical characterisation supplied by isotope analysis of carbonates and clay minerals, as well as organic data earlier collected at IFE. We have in addition compiled data on fracture cementation from various areas - Barents Sea, Mid-Norway Region, Viking Graben and Central Graben. IFEs in house gas database will be recast for the evaluation of gas baseline and seal property evaluation. Standards from oil companies in the past has prevented the reporting of absolute contents of natural gas components from mudgas samples. We are now investigating a practical procedure to re-quantify this large database to meet the need for CO2 storage. PhD candidate Kristin Tyldum Kjøglum will include this in her thesis work, which is due to start in the near future.

We will in the near future finish the characterisation of the caprock sequence with SEM on selected samples - extended with samples representing the whole sequence above the reservoir at Svalbard DH4 (included in separate report). We also consider extended sampling of caprocks from other fields: Snøhvit or Sleipner?.

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Figure 22. (Dh4 Svalbard 509.21m) Micorphoto of shale texture, quartz grains, mica laths, local

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Figure 23. (DH4 Svalbard: 669.1m) Microphoto of shale texture, quartz grains, clay matrix, (long side

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Experimental work Sarah Bouquet from Nancy-Université finished an internship at IFE last year. She run experiments on two types of reference clay minerals delivered from Clay Minerals Society (smectite and chlorite) exposed to CO2 and water for 30 days at high (175 bars) and low pressure, and temperatures 80º and 200 º. These incipient experiments indicate that chlorite is more reactive than smectite, and that particle size as well as liquid/solid ratio are important parameters. In addition an appropriate scheme for experimental analysis has been established. She also performed a literature survey on experimental design and results including clay minerals and shales. We are presently developing plans and methods for the study of CO2 sorption on clays/shale and organic matter (Kristin T. Kjøglum PhD thesis). Experimental methods have been established, and she is ready to start on a selected crushed shale which is well characterised. Another area of method development initiated involves various methods for the estimation of reactive surfaces of various experimental materials. Planned experiments on reactive properties of caprocks include:

Organic components - behaviour with CO2 fluids

Flow and reaction in columns (crushed caprock material)

Reactivity of pure clay minerals (illitic, chlorite, kaolinite) Ongoing experimental work (just started) is a joint program serving both the Ramore (cement) and the SUCCESS (caprocks) projects. We are now running experiments to investigate in more detail the effects of liquid-solid ratio, salinity and temperature on the rate and extent of degradation reactions affecting well cement surfaces. The methodology and experimental conditions (P=100 bar, T=50°C, duration 5-30 days) are applicable for both cements and caprocks, or other elements of the seal sequence. Together with published initial work on well cement, the knowledge will be implemented in the ultimate assessment of seal elements under SUCCESS. We have started with caprock samples from the Snøhvit Field, and will follow up with Svalbard samples. A number of experiments under flow and static conditions have been performed under the same pressure and temperature conditions as above, generally revealing a very low reactivity for these specific caprock samples in the intact state (thin flow channel drilled through the plug). Ground samples will be used in future tests, to achieve larger reaction progress in regard to dissolution/precipitation phenomena. The experiments will focus on dissolution processes in aqueous systems with advective flow (i.e. packed columns in mixed flow system) or on induced porosity as a result of extraction of organic components in the caprock into supercritical CO2 (dry system). We will derive empirical correlations for degradation processes from the above mentioned studies, affecting well cements and caprocks. Such correlations would ideally be as simple as possible and describe numerically the extent of long term degradation, for the parameters investigated. E.g. under otherwise similar conditions, a highly saline formation water will have a significantly reduced water activity (aH2O), and will consequently achieve “post-injection equilibrium” with its surroundings at an earlier stage than, say, synthetic seawater. The inverse is true for the liquid-solid-ratio, meaning that a larger pocket of carbonated, acidic formation water in contact with the wellbore (i.e. a large L/S ratio), will be able to extract more calcium ions from the cement, than a small pocket under otherwise identical conditions. A useful empirical correlation would decouple these two effects, and be able to predict the extent of degradation of the wellbore (still to be defined properly) after a given amount of time, for a range of salinities and in the presence of various amounts of liquid/gas in contact with the wellbore. Modelling of seal elements (caprock, well materials) In the field of modelling we have 3 important aims:

Use of existing models to interpret analogue data

Use of new and existing models to history match and interpret experiments

To develop models as an aid in process understanding and quantification The Phenomenon of hydraulic fracturing is of major concern in connection with CO2 storage. We are now trying to penetrate deeper into the understanding of this process. CO2 injection into sediments



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with low or intermediate porosity and permeability may alter the stress field and mechanical behaviour of the rock. Variations in pore pressure may lead to brittle failure and opening of fractures. Dissolution and precipitation of minerals under stress may lead to viscous compaction and closure of pore space and fractures. These processes are strongly physically coupled and we need to thoroughly investigate and understand these couplings in order to develop realistic predictive models for CO2 injection and the penetration into a CO2 seal. We have developed numerical models based on a thermodynamically consistent set of non-linear differential equations for coupled porous fluid flow, temperature and tracer exchange and deformation, including reaction induced viscous compaction and plastic opening of pore space. Naturally, these models contain a large number of adjustable parameters that are not always well constrained. The development of suitable non-dimensional expressions for such a coupled system is therefore of prime importance, as is the systematic exploration of the parameter space. We will determine for which temperatures and pressures, compositions, initial petrophysical conditions (porosities, permeabilities) and boundary conditions (injection fluid pressure) phenomena such as visco-elastic porosity waves may occur on the spatial and time scales relevant to CO2 injection. Porosity waves are predicted to constitute an important fluid focusing and transport mechanism in sedimentary basins. They create transient or dynamic permeability in the reservoir and may allow for the rapid and focused transport of fluids, heat and mass in and out of the area close to the well without invoking the existence of an additional connected network of open fractures. If porosity waves from in sealing materials of CO2 storages they create a pressure increase at their head and under-pressure in their tail. These pressure variations may again enhance or suppress reactions along the path of the wave and may act as precursors of classical hydraulic fractures.

NGI Experimental data on individual seal elements (caprock, well materials) WP3.3 CO2 breakthrough testing and flow measurements in shale CO2 breakthrough processes in shale have been studied in an experimental setup that is designed to evaluate the sealing efficiency of a caprock under conditions of geological CO2 storage in a saline aquifer. The main objective was to define the stress conditions for opening/reopening of micro fractures in the caprock and to see how this influences CO2 flow processes in shale. The experiment comprises a brine saturated testing stage followed by a CO2 testing stage with CO2 breakthrough and flow measurements under isotropic confining pressure. During the brine saturated testing stage baseline mechanical and hydraulic properties were determined through a loading/unloading loop with permeability measurements. Monitoring of axial and radial deformation and flow in and out of the sample are used to characterize the CO2 breakthrough and flow characteristics for the shale material. The CO2 breakthrough is characterized by a sudden dilation of the sample together with onset of flow at the outlet. The observed flow rate right after CO2 breakthrough gives an effective CO2 permeability higher than the absolute brine permeability for similar stress and strain. Effective CO2 permeability correlates best with the volumetric strain in the sample, when considering both flow directly after CO2 breakthrough and reinitiated flow (Figure 24). Altogether the results indicate that the CO2 flow is concentrated in defined pathways, dominated by local increase in porosity through opening of micro fractures creating pathways trough the sample. Conventional two phase flow model is likely to be inadequate for modeling this flow process. Models for fractures flow may be more suitable.



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b ca

Figure 24. Absolute brine permeability, kabs, compared with effective CO2 permeability keff for various

effective stress conditions (a), pore pressure difference (b) and deformation (c). Decreasing strain is

dilation of the sample. Permeability value 1-3 is for brine. Permeability value 4 is the first steady state

flow after CO2 breakthrough, measurements 5-7 is during stepwise reduction in the pore pressure

difference. For measurement 7 the flow is negative possibly due to creep and flow back into the sample.

Measurement 8-11 is during stepwise increasing the pore pressure difference and reinitiating CO2 flow.

The results from the Draupne CO2 breakthrough and flow test will be presented at GHGT10 in September 2010. Geomechanical effects on cement due to CO2 exposure Cement plugs exposed CO2 at IFE have been tested for changes in mechanical strength using different testing methods like unconfined compression tests (Figure 25) and scratch testing. Analysis of the results is ongoing and will be summarized in NGI report 20061337-00-9-R Mechanical strength of cement plugs exposed to CO2.

Figure 25. Cement plugs after unconfined compression test.



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6.4 WP4

6.4.1 Introduction

This is the progress report for work package 4 (WP4) Monitoring of reservoir and overburden, for the period January till December 2010. The SUCCESS centre – Subsurface CO2 storage – Critical Elements and Superior Strategy addresses several important areas for CO2 storage in the subsurface: storage performance, sealing properties, injection, monitoring and consequences for the marine environment. WP4 focus on monitoring of reservoir and overburden with respect to plume migration, leakage detection and surface heave. For 2010 five sub work packages were defined. WP4.1 Evaluation of Controlled Source Electro-Magnetics (CSEM) to detect CO2 in the subsurface. WP4.2 Review of CO2 saturation dependent rock physics models (resistivity and velocity) WP4.3 Develop prototype of gasflux sensor for monitoring CO2 leakage WP4.4 Feasibility study on monitoring techniques for surface deformation related to CO2 injection WP4.5 Development of methods for early detection of leakage from reservoir to neighbouring

formations NGI and Uni CIPR have been the active partner for WP4 for this reporting period. Main activities are literature studies on rock physics models and CO2 leakage detection methods and feasibility studies for using EM and surface heave to monitor the evolution of the CO2 plume For the current reporting period activities in WP4.1, WP4.2, WP4.4 and WP4.5 is reported according to workplan provided by CMR in May 2010 and budget for 2010. WP4.3 is postponed due to lower budgets for 2010 than initially planned and not reported for this period.


Activities in WP4 for 2010 focus on literature studies on rock physics models, the use of EM for CO2 detection and feasibility study on monitoring techniques for seabed heave and leakage detection. Existing rock physics models suitable for modelling rock resistivity and rock velocity as a function of CO2 saturation have been reviewed. This review gives the necessary background needed for further work on improving and developing suitable rock physics models. The work is relevant for estimation of the Electro-Magnetic (EM) and seismic response of subsurface CO2 and will provide useful input to the Controlled source Electro-Magnetics (CSEM) modelling. The sensitivity of Controlled Source Electro-Magnetics (CSEM) to detect CO2 in the subsurface is investigated for a synthetic dataset. The geological model used is similar to Sleipner and fluid saturation is converted into resistivity using a simple model (i.e. Archie’s law). Full 4D CSEM modeling is performed to investigate the sensitivity of CO2 plume to the CSEM data both for conventional CSEM survey configuration (Sea2Sea) and also a rather novel configuration (Sea2Well). CSEM interpretation/inversion of field data from Sleipner has started in collaboration with Statoil and Uni CIPR. The main objectives of the study is to build a full 3D EM geological background model for the CO2 plume at the Sleipner Utsira formation, which can be used as a reference model for the future time-lapse (4D EM) analysis. Another objective is to evaluate the feasibility of applying NGI’s 3D modelling tool and simulating the seabed pipe effects in the context of the real marine CSEM data. The work is in progress and is planned to continue in 2011. NGI should also prepare an appropriate background geoelectric model in order for the Uni CIPR codes to be applicable. A literature review with special focus on detection limits for various geophysical and direct monitoring methods for CO2 leakage detection from the subsurface has been conducted. This review gives the basis for defining further work within leakage detection methods. In this context, surface heave are observed for onshore CO2 storage projects (In Salah) and similar heave could be expected offshore. A feasibility study on possibilities to use distributed network of tilt meters, fiber optic sensors and bathymetry to monitor seabed heave where InSAR is not an option have also been conducted. In



38

parallel with this, expected heave depending on pressure buildup and geomechanical properties in the reservoir and overburden have been investigated through modeling of the In Salah field case. All planned activities within WP4 at NGI for 2010 have started and show progress according to plans and budgets. Research collaboration with GFZ Potsdam has been initiated during this period. Researchers from Idaho National Laboratories and Montana State University have been visiting NGI for exchange of research activity information. Although the main activities in WP 4 is concentrated on literature reviews and feasibility studies NGI has some relevant proceedings and presentation at national and international conferences. The activities in WP4 have also been presented in meetings with national and international potential collaborators. Parts of the work reported in WP 2.4 (CT flooding experiment with CT scanner) where we measure rock physics properties of CO2 and brine saturated sandstone is related to WP4.


Overview Status and main results for research activities within WP4 is given in the following. Five sub work packages have been defined for 2010. NGI have contributed with activities in WP4.1, WP4.2, WP4.4 and WP4.5. Uni CIPR have been involved in WP4.1. WP4.3 has been postponed due to reduction in budgets and is not reported for this period.WP4.1 Evaluation of Controlled Source Electro-Magnetics (CSEM) to detect CO2 in the subsurface

4.2 Sensitivity of CSEM to detect CO2. NGI activity: The main task is a feasibility study on CSEM application to CO2 storage monitoring during and after injection stage. For this purpose, first we create a set of synthetic CO2-injection-induced saturation data for a given geological model (similar to Sleipner), by means of NGI two phase flow simulation tool (based on a commercial FE code COMSOL Multiphysics). Then, we convert the saturation in the CO2 plume to the resistivity via a simple law (i.e. Archie’s law). Finally, we perform CSEM full 4D modeling for all the time sequences during and after injection in order to see the sensitivity of CO2 plume to the CSEM data. We consider not only a conventional CSEM survey configuration (Sea2Sea) but also a rather novel configuration (Sea2Well). The former is to have the both transmitter and receiver on the seabed and the latter is to have the transmitter on the seabed but the receiver in the well. Figures 26 and 27 show the synthesized saturation distribution in the subsurface (CO2 storage) and the converted resistivity distribution via Archie’s law. In the future, we will try to apply more advanced or suitable laws. As shown in Figure 27, the predicted resistivity via Archie’s law is rather small, i.e. maximum 10 Ωm, which is considered as a weak anomaly in the sense of conventional CSEM survey data (i.e. from Sea2Sea). Figures 28 and 29 show the so-called normalized horizontal electric fields calculated on a certain area of seabed via Sea2Sea and Sea2Well surveys, respectively. The anomaly plume is assumed to be 5 Ωm in the whole plume domain. It is clearly shown that Sea2Well configuration can increase the sensitivity of CSEM data even for the low resistivity plume.



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Figure 26. Saturation profiles for the non-wetting phase (CO2) at various times after injection (from left

to right); 0, 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 years, plotted along the direction of the injection line. Color scale is from

0 to 0.6 (blue and red, respectively).

Figure 27. Resistivity profiles at various times after injection; 0, 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 years, plotted along

the direction of the injection line. Color scale is from 2 m to 10 m (blue to red, respectively).

Figure 28. Normalized horizontal E fields for 5 m CO2 plume, obtained via Sea2Sea CSEM synthetic

data.



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Figure 29. Normalized horizontal E fields for 5 m CO2 plume, obtained via Sea2Well CSEM synthetic

data.

CSEM data interpretation from Sleipner

NGI activity: The main objective is to try interpretation/inversion of CSEM data which is known to be significantly affected by seabed pipelines. The challenge is the CSEM 3D forward modeling with taking into account the seabed pipelines as part of the background geology, which is necessary in Sleipner case. Recently, Statoil and NGI have developed an efficient modeling technique to simulate seabed pipelines in full 3D CSEM field situation, which is the major motivation of the current task and will make possible the CSEM data interpretation/inversion with including the effect of pipelines, well-casing, etc. We have received preliminary information from Sleipner consortium (August 24

th, 2010), from which

we have confirmed the significant effects of the seabed pipelines on the CSEM data, collected on the seabed along the longitudinal direction of the Sleipner CO2 plume. Sleipner consortium suggests repeating the CSEM data processing, although the data process has been done already in the consortium. Therefore, the first step in the current task is to evaluate the processed CSEM data from Sleipner consortium and decide the possibility of reprocessing, after which we will be able to start the inversion/interpretation via the full 3D modeling and inversion tools available at NGI. The modeling technique for seabed pipelines that we have developed with support from Statoil is an approximation solution describing the seabed pipelines via line-segments/edges in the 3D space (called “edge approximation”). The technique is very efficient because we don’t have to include detailed structures of the seabed pipelines into the full 3D finite element analysis. Based on the preliminary information from Sleipner consortium, we have tested out the modeling technique and compared with a result from a more rigorous modeling procedure (i.e. finite element modeling of pipelines via volume element, which requires long computation time). The geological model to simulate has 80m deep seawater over a homogeneous half-space; a 2km long seabed pipeline perpendicularly crossing an inline electric dipole transmitter survey line.



41

Figure 30. Amplitude versus offset (AVO) curves of Ex fields obtained via edge approximation and

volume element.

Figure 31. Phase versus offset (PVO) curves of Ex fields obtained via edge approximation and volume

element.

The two figures above (Figure 30 and 31) show the result comparisons of the two modeling methods (i.e. edge approximation vs. volume element). It is feasible that we apply the approximation technique to the Sleipner CSEM data interpretation with coupling NGI’s inversion codes NGI has been interpreting and inverting the Sleipner CSEM data (collected in 2008) that was provided by Sleipner consortium/Statoil. The data is known to be highly contaminated by seabed pipes. To analyze the data, we used NGI’s EM forward modelling and inversion tools (covering 1, 2 and 3D; considering the seabed pipe effects). One of the main objectives of the study is to build a full 3D EM geological background model for the CO2 plume at the Sleipner Utsira formation, which can be used as a reference model for the future time-lapse (4D EM) analysis. Another objective is to evaluate the feasibility of applying NGI’s 3D modelling tool and simulating the seabed pipe effects in the context of the real marine CSEM data. The work is in progress and is planned to continue in 2011.



42

The inversion and interpretation in 2010 are done via the following procedures. 1. Run line-inversion and pseudo 2D inversion via NGI’s pseudo 2D inversion softwares

(“emsea1d_interface” and “pseudo-2D-forward-modeling inversion”). 2. Import inversion results (i.e. 2D resistivity profiles) into 3D forward modelling (with seabed

pipes and without seabed pipe) and produce synthetic CSEM data. 3. Compare the 3D modelled data (based on pseudo 2D inversion results), to the measured data.

Figure 32 shows one of 3D modelled results in terms of so-called 2D attribute or pseudo 2D section plot that was obtained from procedure 3. The 2D attribute plot herein is constructed in the following steps: (1) decide a reference field; (2) obtain the normalized amplitude-versus-offset (AVO) curves for all the receivers; (3) plot all the normalized AVO curves at once in a 2D space in which the horizontal and vertical axes are the common-mid-point and the offset, respectively. Three different plots are shown, i.e. (a) measured data; (b) synthetic data with simulating seabed pipes; (c) synthetic data without simulating seabed pipes. It is clearly shown that the effect of the seabed pipes is significant. In addition, it is noticed that the inversion and interpretation should continue in order to improve the results, i.e. improving the 3D EM geological background model for the CO2 plume at the Sleipner Utsira formation.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 32. 2D attribute plots: (a) measured data; (b) synthetic data with simulating seabed pipes; (c)

synthetic data without simulating seabed pipes

Figure 33 shows the ratio of vertical resistivity divided by horizontal resistivity for the same inversion result as for Figure 32. It is noted that the anisotropy in horizontal and vertical resistivity is rather high near the CO2 plume region, which is believed due to the alternating thin CO2 layers.



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Figure 33. Anisotropy of resistivity (vertical resistivity/horizontal resistivity) for one of the inversion

results.

Uni CIPR activity: The main parts of Uni CIPR's work has been: 1. Further develop a robust method for parameter identification with application to CSEM monitoring (Berre et al, 2010); 2. Adapt a recently developed fast forward model for CSEM (Bakr, 2010) to work in conjunction with the above mentioned robust inversion method. 3. Collaboration with NGI and Statoil on how Uni CIPR can contribute to improved inversion of the Sleipner CSEM data set. Within 1, an important issue has been to facilitate and investigate into ways of performing simultaneous utilization of time-lapse CSEM and seismic data. Within 2, the main effort has been on implementation of the direct method/analytical sensitivity coefficient method for calculating the sensitivity matrix, within the fast forward solver. Within 3, discussions with NGI and Statoil personnel have resulted in a specification/work plan for how NGI should prepare an appropriate background geoelectric model in order for the Uni CIPR codes to be applicable.

4.2 Review of CO2 saturation dependent rock physics models (resistivity and velocity) NGI activity: The seismic response may be affected by changes in pore fluid properties, because of the injected CO2 can exist in three separate phases: supercritical fluid, gaseous or dissolved in aqueous solutions (depending on pressure and temperature in the reservoir). The acoustic properties of CO2 can be calculated employing different models:

Non-dissolved CO2. Can use formulas originally developed for hydrocarbon gases (Batzle-Wang equations). To further improve these equations, the empirical values for the pseudo-critical pressure and temperature normally used, should be replaced by the exact values known for CO2 (7.4 MPa and 31.1 degree Celsius). Other empirical models also exist which is based directly on laboratory measurements of CO2 (one published by Wang in 2000 and a new one from 2010 by Han, Sun and Batzle). In order to obtain high accuracy also near the critical point, Spam and Wagner published in 1996 an EOS for CO2 covering a temperature region from the triple-point to 1100 K at pressures up to 800 MPa. The model is rather complex and difficult to evaluate accurately due to numerical issues.

CO2 dissolved in oil. Can again adapt Batzle-Wang type of equations originally developed for hydrocarbon gases.

CO2 dissolved in brine. The amount of gas that can be dissolved in brine is much less than in light oils. Recent experimental data indicate also that gas in solution in brine has a negligible effect on the bulk modulus. The density effect can be estimated by assuming that CO2 behaves similar to methane.

Alternatively, the fluid mixing part can be replaced by:

Statistical Associating Fluid Theory (SAFT). SAFT is a Helmholtz free energy EoS that predicts the effects of intermolecular interactions on the bulk behaviour of the fluid. It can describe thermodynamic properties and phase behaviour of pure fluids and fluid mixtures containing small, large, non-associating and associating molecules, including supercritical and near-critical solutions of polymers.



44

Having established the fluid-mixing model, the effective elastic properties of the reservoir is calculated employing Gassmann-Biot theory. Compared to the acoustic/elastic case, the literature discussing the electric properties of CO2 and corresponding rock-physics models are quite limited. The empirical model of Archie known from petroleum logging is most often used. Within one reservoir, CO2 will be stored in four principal forms: structural mapping, residual saturation, dissolution and mineral precipitate. In case of mineral precipitate, geochemical reactions need to be accounted for in the rock-physics models. Due to the limited format of this literature review such effects of diagenesis has not been investigated.

4.4 Feasibility study on monitoring techniques for surface deformation related to CO2 injection NGI activity: Feasibility study for monitoring of seabed heave The goal of this sub-project is to find out available techniques to monitor seafloor uplift due to CO2 storage in an order of centimeters. Through the literature review on the current stage, the following techniques are investigated. For vertical deformation monitoring

Seafloor pressure recording

Gravity monitoring

Time domain reflectometry (TDR) For horizontal deformation monitoring

Acoustic transponders to measure acoustic ranging.

Fiber-optic extensometers for short baselines.

Tiltmeter

Combined acoustic and GPS methods to measure the position of a single point in a global reference system.

Time domain reflectometry (TDR) Since our main interests is vertical deformation of sea floor caused by CO2 storage, the seafloor pressure recording is believe one of the most cost-effective techniques after evaluation all techniques above. There are two ways for seafloor pressure recording:

Continuous monitoring This method gives access to the time variable deformation and allows to capture episodic deformation. The drawback is that it requires one instrumental package per measurement site. In addition, ocean and atmosphere variability create a pressure signal which can be difficult to separate from slow instrument drift or seafloor deformation.

Repetitive measurements using the same instrument This method allows denser spatial coverage with fewer instruments. In addition, there is no need for corrections for long-term ocean and atmosphere variations for long-term instrumental drift. Drawback is that a submersible device (e.g. ROV) is needed which make each measurement a costly experiment.

Figure 34 shows seafloor operation of seafloor pressure recording. Figure 35 shows a cross-section of a ROVDOG (ROV deployed deep ocean gravimeter) instrument. The seafloor pressure recording technique does not need drill holes on the seabed. If inclinometer holes are allowed to drill on the seabed to install tiltmeter, then the TDR cables can be installed together with tiltmeter without much extra cost.



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A COMSOL simulation have been used to study the influence of sea water layer on seabed heave due to overpressure beneath the seabed (Figure 36).

Figure 36. Displacement due to the overpressure in the cavity for various sea water depths.

Figure 34. Illustration of seafloor operation.

The instrument is put on top of a seafloor

benchmark by ROV, where pressure and

gravity are measured.

Figure 35. A cross-section of a ROVDOG (ROV

deployed deep ocean gravimeter). Pressure,

temperature and gravity sensors are installed in the

system.



46

NGI activity: Geomechanical modelling of heave The purpose of this activity is to develop methods and concepts providing early warnings about potential leakage of CO2 from the reservoir and monitor the injection performance. The calibration and tuning of geophysical methods (e.g. seismic, electromagnetic) against more direct observations is an important element in this activity. To illustrate this we present a coupled poro-elastic and two-phase flow finite element model applicable to model surface heave due to CO2 injection. The model has been tested and calibrated on data from In Salah, Algeria, where the surface deformation around three different injection wells (KB501, KB502 and KB503) has been detected by InSAR (Onuma and Ohkawa, 2009). Three case studies has been simulated to investigate various impacts on the surface heave: Base case; best-guess estimate of the available parameters (Rutquist et al., 2009), Fracture case; inserting a high permeable lower caprock layer above the reservoir (in effect increasing the thickness of the reservoir) and Fault case; adding a high permeable vertical fault plane through the caprock. The FEM model describing full coupled equations of two-phase fluid flow in porous rock and poro-elasticity is implemented in the commercially available software COMSOL Multiphysics (Bjørnarå and Aker, 2008, Bjørnarå et al., 2009). The surface heave at the three injection wells from two different references (Onuma and Ohkawa, 2009, Rutquist et al., 2009) is shown in Figure 37, left plot. The Base case model (Figure 37, middle plot) matches the observed heave after 3 years and shows a smooth and steadily declining heave rate, while the Fracture case (Figure 37, right plot) gives a distinct shape of the surface heave profile; an abrupt change in heave rate followed by an almost linear increase in heave with time. The change in rate occurs when the plume reaches the caprock, or top of the fractured layer, indicating that the temporal evolution of the heave can say something about the thickness of the injection layer and the time that the plume reaches the caprock.

0 1 2 3 40

5

10

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20In Salah InSAR heave data

Time after injection, [Years]

Heave a

t in

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ite,

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]

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m]

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Continuous

3 years

KB501 [#2]

KB501 [#4]

KB501 [#2]

KB501 [#4]

KB502 [#4]

KB503 [#4]

Figure 37. Left: Measured heave data at the injection wells from two different references: Onuma and

Ohkawa, 2009, Rutquist et al., 2009. Centre: Close-up (0-4 years after injection) of surface heave

(modelled Base case; line) compared with measured data for injection well KB501 (dots). Red curve is

from continuous injection and blue curve when injection is stopped after 3 years. Right: Close-up (0-4

years after injection) of surface heave (Fracture case).

By introducing a vertical fault plane through the caprock (the Fault case), a distinct and noticeable uplift of the surface directly above the fracture is observed (Figure 38). The heave is not due to leakage, but to increased fluid pressure in the fault because of more favourable flow conditions (higher permeability). This indicates that a high permeable fault plane, even outside the reach of the injected CO2 plume, can be visually determined by measurements like InSAR.



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Figure 38. Vertical heave of the top surface after 3 years injection for Base case (left) and Fault case

(middle) when a fault is intersecting the caprock. The difference in heave between Base case and Fault

case is plotted to the right for comparison. Color scale is 0-15 mm (0-3 mm in difference plot). Note that

only half of the model is shown.

4.5 Development of methods for early detection of leakage from reservoir to neighboring formations NGI activity: Reliable technologies for monitoring and detection of carbon dioxide leakage (Fig. 39) from geological storage sites are of tremendous importance for successful and safe storage of anthropogenic CO2. Many methods have been suggested for leakage detection and we have performed a literature review of the most important technologies for measurements of CO2 migration in the overburden and to the surface. We have looked into nineteen methods; 3D/4D surface seismic, acoustic imaging including boomer/sparker profiling and high resolution acoustic imaging, sonar bathymetry with side scan sonar and multibeam echo sounding, electric spontaneous potential. The following geochemical methods were studied; Downhole fluid chemistry, long-term downhole pH, tracers, fluid geochemistry, bubblestream chemistry, non-dispersive infrared gas analysis, open path infrared diode laser, Eddy covariance and soil gas concentrations. Ecosystem studies, airborn spectral imaging and gravimetric analysis were also included. We have searched databases and the scientific literature for CO2 detection levels or resolution of the various methods. In nine methods the detection level or range was given, and six of these are geochemical methods with levels down to parts per million. In contrast, 3D/4D seismic detection responds to CO2 accumulations in the 2500 tonnes range. Most of the methods described in the literature are under development, tested in laboratory experiments or in an early stage of field testing. Based on the literature research we conclude that improved and novel technologies for CO2 leakage detection in various types of medium, and with low detection levels is strongly needed. Ongoing activities and development projects on technologies relevant for CO2 monitoring at NGI are shortly described. References to additional readings (citations not used in the text but relevant for this topic) is included. The project resulted in an internal NGI reference library and a State-of-the-art report.



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Figure 39. Natural gas seep at the water surface



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6.5 WP5

6.5.1 Introduction

The present document is the progress report for Activity 5 in the period January – December 2010. The work reported here was done by the Geophysical Institute (GFI, UiB), Department of Earth Science/ Centre for Geobiology (GEO/CGB, UiB), Department of Mathematics (Math, UiB) Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) and Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI). The main goal of Activity 5 is to improve the understanding of shallow marine processes and the ecological impact of CO2 exposure, and develop marine monitoring methods. The activity addresses CO2 seeps through the seabed in terms of (i) knowledge gaps on processes in the upper sediment/benthic boundary layer; (ii) ecological impact from CO2 exposure; (iii) monitoring technologies. The activity has four cores: The effect of CO2 leakage on marine subsurface sedimentary biosphere; Interaction and processes between shallow sediments and the water column; Consequences of leakage on marine benthic ecosystems; and Monitoring. SUCCESS does not directly fund the data acquisition and measurement technology necessary for achieving the objectives of Activity 5. However, the consortium partners involve several projects at UiB, UniResearch and NIVA, which are presently addressing the development of measurement procedures and technology for CO2 seeps into marine waters. For instance, the GASSNOVA-CO2Marine and the planned CO2Base projects involve baseline gathering in the North Sea, while the EC FP7 project ECO2 (currently under negotiations) will utilize natural seeps to gain better understanding of physical and biogeochemical processes involved when gas seeps through the seafloor. Relevant knowledge gained during the preparation/course of the above projects is reported here.


GFI and UniBjerknes described the dynamics of fugacity of CO2 (fCO2) [the thermodynamic forcing of CO2-exchange between the atmosphere and ocean] in the North Sea in a paper published in January on the open access journal Ocean Science (Omar et al, 2010). The study presented description and quality control of important historic data acquired in the North Sea, and documented/analyzed the seasonal and interannual fCO2 variability in the surface water for which maximum changes are expected compared to the bottom. Based on the aforementioned historic data, GFI and UniBjerknes computed the seasonal and interannual variability of ocean acidification parameters (pH and the saturation degree for aragonite

-south transect approximately along the 5°E in North Sea. The topic “consequence of CO2 leakage” was treated during a guest lecture by A. Omar (UniResearch), T. Johannessen and P. Haugan (GFI), which was presented at the Forum for CO2 Storage, 13 April 2010, Petroleum Directorate, Stavanger, Norway. The focus of the presentation was on the seawater chemistry changes with the conclusions: 1) CO2 leakage will enhance local acidification and may weaken the effect that CO2 capture and storage has for mitigating the impacts of acidification and climate warming; 2) Dedicated field studies are needed in order to develop effective water column monitoring methods and to gain more quantitative knowledge on the impact of CO2 leakage. One guest lecture and one poster, were presented by NIVA (A. Sweetman, D. Durand and L. Golmen) at the annual CO2GeoNet stakeholder forum at Venice in April 2010, on “Marine ecosystem response to CO2 exposure and technologies for monitoring of CO2 seeps from the seabed”. NIVA has started the preparation of the first short-term experiments using a benthic chamber lander (BCL) which is planned to take place late April 2011. They continue the effort for developing, integrating and programming the BCL. In addition, logistical aspects of the deployment have been worked out (vessel, base of integration priori deployment, calibration of the chamber and of sensors).



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GEO/CGB tested and established methods and protocols for shipboard sampling, sample preparation, and geochemical analyses in order to be able to monitor influence of CO2-leakages on the natural pore water composition. This partner also tested and established methods for monitoring the influence of CO2-leakages from subsurface storage on the microbial community in the overlaying sediments. Additionally, GEO/CGB has organized a multidisciplinary local work group consisting of persons from CGB, Department of Geosciences (GEO), Uni Environment and NIVA. The workgroup had three meetings during 3. tertial in which published/available data related to CO2 and upcoming cruises to Sleipner area and to the Jan Mayen vent in June 2011 was discussed. Nominal parameters which can constitute baseline data from the water column, seafloor, and subsurface sediment were identified in connection with a proposal for baseline gathering program for the North Sea that was submitted to Gassnova in May 2010. PhD student Hilde Kristine Hvidevold was hired early 2010 and will work on “Parameter estimation in models tailored to simulate processes in CO2 seeps to marine waters”. Hvidevold’s work will be supervised at GFI and Math. Hvidevold has finished the courses scheduled for 2010 and started the research work.


Overview The following presents status of main results for research activities within WP5 as reported by the involved institutions.

GFI and UniResearch activity:

In a study published in January 2010 in the open access journal Ocean Science Omar et al (2010) investigated the dynamics of fugacity of CO2 (fCO2) [the thermodynamic forcing of CO2-exchange between the atmosphere and ocean] in the North Sea. The study also presented description and quality control of historic data that will be useful for SUCCESS, and documented/analyzed the seasonal and interannual fCO2 variability in the surface water. The main results of the study were:

Seasonal fCO2 changes in the surface North Sea are driven by mixing and biology, SST changes, and air-sea CO2 exchange

The North Sea is an annual sink of atmospheric CO2 although the southern parts become a source during summer and fall

Year-to-year fCO2 variations are large and driven by changes in SST and the spring phytoplankton bloom

The surface water in central and northern parts of the North Sea has tracked more or less the atmospheric CO2 increase during the last four decades.

The results of the above study provide indications of the maximum variability expected in the bottom water which is normally less than that in the surface water. Additionally, the last point of the above results implies that a significant decadal upward trend in fCO2 will be present in the surface water due to ocean acidification; the trend may also be significant in the bottom water for regions that are permanently mixed. The consequence of CO2 leakage was commented in a scientific presentation by A. Omar (UniResearch), and T. Johannessen and P. Haugen (GFI) in April 2010. The focus of the presentation was on the seawater chemistry and one conclusion was that for shallow shelf seas like the North Sea CO2 leakage into the seawater, not only enhances local acidification, but also reintroduces CO2 into the surface ocean which exchanges the leaked carbon with atmosphere in a matter of months. Thus, such leakage weakens the effect that CO2 capture and storage has for mitigating the impacts of acidification and climate warming; A second conclusion of the presentation was that dedicated field studies are needed in order to develop effective monitoring methods and to gain more quantitative knowledge on the impact of CO2 leakage. The investigation of changes of water column properties resulting from CO2 seepage requires the establishment of a baseline against which future states of the seawater CO2 variables at the site of



51

interest can be compared. Nominal parameters and processes which can constitute baseline acquisition program for the water column were identified in connection with a proposal of baseline gathering project in the North Sea (CO2Base) that was submitted to Gassnova in May 2010. The seasonal variations of the sea surface temperature (SST), pH, and saturation degree for aragonite (

rd tertial, and are shown below (Fig. 40). Two features that are

evident from the figure are the summer warming of the seawater and the spring bloom of phytoplankton which drawdown the concentration of carbon dioxide and thus increases the pH of the

elevated levels ( > 2) for most of the year.

Figure 40. The seasonal variations of the sea surface temperature (SST), pH, and saturation degree for

rd tertial. Two features that are evident from the figure are the

summer warming of the seawater and the spring bloom of phytoplankton which drawdown the concentration

of carbon dioxide and thus increases the pH of the water during spring.

When a time series from a 1°x1° geographic box in the northern North Sea ((57.5–58.5° N, 4.8–5.8° E) is considered all three parameters revealed high interannual variations. For pH and highest intarnnual variations occur during spring and summer. The springtime year-year variations result from changes in the magnitude and timing of the spring phytoplankton bloom, whereas the summertime year-year variations are mainly driven by SST variations.

NGI activity:

Metagenomic analysis of marine matrixes influenced by CO2 – feasibility study Migration of CO2 from a marine storage site to overburden and seafloor sediments may interfere with the benthic biota. The microbial community is supposed to be the most sensitive part of the biota due to their high abundance (up to 10

8 microbes/g), great diversity and fast growth. It is likely that the

_arag

pH

SST (C)



52

community composition is among the first component to be affected by CO2 or indirect CO2 induced parameters (e.g. pH, mineral precipitation). Metagenomics is the study of the genetic content – independent of organisms – in a complex sample such as marine sediments and unravel the diversity (bacteria, archeae, fungi, viruses, yeast and eukarya) by overcoming the problems of uncultureability and PCR bias. The genome Sequencer FLX (GS-FLX) System (Roche/454 Life Science) enables a comprehensive view into the diversity and metabolic profile. The datasets are blasted and return files inspected and interpreted by using the programs Metagenome Analyzer (MEGAN), Metagenomic rapid annotation using subsystem technology (MG-RAST), KAAS/KEGG. In this project we have used high throughput sequencing of DNA from a seabed sample from the oil and gas field Troll overlaying the potential CO2 storage site Johansen formation. The sample investigated was collected from a pockmark structure. The geochemical composition of pore water and sediment is given. This is the first metagenomic analysis of microbial community from this area. The sequenced dataset contained 1 227131 sequences with average sequence length of 346 base pairs. The dataset generated were analysed by MG-RAST with the purpose to determine the microbial phylogenetic composition and metabolic profile (Fig. 41). The phylogenetic classification of the analysis used on 4-T was computed from the protein similarities found in the underlying SEED database. Based on 576 348 hits of the 4-T metagenom against the SEED protein non-redundant database (46,97% of the contigs/sequences) and on the 528 hits against the ribosomal 16S RNA database Greengenes (0.04%) the phylogenetic classification was computed. Of the 518982 classified sequences 90% were assigned to Bacteria and 8% to Archaea. Sequences of Eukaryota and viruses were also detected. 12 prokaryotic strains got 6000 sequences or more representing 2 million base pairs. Among these probably high abundant strains three are using CO2 as the carbon source; Nitrosopumilus maritimus, Nitrosococcus oceani and Geobacter uraniumreducens. The dataset is complex and there are several other Coe assimilating species present in the sediment that are possible candidates for alterations due to changes in CO2 flux in the sediments.

Figure 41. Microbial diversity in a marine subseafloor sample at phylum rank (A), increased resolution

of Proteobacteria (B) and Archaea (C).



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Figure 42. Binnig of reads from various taxonomic groups to KAAS for inspection of the presence of

sequences/genes involved in CO2 fixation.

When analyzing the metabolic profile of the dataset 27% of the sequences were classified to known genes (355751) (Fig. 42). Relevant for future monitoring of CO2 may be genes involved in CO2 fixation and one-carbon metabolism. CO2 uptake by carboxysomes is the major abundant way in the 4-T sediment. The 3-hydroxypropionate pathway has recently been detected in Crenarchaeota and is another interesting route. When looking for possible candidates that may change due to increased fluxes of CO2 in marine sediments the chemoautotrophs are important. More in depth analysis if the other Troll dataset, comparison to the other Troll datasets to identify common baseline species, and CO2 spiking of sediments, will increase our knowledge and allow for a more determined selection of candidate species and genes.

NIVA activity

Since the official launch of the RCEE-SUCCESS, NIVA has mainly focus its effort on the elaboration of a medium-term (2-3 years) scientific plan and on the preparation of a large scale experiment for assessing the response of benthic ecosystems to exposure to CO2 fluxes from the sea bottom. The experiment will be conducted late in 2010, and will be based on the deployment of a benthic chamber lander (BCL), allowing programmed in-situ exposure of isolated sediment compartment. The experiment will focus on ecosystem functioning, biodiversity and definition of biological markers and integrated indicators of CO2 seepage. The BCL infrastructure is being finalised, equipped, programmed and made ready for testing. The test will be done in the autumn 2010 in the harbour of Bergen. The work is carried out in tight cooperation with the EC-RISCS project (FP7-Energy – coordination BGS, UK). This first deployment and experiment will be the starting point to a series of studies involving both mesocosm experiments on CO2 exposure in controlled conditions (to be performed at NIVA’s research marine station in Solbergstrand, Oslofjord) and longer term BCL experiments at designated offshore storage sites (Sleipner, Snøhvit…).



54

The research being performed and/or planned in SUCCESS is linked to the EC-ECO2 project (under negotiation), and will contribute with new knowledge to the planned Gassnova-CO2-base (baseline study at Norwegian storage sites). During the 3. tertial, NIVA has focused its effort on task 5.3. The main activity has been linked to the preparation of the first short-term experiments using a benthic chamber lander (BCL) in which we expose a seafloor ecosystem to high CO2 seawater and quantify changes in foraminifera and other fauna microhabitats, changes in benthic biodiversity, changes in O2 flux and nutrient fluxes, changes in C and N uptake by fauna in CO2 exposed and control experiments. NIVA has also continued its effort for developing, integrating and programming the BCL. In addition, logistical aspects of the deployment has been worked out (vessel, base of integration priori deployment, calibration of the chamber and of sensors). The first deployment is planned for late April 2011.

GEO/CGB activity

Geochemical analyses of sediment pore water fluids To be able to monitor influence of CO2-leakages from subsurface storage on the natural pore water composition in the overlaying sediments, we have tested and established methods and protocols for shipboard sampling, sample preparation and geochemical analyses, and further onshore analyses, as following:

o shipboard analyses of dissolved methane and CO2 by gas chromatography, and sampling for

onshore mass spectrometry analyses of their carbon isotope composition o efficient shipboard pore water extraction from short sediment gravity cores (~5m) and from

longer calypso cores (~20m) by using Rhizon samplers o shipboard pore water analyses of redox and other essential parameters by photometric

methods using a 4-channels Continuous Flow Analyzer (Quaatro, Seal Analytical) capable of analyzing sulphide, ammonium, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, chloride and dissolved inorganic carbon

o shipboard pore water analyses of pH and alkalinity using a mobile pH meter and an autotitrator.

o shipboard sampling of pore water for onshore analyses of major and trace cations (Fe, Mn, Si, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Na, K, B) by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES), and of anions (Cl, SO4, Br) by ion chromatography (IC).

o shipboard sampling of sediment for onshore analyses of total inorganic and organic carbon content and their isotopic composition by an Elemental Analyzer and mass spectrometry

Microbiological analyses of subsurface sediments In order to monitor influence of CO2-leakages from subsurface storage on the microbial community in the overlaying sediments, the following methods and techniques have been tested and established:

o shipboard sampling of sediment cores paralleled to geochemical profile analyses o onshore DNA extraction, amplification of 16S rDNA genes by using PCR and specific primers,

and following pyro-sequencing of the amplicon using 454 technique bioinformatic analyses of the sequences

We will in the near future continue to develop suitable geochemical and geomicrobial analytical procedures. These will be tested on cruises to natural analogs (Jan Mayen Vent fields) that will be funded by other projects. We will also start planning for ex- and in-situ experiments aimed to gain new knowledge on the consequences of CO2 seepage on the subsurface biogeochemical system and the deep biosphere. During the 3. tertial Senter for Geobiology (CGB) has organised a multidisciplinary local work group consisting of persons from CGB, Department of Geosciences (GEO), Uni Environment and NIVA. The local work group consists of Karin Landschulze (PhD student, CGB/GEO), Laila J. Reigstad (Scientist, microbiology, CGB), Nicolas Waldman (Postdoc, marine geology/geophysics, GEO), Friederike Hoffmann (macrobiology, UNI Environment), Andrew K Sweetman (Scientist, marine benthic ecology, NIVA), Martin Hovland (ProfessorII, CGB/GEO) and Rolf Birger Pedersen (CGB leader). A geochemist will join the workgroup during spring 2011. The goal of the group is to have a local, active



55

multidisciplinary forum, with frequent meetings at CGB for discussion and follow-ups of the CO2 related activities. The local workgroup had three meetings during 3. tertial in which the following have been carried out: Each group member has gathered and presented published/available data related to CO2 in their own discipline. We have discussed issues concerning the upcoming 10-days cruise to the Sleipner area in mid June 2011. We have discussed a cruise to the Jan Mayen vent field, also in June, to sample where there is a natural CO2 emission. In addition, collaboration between CGB and NIVA on exposure of a seafloor ecosystem to high CO2, has been initiated. Fieldwork will be carried out in April-May 2011.



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6.6 WP6

6.6.1 Introduction

CO2 will be brought into the reservoirs by wells and “good” flow properties in the near well area are important for successful injection. The aim of work package WP6 INJECT is the injectivity of the reservoir. The reservoir has initially (before operations) a given porosity, permeability and a set of fractures, which will most likely change as a result of CO2 injection. Formation water rich in dissolved CO2 becomes a highly reactive fluid, which may dissolve reservoir rocks and engineering material such as concrete and steel. The injection of CO2 with a large rate may lead to pressure build-up, and an increasing fluid pressre can lead to hydraulic fracturing of the formation. If the fractures are strata bound they may enhance the injectivity, but in case they go through the sealing layers it may lead to leakage of CO2. The focus of WP6 is to understand the geochemical and geomechanical consequences of CO2 injection, and to suggest a work flow for CO2 injection management. WP6 is divided into four tasks: Task 6.1: Evaluation of reservoir properties of DeGeerdalen Fm and validity of the LYB PILOT_L Task 6.2: Develop numerical tools for modelling of near well pressure and deformation Task 6.3: Workflow for injection well monitoring. Task 6.4 Experimental data and models for near well flow and reactions.


IFE has sampled data at Svalbard and carried out rock characterisation. This is an activity under WP6.1. IFE has currently an activity which covers both WP6.2 and WP6.4 with the title: Modeling “Wormhole” formation. A wormhole is a channel formed by nonlinear interaction between dissolution and flow. Wormholes are also examples of unstable reaction fronts. Therefore, much of the activity in 2010 has gone into the study of the condition for stability of reaction fronts in porous media. IFE has tested a model for hydraulic fracturing in 2010, when fracturing is triggered by increasing fluid pressure cased by injection. The development and testing of the model continues in 2011. NGI is participating in WP6 with two activities: WP6.1: Mechanical testing of Svaldbard material. WP6.2: Coupled flow and geomechanical modelling using COMSOL.


Overview

One main activity at IFE during 2010 has been modelling”wormhole” formation - an activity that belongs to both WP6.2 and WP6.4. NGI has currenty two running activities in WP6. One activity, named “Mechanical testing of Svaldbard material”, is carried out under WP6.1. A second activity,“Coupled flow and geomechanical modelling using COMSOL”, is under WP6.2.



57

WP6.1: Evaluation of reservoir properties of DeGeerdalen Fm and validity of the LYB PILOT IFE activity: Data evaluation of reservoir rocks from Svalbard is currently going on and will continue in 2011. Methods: Optical microscopy, bulk XRD, clay mineral analysis on 3 samples (rest was too small), RSA (residual salt analysis) on all samples collected (not finished). SEM on selected samples remains. Upper part towards caprock (Agardfjellet Fm) is represented by an inhomogenous conglomeratic/sandstone zone with glauconites. Siderite occur locally in thin layers. The porosity varies, but is locally relatively high. The target reservoir De Geerdalen Fm is generally characterised by alternating silt and sandstone layers, with a dominance of fine sandstone/silt, but shaly layers occur as well.. The texture is rather inhomogeneous, as a result of quartz cementation and mechanical compaction. Porosity is irregularly distributed, local carbonate cementation occur (Fig. 43). K-feldspar is nearly absent, but plagiockase/albite is common. The clays are identified as illite/mica (10Å) with no significant smectite component, and a Fe-rich 7Å chlorite. Kaolinite is quite subordinate. Two thin, altered dolerite horizons are located, at depths 838.4 and 855.7m (Fig. 44). A fossiliferous horizon (calcite) occurs at 828.6m. This layer is also expressed in the preliminary RSA results.

Figure 43. 771.3 Blue: porosity, quartz cementation, clay in pores Long side of picture: 1.5mm



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Figur44. 838.4. Altered dolerite intrusion with zoned plagioclase phenocrystals

Long side of picture: 3.7mm

NGI activity: Mechanical testing of Svalbard material NGI has made a selection of specimens sampled from core material from well DH-4 Longyearbyen CO2 storage test site, for mechanical strength testing.

Compressive shear strength and tensile strength is probed respectively by uni-axial strain tests and Brazil tests for the considered most relevant stratigraphic zones, in perspective of CO2 storage and sealing capabilities. Three uni-axial and 3 Brazil tests were performed to obtain an indication of test repeatability within each of the following distinct zones:

Fault zone (403 m – 406 m depth)

Reference zone (418 m – 500 m)

Cap rock (644 m – 664 m)

Wilhelmsøya sandstone formation (684 m – 718 m)

Intermittent shale (732 m – 757 m)

Reservoir sandstone (768m – 784 m)

Thus, a grand total of 36 tests were performed. Plug samples were prepared due to standard test convention: For uni-axial tests the diameter d = 25 mm and sample height is h > 2 x d, chosen 60 mm. For Brazil tests the diameter is d = 25 mm and thickness h = ½ d = 12.5 mm. Sample preparation proved particularly cumbersome for shale and fault zone both due to material properties (complex fracture anatomy) and condition (procedures for treatment and storage before reaching NGI are questionable). Axial deformation ε (in milli strain, mS) during axial load F (kN) is measured. The load is converted into applied stress σ (MPa). Global maximum defines the yield strength of the individual test specimens. Young’s modulus is estimated at 50% of C0, and defined as E50 = Δσ/Δε (GPa). Figure 45 shows C0 and E50/C0 for all uni-axial tests as function of depth and categorized into rock type. Results from Brazil tests are being treated and soon ready to be compiled and evaluated. All results are included in NGI report 20081351-00-19-R Mechanical testing of Svalbard Material.



59

Figure 45. Compressive yield strength (shear) C0 and dimensionless Young’s modulus over yield

strength E50/C0.

The results indicate an overall increase in unconfined compressive strength and deformation modulus with depth. One exception is the fault zone material which is much stronger and has a much higher deformation modulus than expected from the trend in the data set. For the tensile strength there is no clear trend with depth, but there is one sandstone formation with a marked lower tensile strength than the other formations. It is suggested that the tested plugs could be further characterized for clay content and porosity to check for correlation with the strength and deformation modulus. Generally the material strength and stiffness increases with increasing confining pressure. This implies that the material strength and stiffness found in-situ at the proposed CO2 storage depth is expected to be higher than the measured values in the current test program. Determination of a safe injection pressure in order to avoid unwanted fracturing or reactivation of fractures in the reservoir and overburden is a critical issue for CO2 storage. Various approaches may be used to assess the critical fracture pressure. The most general approach is to relate the critical fracture pressure to the minimum in-situ horizontal stress and the tensile strength of the formation. This means that there is a need for combining tensile strength data from laboratory testing with information about in-situ stress conditions to make interpretations about the critical fracturing pressure for the reservoir. It is suggested that a continuation of the geomechanical test program should include testing on fractured material. Laboratory investigation of fracture strength, stiffness and permeability as function of changes in pressure is suggested. Understanding how the fractures respond during pressure changes is critical both for the estimation of safe injection pressure and for the understanding of CO2 migration.

WP6.2: Develop numerical tools for modelling of near well pressure and deformation IFE activity IFE is testing and developing a model for hydraulic fracturing in the horizontal plane. The model is based on the Biot equations for the rock. The fracture is represented in terms of elements that have their status changed from rock to fracture, and where the fracture volume is represented by means of fracture porosity. The model handles fracturing of homogeneous and inhomogeneous rocks.



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NGI activity: Coupled flow and geomechanical modeling using COMSOL In this stage the two-phase flow and geomechanics model for CO2 storage has been further investigated with special focus on: studying further the weaknesses and strengths of the various formulations; how to handle entry pressure discontinuity and residual saturations. Four different models where defined to compare the various formulations, with increasing degree of complexity (isotropic media was used in all models): 1. five spot model with homogeneous media, ignoring compressibility and gravity 2. homogeneous media, including gravity and ignoring compressibility 3. homogeneous media, including gravity and compressibility 4. heterogeneous media, including gravity and compressibility Each model was solved using six different formulations (various combinations of the dependant variables pn, pw, ps, pc, Sn and Sw) for two-phase flow with three different definitions of the global/total pressure: 1. Flooding: ps = pw + pn

2. Weighted: ps = Swpw + Snpn

3. Fractional: S

cnw

S

cwns d

dS

dpfpd

dS

dpfpp ))(())((

(For the weighted definition only three formulations were defined). A script was developed to compare the various formulations and global/total pressure definitions; 15 in total, for all four models. Some additional experiences with the use of the various formulations for two-phase flow have been gained. Preliminary conclusions are:

The various formulations are fairly straight forward to derive

The solutions give the same saturation profiles, however the pressure profiles are depending on the definition of the global/total pressure

When residual saturation(s) is included, one of the dependent variables should be the saturation. This is to be able to keep track of saturations below residual values because the capillary pressure functions are functions of effective saturation and are not defined below residual saturation. Also, pressure based formulations have “artificial” source terms in the equations due to the fact that they do not manage to capture saturations below residual saturations

Heterogeneous media can be easily handled by constraining the variables on opposite sides of an interface to a capillary function ratio

pn-Sw and pw-Sn are robust candidates for two-phase flow modeling (handles discontinuities, also faults and fractures, and residual saturations) but lack speed

Pressure based are the fastest, but least robust as it’s lacking some important features; support for residual saturations and heterogeneities

When choosing a formulation to be used, the choice of the pressure equation should be of the initially dominating phase, eg. the wetting phase if water is present initially

There are issues to be worked out: As it is implemented, the boundary condition between heterogeneous media is only valid for a fluid either entering or leaving a domain, this need to be solved, this is illustrated in figure 46 below. As the non-wetting phase is injected and invades the lens (square in the middle with a higher entry pressure than outside), the interface condition allows the phase to move inside, but not out again as the phase approaches the upper boundary of lens.



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Figure 46. Wetting saturation snap-shots at various times for pw-Sn formulation using Brooks-Corey

capillary pressure function.

In the definition of the effective saturation, should the denominator contain the residual saturations of both phases? For instance for Sew:

nrwr

wrwew

SS

SSS

1or

wr

wrwew

S

SSS

1?

Both definitions are found in the literature and there seems to be no general consensus which is the correct one to use. However, the latter seems to be the “most” correct version to use as is results in an effective saturation between zero and one, while the first one can achive values higher than one and therefore has to be truncated. What pressure components to use in the definitions for the compressibility is not fully understood, here the respective partial pressures are used. Should the mobility and flow fractions be multiplied with the density or not? Both versions have been encountered in the literature. The capillary pressure functions and relative permeability defined by Brooks-Corey and Van Genuchten are not well defined for certain effective saturations; either they are not defined or they give infinite values or complex values. This is more a problem for the Van Genuchten relations as Brooks-

Corey is only invalid for Sew0. The fitting parameters used by the hydraulic relations by for instance Brooks-Corey and Van Genuchten needs more attention if simulation results are to represent a specific case study. The two relations can give very different results.

WP6.4: Experimental data and models for near well flow and reactions IFE activity: Wormhole formation Wormholes form as a result of a nonlinear interaction between fluid flow and dissolution. The wormholes are channels that are carved out by dissolution and it is caused by inhomogeneities in the



62

rock. Rocks are always inhomogeneous, but this aspect of rocks is often left out in simulations, and therefore not accounted for. We have so far studied wormhole formation in 2D with a simple one-component reaction-transport equation, where under-saturation and dissolution are coupled to the porosity. Increasing porosity implies both increasing permeability and specific surface area. It is the porosity that couples dissolution and fluid flow (Fig.47). Simple analytical solutions are obtained for the concentration and the porosity as a function of time and space. A simulation tool has been developed and tested. It is verified by comparison against the analytical solutions, and the match is good. Wormholes are observed when the rock is assigned an inhomogeneous permeability. Wormholes are examples of reaction fronts in porous media, where the front grows in an unstable manner. The front tends to develop as dissolution fingers (or called wormholes) rather than a flat front. We have studied the stability of reaction fronts, and we have fond that all reaction fronts where the permeability increases behind the front are unstable. On the other hand, the fronts are stable if the permeability decreases behind the front. We will soon start testing a 3D model and calibrate it against laboratory data. The 3D model is the same code as for 2D, but the time consumption is much larger for a case study. Remaining work on this task is: Reporting. The modelling of dissolution and wormhole formation is linked to forthcoming laboratory work, where we will try to measure the increasing porosity during a dissolution experiment, and the associated permeability and specific surface area. We are planning to build a Hele-Shaw cell to study the stability of reaction fronts experimentally, and to do dissolution experiments on real rocks with a great deal of visual control.

Figur 47. Wormhole formation in 2D.



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List of publications, conferences and proceedings with reference.

Bjørnarå T I, Aker E "Comparing Equations for two-Phase Fluid Flow in Porous Media", Conference proceedings, COMSOL Conference 2008, Hannover

Bjørnarå T I, Aker E, Skurtveit E, "Safe Storage Parameters During CO2 Injection Using Coupled Reservoir-Geomechanical Analysis", Conference proceedings, COMSOL Conference 2009, Milan

Johnsen Ø. and Skurtveit E. (2010). Mechanical testing of material from Dh4, Longyearbyen CO2 Lab. NGI working report no. 20081351-00-19-R.

Wangen M, 2011, “The stability of reaction fronts in porous media”, submitted to Transport in Porous Media.

Skurtveit E., Johnsen Ø., Aker E., Grande L., Geomechancial testing of sandstone, shale and fault zone material from Dh4, Longyearbyen CO2 Lab. NGFs Wintermeeting, 11-13 Jan 2011, Stavanger, Norway



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7 National cooperation

The SUCCESS centre in 2010 has been actively pursuing close cooperation with other research projects on CO2 storage between the same research and industry partners, like the KMB-projects RaMoRe, MatMoRA and IGeMS CO2, as well as with the Longyearbyen CO2 Lab project. Consequently, the project portfolio coordinated by the SUCCESS partners represents a total value of some 300 MNOK, relative to the FME-SUCCESS grant of 160 MNOK.

The SUCCESS centre is also collaborating closely with the FME-BIGCCS hosted by SINTEF. In 2010, administrative coordination meetings have been arranged on a regular basis and we plan to further develop the cooperation in 2011 to include scientific workshops and joint events. The SUCCESS research partners host and participate in a number of other research centres that are relevant for CO2 storage. These provide knowledge that is relevant and supportive wrt to the research tasks of SUCCESS.

• The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research (UiB)

• Centre for Integrated Petroleum Research (UiB)

• Centre for Geobiology (UiB)

• Centre for Physics of Geological Processes (UiO)

• International Centre for Geohazards (NGI)

• The Michelsen Centre for Industrial Measurement Science and Technology (CMR)

SSUUCCCCEESSSS

cceennttrree

FFMMEE--SSUUCCCCEESSSS KKMMBB IINNJJEECCTT KKMMBB RRAAMMOORREE KKMMBB

MMAATTMMOORRAA KKMMBB IIGGeeMMSS

CCOO22 LLYYBB CCOO22 LLaabb

Fully integrated SUCCESS projects Projects coordinated with SUCCESS



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8 International cooperation

Christian Michelsen Research has a significant international industrial network, and collaborate closely with CO2-related technology companies like CGGVeritas, ITT (Aanderaa Data Instruments). NGI has established contact with Montana State University (Lee Spangler), USA within biomineralization, and established collaboration with GFZ Potsdam for a cooperative project. The project aims to use microbial methods in studies of sample material from German and Norwegian CCS plants (Ketsin, Altmark, Snøhvit, Longyearbyen and possibly Svelvik) to study e.g. micro organisms’ effect on the injectivity of CO2 in reservoirs. Project proposals have been sent to Geotechnologien (Germany) and the Gassnova (Norway), respectively. NGI is a participant in a further application to the EU FP7. Coordinator for this application is Research on Energy Systems - RSE Spa (Italy). NIVA is, through CO2GeoNet, partner in the EU-coordinated CGS-Europe network (kick-off in the end of November). CGS-Europe aims to establish a credible, independent and politically neutral pan-European research unit within the geological storage of CO2. In cooperation with the EC-RISC project (EU FP7), NIVA develops and tests a Benthic Chamber Lander (BCL) in Bergen harbor. BCL will be used for in situ studies of ecosystems, biodiversity and the definition of biological markers and indicators of CO2 leakage from the seabed. NIVA and the University of Bergen are also to a large extent involved in the EC-ECO2 project that is being allocated through negotiations and will focus on natural CO2 leaks. Dominique Durand from NIVA has since June 2010 been the vice chairman of the steering committee for CO2GeoNet. UniResearch strengthen their existing and active agreements concerning exchange of students with the Institut français du pétrole, Paris (IFP). Cooperation on discretization for near well grids and reduced grid orientation effects for unfavorable mobility ratios (contact person at IFP: Roland Masson, PhD student Cindy Guichard) . UniResearch and UiB also cooperates with the Department of Chemical Enigineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), computational methods for thermal equilibrium of multicomponent mixtures (contact persons at DTU: Erling Stenby, Michael Michelsen). Cooperation on discretizations with local grid refinement.work is established through joint supervision of PhD student Benjamin Faigle, Universität Stuttgart, Institut für Wasserbau (contact person Stuttgart: Rainer Helmig). UniResearch / University of Bergen has collaboration with CGGVeritas (Philippe Doyen is Prof. II at the University of Bergen), Czech Academy of Sciences (Ivan Psencik), NTNU / VISTA (Bjørn Ursin), and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Don Vasco) within the fields included in the SUCCESS. University of Bergen (University of Bergen) has through the CARBOOCEAN project collaboration with researchers from two European and one Canadian research institution. CARBOOCEAN IP (=CarboOcean Integrated Project) is an EU funded Programme (FP6) and aims to conduct a scientific assessment of marine carbon sources and disposal. UiO cooperates with several European universities within geochemical mineral reactions as a result of CO2 injection in reservoirs and aquifers (EU MinGro), with particularly close collaboration with CNRS / Laboratoire des Mécanismes et Transferts en Géologie (LMTG) at the Université Paul Sabatier in Toulouse. Further, UiO has initiated collaboration with the University of Minneapolis (Martin Saar) and the University of Indiana (Chen Zhu), USA. Central is the development of Lattice-Boltzmann models for pore scale reactive-flow and theoretical studies on the equations used to model mineral speeds. To expose SUCCESS and increase the degree of international cooperation has UiO employed professor Zhu as professor II. The SUCCESS partners have participated in specialized seminars in Shanghai, Potsdam and Washington DC. This resulted, among other things, in a joint venture between several partners of SUCCESS and a number of European and American partners about a new EU application, ANACONDA, under FP7. ANACONDA aims to look at long-term effects associated with geological storage of CO2. UiO was listed as applicant, but the application involved multiple partners in SUCCESS, including CMR, IFE, NGI and Uni Research, which also has a joint grant application with University of Stuttgart. Unfortunately, the application was rejected.



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In addition, various degrees of cooperation exist with other institutions: Deutsches Geoforschungszentrum Potsdam Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen British Geological Survey Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie, Mol Université de Pau Alfred-Wegener-Institut für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven Département d’Astrophysique, de Géophysique et d’Océanographie, Université de Liège Department of Oceanography, Dalhousie University, Halifax Colorado School of Mines Fundacion Ciudad de la Energia GEUS Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum Heriot-Watt University Indiana University Universität Stuttgart Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse University of Iceland University of Minnesota University of Newcastle Upon Tyne



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9 Education and recruitment

Master students: Pål Lode -Interaction between numerical methods for chemical reactions and flow equations Kine Kristiansen -Vertical leakage in the Barents Sea) Paul Odeh -Determination of the temperature in the Utsira Formation during CO2 injection Saideh Shekari -Petrophysical properties of deformed sandstone reservoirs Beyene Girma Haile -WP 1 Storage –Geocharacterization PhD students: Trine Mykkeltvedt (WP2) Karin Landschulze (WP3) Hilde Kristine Hvidevold (WP5) Binyam Alemu (Ramore project, WP 1,2,3,4,6) Karoline Bælum (UNIS/SUCCESS, WP6) Erlend Morisbak Jarsve (UiO Source to Sink, WP 1) Mohsen Kalani (CO2Seal, WP 1,3) Kristin Tyldum Kjøglum (applicant, WP 3) Oluwakemi Ogebule (BarRock, WP 3,6) Van Thi Hai Pham (Ramore project, WP 1,2,6) Anja Sundal (UiO, WP 1) Javad Naseryan Moghadam (UiO, WP 1,3,4,6; position accepted, will start 01.05.2011) Elin Skurtveit (PhD candidate in the CLIMIT project led by Anita Torabi, Uni) Elsa du Plessis (PhD candidate in the VAMP project) Maria Elenius (PhD candidate in the MatMoRA project) Kim Singer (University of Bergen) Postdoc researchers: Matthieu Angeli (CO2Seal, WP 1,3) Manzar Fawad (Skagerrak, WP 1) Therese K. Flaathen (CO2Seal, WP 1,3) Kei Ogata (UNIS, WP1,2,6) Caroline Sassier (CO2Seal, WP 1,3) SUCCESS employment: Helge Hellevang (researcher 80 % SUCCESS, WP 1, 2) Therese K. Flaathen (Postdoc, WP 1) Gudmund A. Dalsbø (administration 50 % SUCCESS) Chen Zhu (professor II) Maria Elenius (WP2, begins spring 2011, fully SUCCESS financed) Shaaban Bakr (WP4, partly SUCCESS financed) Charlotte G Krafft (Centre Coordinator 50% SUCCESS financed)



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10 Public outreach

Dissemination and outreach activates plays an important role in centre and high quality peer review papers are a fundamental part of the activity. The centre emphasise outreach activities such as participating in the public discussions and an active outreach approach is strongly promoted by the centre management. The SUCCESS centre has been very active and presenting at several major national and international conferences and events in 2010, including:

The Tekna conference “Co2 håndtering – post København”, Trondheim, Jan 2010

29th Nordic Geological Winter meeting, Oslo, January 2010

ChinaExpo, Shanghai, May 2010

IEA Summer school, Longyearbyen, August 2010

GHGT-10, Amsterdam, September 2010

Transatlantic Science Week, Washington, October 2010

NPD CO2 forum, Stavanger, several occasions 2010 In addition, researchers in the SUCCESS centre have given presentations at more specialized international conferences as listed in Appendix C of the report.



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Appendix A Personnel & Key Scientists

Personnel & Key scientists

Name Institution Main research area

Folgerø Kjetil CMR Instrumentation

Electromagnetic measurement technology

Hellevang Jon Oddvar CMR Instrumentation

Environmental monitoring

Kocbach Jan CMR Instrumentation

Electromagnetic measurement technology

Stavland Stian Husevik CMR Instrumentation

Environmental monitoring

Andresen Bjørg IFE Mainly Administrative

Brandvoll Øyvind IFE Mineral carbonation, Co2 Sequestation

Iden Kjersti IFE Sample classification, light microscope, X-ray analysis, electron microscopy

Johansen Harald IFE Geochemistry, petrographi

Kjøglum Kristin Tyldum IFE CO2–water–rock interaction, experiments

Machenbach Ingo IFE Experimental work

Simon Nina IFE Numerical modelling, (strømning og reaksjon)

Wangen Magnus IFE Numerical modelling, (strømning og reaksjon)

Aker Eyvind NGI Rock physics and micro seismicity

Basin Sara NGI Seabed heave, Earth resistivity tomography

Bjørnarå Tore NGI Coupled flow and geomechanical reservoir simulations and EM modelling

Cuisiat Fabrice NGI Reservoir geomechanics

Johnsen Øistein NGI Rock mechanical testing/X-ray CT image processing

Park Joonsang NGI EM modelling and inversion

Rike Anne Gunn NGI Geo-microbiology

Skurtveit Elin NGI Faults and caprock sealing properties

Soldal Magnus NGI Rock mechanical testing

Viken Inge NGI EM modelling and inversion

Wang Zhong NGI Rock physics, Ground penetrating radar

Gelius Leiv-J. NGI/UiO Rock physics, EM and seismic

Brandt Uta NIVA Monitoring technology

Durand Dominique NIVA Coupled physical-biochemical marine systems

Golmen Lars NIVA Oceanography - acidification and marine technology

Kvasness Astri NIVA Marine Geology

Sweetman Andrew NIVA Marine biology - soft bottom ecosystem functioning

Hermanrud Christian UiB Professor II position, UniResearch

Johannessen Truls UiB/BCCR Marine carbon cycle, monitoring

Alendal Guttorm Ui/BCCS Monitoring, Modelling

Pedersen Rolf-Birger UiB/CGB Monitoring

Kvamme Bjørn UiB/IFT Petroleums- og prosessteknologi

Jakobsen Morten UiB/Uni CIPR Seismic modelling and inversion. Rock physics

Aagaard Per UiO Geochemistry (project management)



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Dypvik Henning UiO Sedimentology, geochemistry

Faleide Jan Inge UiO Geophysics

Gabrielsen Roy UiO Structural geology

Hellevang Helge UiO Geochemistry, mineral–water interaction

Jahren Jens UiO Shale mineralogy, rock physics

Mondol Nazmul Haque UiO Sedimentology, geomechanics

Nystuen Johan UiO Sedimentology, reservoir geology

Bakr Shaaban Uni CIPR EM modelling

Lien Martha Uni CIPR EM (+seismic) inversion

Mannseth Trond Uni CIPR/UiB EM (+seismic) modelling and inversion

Aavatsmark Ivar UniResearch AS Mathematical modelling

Omar Abdirahman Uniresearch/ BCCR

Marine carbon cycle, monitoring

Braathen Alvar UNIS Geology

Nøttvedt Arvid CMR Centre Manager

Krafft Charlotte G CMR Energy Centre Coordinator

Dalsbø Gudmund A UiO/institute of Geology

Coordinator

Post doc researchers

Name Funding Nationality Sex M/F

Topic

Matthieu Angeli

CO2 Seal, (WP1.3)

France M CO2 storage potential

Therese K Flaathen

CO2 seal, (WP1.3)

Norway F Laboratory experiments on carbonate growth

Caroline Sassier

C02 seal (Wp1.3)

France F Sealing capacity of caprocks

Manzar Fawad

Skagerrak (WP1)

Pakistan M AVO, detection of CO2 saturation i reservoirs

Kei Ogata

UNIS /GeC (WP1, 2, 6)

Italian/Japanese

M Geological input to Carbon Storage: from outcrop to simulator

PhD students with financial support from the Centre budget

Name Nationality Period Sex M/F

Topic

Hilde Kristine Hvidevold Norwegian 2010-2014 F

Parameter estimation in models tailored to simulate processes in CO2 seeps to marine waters

Trine Mykkeltvedt Norwegian 2010-2014 F

Mathematical modeling of fluid displacement in porous media with special applications to CO2 sequestration



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PhD students working on projects in the centre with financial support from other sources

Name Funding Nationality Period Sex M/F

Topic

Oluwakemi Ogebule CO2 Seal Nigeria 2010-2014

M Fluid flow

Van Thi Hai Pham Ramore Vietnam 2009-2011

F CO2 storage potential

Karin Landschulze, UiB

Sweden

2010-2014

F

CO2-flow through porous media

Bjørnar Jensen UIB/INJECT

Norge

2010 -2013

M

Reactions between minerals and CO2 in aqueous solutions

John Clark UiB/NERC England 2010 M

Binyam L. Alemu

UiO/Ramore/SUCCESS

Ethiopia

2009-2011

M

Transport of CO2 in aprock and reservoir rock

Anja Sundal UiO Norway 2010-2014 F CO2 storage potential

Erlend Morisbak Jarsve UiO Norway 2009-2013

M CO2 storage potential

Mohsen Kalani UiO Iran 2010 M CO2 storage potential

Elin Skurtveit UiB/NGI Norwegian 2011-2014

F

Impact of fault rock properties on CO2 storage in sandstone reservoirs

Elsa du Plessi UiB/Uni/ VAMP

South African 2010-2013

F

Relative permeability for imbibition

Maria Elenius UiB/MatMoRA 2008-2011

F

Time scales of linear and non-linear instability in porous media flow

Karoline Bælum UNIS Norwegian 2008-2011 F

Structural geology in Svalbard, geophysical methods

Master students:

Name Funding Topic

Pål Lode UiB Interaction between numerical methods for chemical reactions and flow equations

Kine Kristiansen UIB Vertical leakage in the Barents Sea

Paul Odeh UiB Determination of the temperature in the Utsira Formation during CO2 injection

Saideh Shekari UiB Properties of deformed sandstone reservoirs

Beyene Girma Haile UiO Geocharacterization and geochemical/geomechanical respon



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Appendix B Statement of Accounts

Funding (all figures in 1000 NOK) Institution Amount Amount Amount

Public Research Enterprise Total

The Research Council of Norway 5 377 5 377

Public funding 2 489 2 864 5 353

Private funding 3 959 3 959

Total 7 866 2 864 3 959 14 689

Costs (all figures in 1000 NOK) Institution Amount Amount Amount

Public Research Enterprise Total

The Host Institution (CMR) 2 004 2 004

The Institute for Energy technology 2 371 2 371

Norwegian Geotechnical Institute 2 090 2 090

Uni Research AS 2 849 2 849

NIVA 573 573

University of Bergen 1 849 1 849

University of Oslo 2 202 2 202

University Centre on Svalbard 751 751

Total 4802 9887 14 689

Cost per work package (all figures in 1000 NOK) Work package Amount

WP 1 - Storage - Geo-characterization and geochemical/ geomechanical response 2 682

WP 2 - Fluid flow and reservoir modeling. Unstable displacement 1 090

WP 3 - Sealing properties 2 447

WP 4 - Monitoring of reservoir and overburden 1 887

WP 5 - The marine component 2 549

WP 6 - Operations 813

WP 7- CO2 SCHOOL 30

Education 0

Equipment 41

Administration (total) 3 150

Total 14 689



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Appendix C Publications

Journal Papers Aagaard, P. and Jahren, J. (2010). Special issue introduction: Compaction processes - Porosity, permeability and rock properties evolution in sedimentary basins. Mar. Petrol. Geol. 27 (8), 1681-1683. Aker E. (2010) Hvordan påvirker CO2 sandsteinens geofysiske egenskaper? Submitted to GEO. Bjørlykke, K., Jahren, J., Aagaard, P. and Fisher, Q. (2010). Role of effective permeability distribution in estimating overpressure using basin modelling Mar. Petrol. Geol. 27 (8), 1684-1691.. Flaathen T.K.,Gislason S.R, Oelkers E.H, 2010. The effect of aqueous sulphate on basaltic glass dissolution rates. Chemical Geology, 277, 345-354. Hellevang, H., Declercq, J., Aagaard, P., 2010. Why is dawsonite absent in CO2 charged reservoirs? Accepted for publication in Oil & Gas Science and Technology - Revue de l'IFP Hellevang, H., Declercq, J., Kvamme, B., Aagaard, P., 2010. The dissolution rates of dawsonite at pH 0.9 to 6.3 and temperatures of 22, 60 and 77°C. Applied Geochemistry 25 (10), 1575-1586. Omar, Abdirahman; Olsen, Are; Johannessen, Truls; Hoppema, M.; Thomas, H.; Borges, AV. Spatiotemporal variations of fCO2 in the North Sea. Ocean Science 2010 (6) s. 77-89. Pham V.T.H., Lu P., Aagaard P., Zhu C., Hellevang H., 2010. On the potential of CO2-water-rock interactions for CO2 storage: A modified kinetics model. Accepted for publication in International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control. Sveinbjörnsdóttir,Á. E. 2009. Chemical evolution of the Mt. Hekla, Iceland, groundwaters: A natural analogue for CO2 sequestration in basaltic rocks, Applied Geochemistry 24, 463-474 Published Conference Papers Aagaard, P., Hellevang, H., and Jahren, J., 2009. Burial diagenesis of siliciclastic reservoirs and control on formation water chemistry. Abstract for 19th V.M. Goldschmidt conference. June 21 - 26 in Davos, Switzerland, abstract 09a/10:45/Tu. Aker, E., Bjørnarå, T.I., Braathen, A., Brandvoll, Ø., Dahle, H., Nordbotten, J.M., Aagaard, P., Hellevang, H., Alemu, B.L., Pham, V.T.H., Johansen, H., Wangen, M., Nøttvedt, A., Aavartsmark,I., Johannessen, T. and Durand D. (2010) SUCCESS: SUbsurface CO2 storage - Critical Elements and Superior Strategy. GHGT10, 19-23 Sep., Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Alemu B.L., Aker E., Soldal M. Johnsen Ø and Aagaard P 2010. Influence of CO2 on rock physics properties in typical reservoir rock: A CO2 flooding experiment of brine saturated sandstone in a CT-scanner. GHGT10, 19-23 September 2010, Amsterdam. Bakr, S. A.: An approximate hybrid method for modeling of electromagnetic scattering from an underground target, PhD dissertation, University of Bergen, Norway, December, 2010. Bakr,S. A., Mannseth T. : Numerical investigation of the range of validity of a low-frequency approximation for CSEM, expanded abstract in Proc. 72nd EAGE Conference and Exhibition, Barcelona, Spain, June 14th -17th 2010. Bakr,S. A., Mannseth T. Simplified Integral Equation Modeling of Low-frequency Electromagnetic Scattering from a Resistive Underground Target, in symposium Robust and Efficient



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Electromagnetic Solutions for Large-scale Problems at Progress in Electromagnetic Research Symposium (PIERS), July 2010, Cambridge, MA, USA. Berre,I., Lien,M., Mannseth,T. Robust inversion of controlled source electromagnetic data for production monitoring, expanded abstract in Proc. SEG 80th International Exposition and Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, October 17-22, 2010 Bjørnarå T.I., Aker E., Cuisiat F., Skurtveit E. (2010) Modeling CO2 storage Using Coupled Reservoir-Geomechanical Analysis. COMSOL user conference 17-19 Nov, Paris, France. Bjørnarå T.I., Aker E., Cuisiat C., Skurtveit E. (2010) Modeling of coupled hydro-mechanical processes occurring during CO2 injection – example from In-Salah, COMSOL conference, 18-19 November, Paris, France. Bjørnarå T.I., Aker E., Cuisiat F. and Skurtveit E. (2010) Modeling CO2 storage using coupled reservoir-geomechanical analysis, Conference proceedings, 6th IMA Conference on modelling permeable rocks, 2010, Edinburgh, UK Declercq, J., Hellevang, H., and Aagaard, P., 2009. Dawsonite dissolution rate and mechanism at acidic and basic pH; implications for CO2 sequestration. Abstract, International Conference on Deep Saline Aquifers for geological storage of CO2 and energy, IFP, Rueil-Malmaison, 27-29 May 2009. EGU General Assembly 2011. Flaathen, T.K., Oelkers, E.H., Gislason, S.R. and Aagaard, P., 2010. The effect of dissolved sulphate on calcite precipitation kinetics and consequences for subsurface CO2 storage GHGT-10 19-23 Sep., Amsterdam, Netherlands. Energy Procedia, in press 7p. Hellevang, H., Aagaard, P., 2010. Can carbonate precipitation rates be derived from dissolution rate data? Abstract for 20th V.M. Goldschmidt conference. June 13 - 18 in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. Hellevang, H., Aagaard, P., 2010. On the use of Transition-State-Theory (TST) to predict the potential for carbonate growth in sedimentary basins. GSA Annual Meeting, Denver CO, October 31-November 3. Hellevang, H., Declercq, J., Aagaard, P., 2010. Carbonation of forsterite at 10 to 18.5 bar PCO2 and 85 to 150ºC - Comparisons of numerical simulations and laboratory experiments. 29th Nordic Geological Winter Meeting, Oslo, 11.-13.01.2010. Johansen, H. and Wangen, M. (2010) Temporal and spatial scale for mineral reactions in the near-well zone of CO2 injectors - Implications for flow paths, storage filling pattern, pressure dissipation and leakage risk. GHGT10, 19-23 Sep, RAI Amsterdam, The Netherlands Munz, I.A., Brandvoll, Ø., Haug, A., Iden, K., Smeets, R., Kihle, J. and Johansen, H. (2010) Mechanisms and rates of plagioclase carbonation reactions (in prep) Pham, V.T.H., Maast, T.E., Hellevang, H., Aagaard, P., 2010. Numerical modeling including hysteresis properties for CO2 storage in Tubåen formation, Snøhvit field, Barents Sea. GHGT10, 19-23 September 2010, Amsterdam, 8p. Rike A.G., Børresen M., Hovelsrud, O.E., Haverkamp T.H.A., Kristensen T., Jacobsen K.S. 2011 Microbial characterization of seabed sediments overlaying the proposed CO2 storage site Johansen formation, submitted to EGU General assembly 2011. Simon, N.S.C., Loberg, M., Podladchikov, Y.Y and Ritske S. Huismans, R.S. (2011) Is enhanced heat and tracer transfer by intermittent porous flow an important process in deep geothermal systems? Geophysical Research Abstracts Vol. 13, EGU2011-PREVIEW, 2011 Skurtveit E, Angeli M, Aker E and Soldal M (2010) Impact of microcracks on CO2 migration trough cap rocks. 29th Nordic Geological Winter meeting, 11-13 January, Oslo.



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Skurtveit E., Aker E., Soldal M., Angeli M., Hallberg E. (2010) Influence of micro fractures and fluid pressure on sealing efficiency of caprock: a laboratory study on shale, GHGT10, 19-23 Sep, RAI Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Skurtveit, E., Johnsen, Ø., Aker, E. Geomechancial testing of sandstone, shale and fault zone material from Dh4, Longyearbyen CO2 Lab.Submitted to Vintermøtet Stavanger Jan 2011. Sweetman, A., D. Durand and L. Golmen. Marine ecosystem response to CO2 exposure and technologies for monitoring of CO2 seeps from the seabed. Oral presentation at the annual CO2GeoNet stakeholder forum, April 2010, Venice, Italy Wangen,M. 2010, “The stability of reaction fronts in porous media”, submitted to Transport in Porous Media. Reports Rike A.G. and Børresen M. (2010) Methods and technologies in leakage detection of carbon dioxide from geological storage sites. State-of-the art literature report. NGI working report no. 20100192-00-3R. Wang Z. (2010) . Litterature review of existing techniques for seabed heave monitoring due to CO2 injection and storage. NGI working report no. 20081351-00-22-R.



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Appendix D Presentations

Aagaard, P., SUCCESS - Hvor står vi og hvor skal vi? (in Norwegian). Oral present, Gassnova, CLIMIT-dagene 12.-13. okt 2010, Oslo, Norway. Aagaard, P., Risikovurderinger ved CO2-lagring (in Norwegian). Oral present, Gassnova, CLIMIT-dagene, Oslo, Norway 12.-13. okt 2010. Aagaard, Per (2010) Lagringspotensial på norsk sokkel. Tekna konferanse "CO2-håndtering - post København", Trondheim 7.-8. januar.2010. Aagaard, P., Reservoir-CO2 interaction - kinetic constraints on dissolution and precipitations Oral present, Developing sustainable energy for the future R&D collaboration for new energy solutions Workshop, The Norwegian Pavilion, EXPO Shanghai, China, May 21-22, 2010. Aavatsmark, I. (2010) Undersjøisk CO2-lagring – utfordringer og muligheter, CO2-lagringsforum, Norwegian Petroleum Directorate, Stavanger, 13 April 2010. Aker, E. (2010) NGI presentation on results from RAMORE, Mechancial and rock physical testing and monitoring. Longyearbyen CO2 Lab project meeting March 17-18th 2010, Longyearbyen, Svalbard. Aker, E. (2010) Rock physics and rock mechanical testing to understand reservoir performance and cap-rock integrity, GFZ Potsdam, 1-2 June 2010. Aker, E. (2010) Storage of CO2: Sealing mechanisms and leakage detection from laboratory to field scale, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Oslo Section, Oslo, January 19, 2010. Aker, E. (2010) Using InSAR and geomechanical modeling to interpret surface heave, GFZ Potdam, 1-2 June 2010. Alemu, B., P. Aagaard. P., Munz, I.A. and Skurtveit, E.,(2010) Contribution of mineralogical variability of shale in regard to reactivity with supercritical CO2: implication to subsurface storage of CO2. 29th Nordic Geological Winter meeting, Oslo, 11-13 January 2010. Bjørnarå, T.I. (2010) Reservoir simulation with COMSOL - Application to CCS, Invited talk at Durham University, Department of Earth Sciences, 11. Oct. 2010.

Braathen, A., University Centre in Svalbard: CO2 storage in Svalbard, scientific challenges motivating international collaboration Oral present, Transatlantic Collaborative Actions within Carbon Capture and Storage Workshop, Transatlantic Science Week, Carnegie Institution of Washington, USA, Oct 2010. Dahle, H., Matematisk modellering av CO2-lagring (in Norwegian). Oral present, Gassnova, CLIMIT-dagene, Oslo, Norway,12.-13. okt 2010. Hellevang, H., Aagaard, P., (2010). Can carbonate precipitation rates be derived from dissolution rate data? Abstract for 20th V.M. Goldschmidt conference. June 13 - 18 in Knoxville, Tennessee, USA. Hellevang, H., Aagaard, P., (2010). On the use of Transition-State-Theory (TST) to predict the potential for carbonate growth in sedimentary basins. GSA Annual Meeting, Denver CO, October 31-November 3. Johansen, H. (2010) CO2 Seal Properties - Lessons learned from hydrocarbon exploration, and future research NPD CO2-forum presentation.



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Johansen, H., Experimental data on CO2 reactions in caprock and well materials Oral present, Developing sustainable energy for the future R&D collaboration for new energy solutions Workshop, The Norwegian Pavilion, EXPO Shanghai, China May 21-22, 2010. Johansen, H., Injeksjon og lagring av CO2 (in Norwegian). Oral present, Gassnova, CLIMIT-dagene, Oslo, Norway,12.-13. okt 2010. Johansen, H., Aagaard P., CO2 storage activities in Oslo - scope and collaboration Oral present,

Transatlantic Collaborative Actions within Carbon Capture and Storage Workshop, Transatlantic Science Week, Carnegie Institution of Washington, USA, Oct 2010. Johansen, H. and Brandvoll, Ø (2010) Previous and ongoing work on well and caprock integrity. SUCCESS workshop September 2nd in Gardermoen. Kvamme, B., Lagring av CO2 i hydrater (in Norwegian). Oral present, Gassnova, CLIMIT-dagene, Oslo, Norway, 12.-13. okt 2010. Lacazze, S. (2010) NGI reception at the Offshore Technology Conference, Housten, USA, 3-6 May 2010. Lien, M . (2010) presented Uni CIPR's work on robust inversion at the project meeting with NGI, Uni CIPR and Statoil on dec. 1st, 2010. Mannseth, T. (2010) presented Uni CIPR's work on forward modeling at the project meeting with NGI, Uni CIPR and Statoil on dec. 1st, 2010.

Nøttvedt, A., Norwegian Centers for Environmentally Friendly Energy Research (CEER): SUCCESS Oral present, Transatlantic Collaborative Actions within Carbon Capture and Storage Workshop, Transatlantic Science Week, Carnegie Institution of Washington, USA Oct 2010,

Nøttvedt, A., SUCCESS - a collaborative centre on CO2 storage Oral present, Developing sustainable energy for the future R&D collaboration for new energy solutions Workshop, The Norwegian Pavilion, EXPO Shanghai, China, May 21-22, 2010. Nøttvedt, A., The Longyearbyen CO2 lab Oral present, Developing sustainable energy for the future R&D collaboration for new energy solutions Workshop, The Norwegian Pavilion, EXPO Shanghai, China May 21-22, 2010. Omar, A. M., Johannessen, T., and Haugan, P. (2010) Konsekvenser av CO2 lekkasje (in Norwegian). Oral presentation for Forum for CO2 Storage, 13 April 2010, Petroleum Directorate, Stavanger, Norway. Park, J. Viken, I, Bjørnarå, T. (2010) Sleipner CSEM data (2008) analysis. Project meeting with NGI Uni CIPR and Statoil on dec. 1st, 2010. Pham, V., Hellevang, H., and Aagaard, P (2010) On the potential of carbonate formation during CO2 storage The Utsira case revised. 29th Nordic Geological Winter meeting, Oslo, 11-13 January 2010. Rike, A.G. (2010) Metagenomic signatures - Development and possibilities in CO2 leakage detection. Norwegian-German workshop on geological storage of CO2. GFZ Potsdam, 1-2 June 2010. Skurtveit et al. (2010) CO2 breakthrough testing at NGI. Gas breakthrough workshop, Aachen, Germany, June 29-30th 2010. Skurtveit, E. & Aker, E. (2010) Geomechanical response to CO2 flooding. NPD CO2 lagringsforum Mai 20th 2010, Stavanger.



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Skurtveit, E. (2010) Latest results of CO2 breakthrough testing in the laboratory. SUCCESS workshop September 2nd in Gardermoen. Sokalska ET, Aagaard P (2010) Cation exchange capacity (CEC) – a tool for determination of secondary alteration of chlorite from Fore Sudetic Monocline (western Poland). The 20th general meeting of the International Mineralogical Association, Budapest 21.-27. August 2010. Acta Mineralogica-Petrographica Abstract Series, vol. 6, 628. Sweetman, A., D. Durand and L. Golmen.(2010) Marine ecosystem response to CO2 exposure and technologies for monitoring of CO2 seeps from the seabed. Oral presentation at the annual CO2GeoNet stakeholder forum, April 2010, Venice, Italy. Wangen, M. (2010) Wormhole formation. SUCCESS workshop September 2nd in Gardermoen.

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