Ancient History of Central Asia- Introduction of Ancient Northern Huna in Eurasia.pdf

AncientHistoryofCentralAsiaIntroductionofAncientNorthernHunainEurasia(Art.08)

*Notacopyrightmaterial,onlyastudymaterialCompiledBy:AdeshKatariya

AncientHistoryofCentralAsia

(Articleno03:NotesonAncientNorthernHunainEurasia)Imp.Note: Till now many researches publoished on the history of Great yuezhi tribe but schollers are not in position to clearify all happinings in a series. In this article, we are trying to compile all happinings as per their timings. We also would like to clarify that the material under this article is not a copyright matter and main motive of this article is, to attract good scholers to discuss and research on the great Yuezhi Tribes and its clans. We are proposing current forms of Clans of Gurjars v/s Yuezhi Tribe origin Clans (described on Socond Page).

CompiledBy:AdeshKatariya(ChemicalTechnologistandHistoryResearcher)Email:[email protected],Contactno:+919540992618



ProposeddescendentClans(Gotras)/currentnamesofAncientClansofYuezhi(GurjarswerecalledYuezhiinChineeseLiterature)Origin:ClanofGurjars NamesinAncientLiteratures MajorRullingAreaTobedefinedNextversion

RulingClanofGreatYuezhi TarimBasin,ChinaKashana/Kusanna Kushana NorthwestIndia,PakistanKhatana KingsofKhotanunderKushana

EmpireKhotan,WesternChina

Bokkan Xim() Walkhan,NortheastedgeofAfghanistanNagadi/Naggars Nagar of Kashmir under

KushanaempireKashmir

Bhatti Bhati of Doab under KushanaKingdom

WesternUPState,IndiaKataria/Kadara/Kidaria Kidarite kingdom under kink

KidaraAfganistan

TobedefinedNextversion Shuangmi()

Shughnan,BadakhshanProvince,Afganistan

TobedefinedNextversion Xidun()

Balkh,NorthernAfghanistan.TobedefinedNextversion Dm()

Termez,southernmostpartofUzbekistan

Huna WhiteHuna/Hepthelites CentralAsiaTobedefinedLaterversion Xionites

AfganistanandPakistan

Karhana/KaraHunaNorthernHuna/Ak(Black)Khazar

GeorgiaandWestAsia

Panwar/Parmar GurjarPratihar NorthernandCentralIndiaChandela/Chandila Chandela CentralIndiaTobedefinedNextversion Chalukya

WestandSouthIndiaChawda Chap WestandSouthIndiaChechi Chechi Chechenya,NorthWestAsiaTobedefinedNextversion Gurja/Gurza

Georgia,GurjistanBadGujar BadGujar WestIndiaTanwar/Tomer Tanwar Delhi,indiaMavi Mavai Mavanaregion,Meerut,India



Northern Hunas-Introduction: InancientliteraturetheHunswerefirstmentionedbyPtolemy(3.5.10),whoattestsforthefirsthalformiddleofthe2ndcenturyC.E.apopulationoftheKhounoi"togetherwithsixother tribes mentioned by name in the Ukrainian forest and steppe areas. A detailedanalysisof the texthasmade itpossible to locate thehabitationsof theKhounoi at thetime, whose identification with the later Huns is beyond doubt (Kiessling, col. 2591;Altheim,I,1959,pp.3ff.;Werner,p.487).TheylivedbetweentheDonandManychinthenorth,theupperreachesoftheKubaninthesouth,andtheSeaofAzovinthewest.Totheeast,theirhabitationsmayhaveextendedasfarastheCaspianSeaandtheareanearthemouthoftheVolga(Werner,p.488).Duringthefollowing200yearstheydonotappeartohave moved, since Ammianus Marcellinus continued to locate the Huns behind theMaeoticmarshes,andhenceneartheSeaofAzov(Amm.Marc.,31.2.1).Hissimultaneousstatement that the settlementof theHunshadextended as far as theArcticOceanhasbeentheobjectofvariousattemptsatinterpretation(cf.Kiessling,col.2583;Sinor,p.179,Haussig,1992,p.146)but ishardlycredible. Important,however, isthefactthatPtolemyandAmmianusbothlocatedtheHunsintheneighborhoodoftheIranianSarmatianAlans,and that the land of the Alans between the Sea of Azov and the Caucasus was stillconsideredbyByzantinehistoriographyasthecountryoforiginoftheHuns(Priscus,frag.1;Procopius,Bella4.5;Agathias,5.11).TheAlansareknowntohavebeenthefirstvictimsofthesuddenexpansionoftheHunsbetween370and375C.E.,andtohavebeenforcedbythelattertoparticipateinsubsequentmilitaryexpeditions(Amm.Marc.,31.3.1).A direct confrontation between the Huns and the Persian empire first occurred twentyyears after thebeginningof the greatmigration. In the summerof 395,hordesofHunscrossed the Don near its estuary, turned southeast, and made their way through theCaucasusintoPersiaandtheRomanprovinces.WhiletheplunderingoftheRomanareasisvariouslyattested(forsources,seeMaenchenHelfen,pp.3842),onlyPriscus(frag.11)andtheLiberCalipharum(Chroniconmiscellaneum3.4;tr.,pp.1067)reporttheinvasionofthePersianempire.Underthe leadershipofBasikhandKoursikh,adetachmentofHunsrodedown thevalleysof theEuphratesandTigris toCtesiphon.Upon thenews thataPersianarmywasmarchingtowardsthem,theHunsturnedback;buttheywereeventuallycaught.ThePersiansthenmanagedtokillsomeoftheHuns,totakealmosttheirentirebootyfromthem,andallegedlytofree18,000prisoners.TherestoftheHunstroopsmadetheirwaybackintothesteppeovertheDarbandpass.ThisinroadintoPersiawasrememberedbythe



RomansandtheHunsmorethanfiftyyearslater:whenPriscuswasstayingatAttilascourtin449C.E.,heheardfromtheWesternRomanenvoyRomulusthatthekingwasplanningacampaign against Persia,whichwas to be carried out on the route previously taken byBasikhandKoursikh(Priscus,frag.11).Attilasdeath in453C.E.savedtheSasaniansfromanarmedencounterwiththeHunswhiletheywereattheheightoftheirmilitarypower.InthetribalmovementswhichtookplaceafterthedissolutionoftheEuropeanempireoftheHuns, theSabireswereparticularlyprominent.Afterbeingoustedby theAvars fromtheirprevioushomebetweentheAltaiandtheUral,theypushedtheSaragureswestward.The latter thenconquered theAkatziresin466C.E.andproceededagainstPersia (Priscus,frag. 47), possibly goaded on by Byzantium (Moravcsik, I, p. 65). The later fate of theSaragures isunknown.A tribewhich soon after 500C.E. invadednorthern Iran andwassimplycalledHuns(Ounnoi)byProcopius(Bella1.8)mightbeidentifiedwiththeSabiresthemselves, who from then on participated in the PersianByzantine wars for severaldecades,sidingalternatelywiththePersiansandtheEasternRomans.Intheconflictsofthemid6thcentury,bothwarringpartiesweresupportedbySabiredetachments.AfterhavingfoughtonthePersiansidein573C.E.,theSabiressubjectedthemselvesayearlatertotheEasternRomanemperorandweresettledintheByzantinepartofArmenia.IranianHuns:The term Huns was also used for several tribes who posed a continuous threat tonortheastern Iran and northwestern India from the 4th century C.E. Earlier researchattemptedtoestablishaconnectionbetweenthedifferenttribesmentionedinthesources,andtoconsiderthemallasHephthalites(cf.Ghirshman,pp.69134).Altheim(III,1961,p.7)viewed theHephthalitesas theoriginal tribeof theHuns, fromwhichtheEuropeanHunshad splitoff. Inaddition,healsoassumedaTurkishorigin forall these tribes (Altheim, I,1959,pp.45ff.).However,thisfartoosimplisticperspectivehasbeensucceededbyamorediscriminating view based on Robert Gbls research. According to Gbl, Iran and Indiaunderwent several successive invasions by clearly distinct tribes, whom he referred tocollectivelyasIranianHuns.TheyapparentlyhadnoconnectionwiththeEuropeanHuns,butmayhavebeencausallyrelatedwiththeirmovement.Aprominentcharacteristic,whichthey sharedwith all other Central Asian power constellations,was their ethnicmixture,amongwhichtheelitewassaidtobeIranian,oratleastexpresseditselfassuchthroughits



coinage(Gbl,1978,p.107).Itisnoteworthythatthetribesinquestiondeliberatelycalledthemselves Huns in order to frighten their enemies.AccountsvaguelysuggestthattheHunshadalreadysettled intheareanorthwestoftheCaspian Sea as early as the 3rd century. Around 370 A.D. the Huns moved west anddestroyedtheirneighboringAlans.TheycontinuedwestwardanddestroyedthesedentaryOstrogothickingdomofEramanarich,inducingwidespreadpanicintoEurope.Ataroundthesametime,anotherHun forcecrossedtheCaucasusandravagedArmenia,penetratingasfarasSyria.ThestoryoftheHunsbeginshere,whentheirferocityhasfinallyearnedthemaplaceinthechronicles.Although the Huns soon became a prominent force in Europe, they did not have thepolitical unity to stage amassive and serious campaign.More often than not, theHunsbeforeAttilawerealooseconfederationofmanykingsratherthananempire.Thereexistedthetitleof"highking"butfewofsuchrankhadthecompetencetocontrolalloftheHuns.For the most part the Huns attacked and operated in separately commanded groupswithoutaunifiedobjective.

EarlyHistoryofHuna:InspiteofthefactthatthefirsthistoricallyrecordedTurkishstateisthatoftheAsianHunsin the third centuryB.C., it ishighlyprobable thatmany centuriesearlier majorpartofYuezhipeoplesmigratedfrom tochristantothesouthand west.Theseearliermigrationsweredue to severalmotives.EuropeanHunas subjugatedTibet, theTunghuzs, theSmallYuechis, and some other tribes. Somewent as far as Scythia,where theywere able toconquer a number of less fearsome tribes. Combined, these peoples became theHuns.During the last two centuries scholars in different disciplines of the social sciences haveadvanced various theories about the origins of the Western Huns. Recent cultural andethnographicsourceshavemade itclearthattheWesternHunswereoftheyuezhiorigin,andthattheywerethedescendentsoftheAsianHuns.The northern Huns began tomigrate towards thewest at the beginning of the secondcentury,where they reunitedwith the tribesofChichi.Due to thepressureofnomadictribesinthemiddleofthefourthcentury,theHunsbeganamassivemigrationwestwards.



TheHunsbeforeAttila:By432C.E.,theHunswereunitedunderRugila,whosedeathin434lefthisnephewsAttilaandBleda(thesonsofRugila'sbrotherMundzuk)incontroloveralltheunitedHuntribes.At the time of their accession, the Huns were bargaining with Byzantine emperorTheodosius II's envoys over the return of several renegade tribeswho had taken refugewithin the Byzantine Empire. The following year Attila and Bledametwith the imperiallegation at Margus (present day Poarevac) and, seated on horseback in the Hunnicmanner,negotiatedasuccessfultreaty.

EarlylifeofAttila:Attila'sfather,Mundzuk,wasthebrotherofthekingsOctarandRugila,whoreignedjointlyovertheHunnicempire intheearlyfifthcentury.ThisformofdiarchywasrecurrentwiththeHuns,buthistoriansareunsurewhether itwas institutionalized,merelycustomary,oranoccasionaloccurrence.Hisfamilywasfromanoble lineage,but it isuncertainwhetherthey constituted a royal dynasty. Attila's birthdate is not known, but the journalist ricDeschodt and thewriterHerman Schreiber have proposed a date of 395.However, thehistorianIaroslavLebedynskyandarchaeologistKatalinEscherpreferanestimatebetweenthe390sandthefirstdecadeofthefifthcentury.Attheageoffifteen,Attilawasofferedasahostage to the Imperialcourtof theWestern RomanEmpire tocementapeace treatybetween thewesternRomansand theHuns.Whileasahostage,Attilawas to learn the



Roman language andmilitary techniques. Attila also witnessed first hand Rome's greatwealthandwasrevoltedbythedecadenceandcorruptionthatinfectedRome'swayoflife.

AttilaandBleda'sRisetoPower:Rua died in 434 history does not record the cause of death.Hewas succeeded by hisnephews,BledaandAttila. It'snotclearwhy theolderbrotherBledawasunable to takesolepower.PerhapsAttilawasstrongerormorepopular.

ThebrotherstriedtoextendtheirempireintoPersiainthelate430s,butweredefeatedbytheSassanids.TheysackedEasternRomancitiesatwill,andConstantinopleboughtpeaceinexchangeforanannualtributeof700lbsofgoldin435,risingto1,400lbsin442.Meanwhile, the Huns fought as mercenaries in the Western Roman army against theBurgundians(in436)andtheGoths(in439).

TheDeathofBleda:In445,Bledasuddenlydied.AswithRua,nocauseofdeathisrecorded,butRomansourcesfromthattimeandmodernhistoriansalikebelievethatAttilaprobablykilledhim (orhadhimkilled).

HistoryofNorthernHuna:AsthesoleKingoftheHuns,AttilainvadedtheEasternRomanEmpire,seizingtheBalkans,andthreateningearthquakeravagedConstantinople in447.TheRomanEmperorsued forpeace,handingover6,000poundsofgold inbacktribute,agreeing topay2,100poundsannually,andreturningfugitiveHunswhohadfledtoConstantinople.TheserefugeeHunswereprobablythesonsornephewsofthekingskilledbyRua.Attilahadthemimpaled.



Intheyear420AD,afterfiveyearsincaptivity,Attilawasreturnedtohispeople.Attilahadlearned a greatdeal abouthis foe and sworehewould return to Italyonedaynot as ahostage, but as a conqueror. Itwas during his return home thatAttilawas tomeet thehostage offered by the western Romans, one Flavius Aetius. The two young menimmediatelybecamefriendsandwere inseparable,duringhiscaptivityAetiusalso learnedtheHunnicwayof lifeaswellastheirmilitarytechniques.The friendship forgedbetweenthetwowastohaveeverlastingeffectsonboththeirlivesinwaystheycouldnotpossiblyimagine.

KingRuadied in434ADandwas succeededbyAttilaandhisbrotherBleda.The two coruled peacefully for the next seven years until in 441, the Eastern Roman Emperor,Theodosiushaltedtheannualpaymentsofgold.ThiswastheopportunityAttilawaswaitingfor,Attilahadhisbrotherkilledanddecidedonapolicyofnationalexpansion.

TheHunscrossedtheDanuberiverandinvadedtheBalkanprovincesoftheEasternRomanEmpire.TheHunsravagedanddestroyedthecountryside,burningeverytownandcityintheirpathtotheground.NearthecapitaloftheEasternEmpire,Constantinople,theHunsutterlydestroyedtheRomanarmysentagainstthematthebattleofGallipoli.

Attilahadgiven specificorders thateverything in theirpathwas tobedestroyedandnolivingthingspared,theEasternRomansweretopaydearforthislatestinsult.TheodosiussenttheEasternRomanarmytostopAttila,buttheRomanswereonceagaincompletelydestroyedatthebattleofMarcianopolis.

WithnoRomanforceslefttoopposethem,theHunsrangedsouthtopillageGreece.AttilahadnowconqueredmostoftheBalkanregionoftheEasternEmpireandthenturnedhisarmynorthwest towards the Eastern capitolofConstantinople.Outside the gatesof thegreatcitytheHunnicarmymadecamp,the inhabitantswereterrifiedandTheodosiushadnochoicebuttoonceagainsueforpeace.



ThetermsofferedtoTheodosiuswereveryharsh,Attilademandedanimmediatepaymentof 7,000 lbs of gold and 1,000 lbs to be paid annually. To raise the 7,000 lbs up front,Theodosiusemptied the treasury, strippedevery statueandmonumentof itswealthandevenwent so far as to confiscate gold from the citizens of the city itself.With Attila'swagonsoverflowingwithriches,theHunscrossedtheDanubeandreturnedhome.

Since becoming king in 434 AD, Attila had united the warring Hunnic tribes into anunstoppablewarmachine.Attila's reinnow stretchedalong thebordersofboth theEastandWesternRomanEmpiresincludingallthebarbariantribeswithin.JustonesinglewordfromAttilacouldmakekingdomscrumbleandempirestremble.Withhisinvinciblearmies,Attilawas tobecome themostpowerfulmanon the faceof theearth.Attila andBeldaremainedoutofRoman sight for thenext five years as they tried to invade thePersianEmpire. A defeat in Armenia caused them to abandon this attempt and return theirattention to Europe. In 440, they reappeared on the borders of the Roman Empire,attackingmerchantsatamarketon thenorthbankof theDanube.TheHuns' firstmajorraid under Attila was launched across the Danube in 440 against the Eastern Empire.Whetherbycoincidenceordesign,itcoincidedwiththeVandals'siegeofCarthage.Romantroops that had been dispatched to forestall the Carthage threat had to be recalled byEmperor Theodosius to defend the capital. As a result, Carthage and Africa were lost.Attila'swarriors sacked Belgrade and numerous other centers70 according to historianEdwardGibbondefeatingRomanarmiesthreetimesinsuccessionandpenetratingasfarastheoutskirtsofConstantinople itself.ThraceandMacedoniawereravaged,but inspiteofanearthquakethat leveledpartof itsmighty landwalls,theEasterncapital itselfwas leftuntouched.

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managetoinflictmassivelossesonthemenfromthesteppes.ThebattlebrokethebackoftheHunniceffort,andafterlootingasfarsouthasGreece,theinvasionpeteredout.

For the Eastern Empire, thiswas a critical time. Constantinople's armieswere gone, itstreasuryemptyanditssourceofrevenuetaxesdriedupbythedevastationoftheHunnicraids. In 449 a delegation set out from Rome to sue for a lasting treaty with theseminomadicbarbarianwarriorsofPannonia.Attilawassurprisinglyaccommodating,andinreturn for a huge cash payment he agreed to desist from further raids on the EasternEmpire.TheshrewdwarriorrealizedthattheEastwasnowexhausted,with littleprospectleftforplunderinthenearfuture.ThepeacewouldleavehimwithasecurerearforhisnextprojectaninvasionofthevirtuallyuntouchedWesternRomanEmpire.

In theWest, thepatricianFlaviusAetiuswas trying toholdacrumblingempire together,with the child emperor Valentinian III and his mother and regent, Aelia Galla Placidia,servingmostlyasfigureheads.

Recentwars betweenAetius and Theodoric the Visigoth, his theoretical vassalwho hadbeenallowedtosettlewithintheempire,gaveAttilaconfidencethattheWesternEmpire'sstrengthwouldbedrainedandunabletoresisthisonslaught.Inaddition,hewassurethatrather thanunitewithAetius,Theodoricwoulduse theopportunityofAttila's invasion toasserthisownindependence.AndsotheHunnicleaderconfidentlycrossedtheRhineintoGaulwithahostconsistingofnotonlyHunsbutalsonumerousGermansubjects,includingOstrogoths,Gepids,Franks,Rugians,Sciri,BurgundiansandThuringians.AdvancinginthreecolumnsthroughmoderndayBelgium,theHunsspreadterroranddestruction.Townaftertownwas destroyed, includingMetz, Cambrai, Strasbourg, Rheims, Amiens andWorms.PariswassavedonlybecausetheHunsconsideredittoosmalltobeworththetroubleofasiege.



All the while, Aetius was marching to intercept Attila. In spite of Aetius' entreaties,Theodoricat firstrefusedtocommithimselftoanallianceagainsttheHuns, justasAttilapredicted.Eventually,however,hedecidedthatthethreatofHunnicdevastationwasmoreseriousthanthatofRomandomination,andsummoninghiswarriors,hesetoutnorthtojoinAetius.

Another barbarian tribe thatAetius had allowed to settle in the empire, theAlans,wassettled around the town ofOrlans, but they and their king, Sangiban,were of doubtfulloyalty.As it transpired, itwasatOrlans that theHunnichostconvergedandalsowhereAetius and Theodoricmet up. The allies arrived just in time to prevent Sangiban fromopeningthecity'sgatestoadmitAttila.TheHunswerealreadyinthesuburbswhenAetiusarrived. Without hesitation the Romans fell on the scattered Huns, inflicting heavycasualties inthetown,wherethemountedHunswereataseveredisadvantage.Asnightfell,Attilawithdrew his forces, heading east for themore open terrain around Chlons,whichbettersuitedhisstyleoffighting.TheRomansandVisigothsfollowedtheretreatingHunsclosely,overtakingandannihilatingtheirrearguard.Bythatstage,withhiswarriorsheavilyladenwithplunder,AttilawouldhavebeencontenttowithdrawtoPannonia.

BattleoftheCatalaunianPlainsTheBattleof theCatalaunianPlains (or Fields),also called theBattleofChlonsor theBattle ofMaurica, took place inAD 451 between a coalition led by the Roman generalFlavius Atius and the Visigothic king Theodoric I against the Huns and their alliescommandedby their leaderAttila. Itwasoneof the lastmajormilitaryoperationsof theWesternRomanEmpirethoughVisigothicsoldiersalsoformedthecoreofthealliedRomanarmy. The battlewas a strategic victory for the Romans, stopping theHuns' attempt toconquerRomanGaul.



By450RomancontrolofGaulhadbeenrestoredinmuchoftheprovince,althoughcontrolover all of the provinces beyond Italy was continuing to diminish. Armorica was onlynominallypartof theempire,andGermanic tribesprowlingaroundRoman territoryhadbeen forcibly settled and served as foederati under their own leaders. Northern GaulbetweentheRhinenorthofXantenandMarnerivers(GalliaBelgica)hadunofficiallybeenabandonedtotheFranks.ThelineofeffectiveRomancontrolranfromColognetoAmiensand to thecoastatBoulogne.TheVisigoths inGalliaAquitaniaweregrowing restive.TheBurgundiansinSapaudia[6]weremoresubmissive,butlikewiseawaitingopeningsforrevolt.ThepartsstillsecurelyinRomancontrolweretheMediterraneancoastline,awidebandofvaryingwidthrunningfromAurelianum(presentdayOrlans)upstreamalongtheLoireasfarnorthasAmiensandonedownstreamalong theRhneRiver including theAuvergne,ProvenceandLanguedoc.



ThehistorianJordanesstatesthatAttilawasenticedbytheVandals'kingGaiserictowagewarontheVisigoths.Atthesametime,GaisericwouldattempttosowstrifebetweentheVisigothsandtheWesternRomanEmpire(Getica36.1846).

Honoria'sProposal:Other contemporarywritersofferdifferentmotivations:Honoria,a troublesome sisteroftheemperorValentinian III,hadbeenmarriedoff to the loyal senatorHerculanus a fewyearsbefore.Thiskepther inrespectableconfinement. In450,shesentamessagewithanote and a ring to theHunnic king asking forAttila's help in escaping her confinement.Honoriahadbeenpromisedinmarriagetoamanshedidn'tlike.Honoria'sdowryincludedhalf of the provinces in the Western Roman Empire, a very nice prize.. He demandedHonoriatobedeliveredalongwiththedowry.Valentinianrejectedthesedemands.Then,onlytheinfluenceofhismother,GallaPlacidia,convincedhimtoexileHonoriaratherthankilling her. He alsowrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposedmarriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an embassy to Ravenna to proclaim thatHonoriawas innocent,thattheproposalhadbeen legitimate,andthathewouldcometoclaimwhatwasrightfullyhis.Coincidentally,thePipurarianFrankishConfederationwas incivilwarwithbrothers fighting for succession.Oneof thebrothersappealed toAttila forhelpwhiletheotherappealedtoAetiusandtheRomans.WithHonoriabeingkepthostagebytheWesternEmperorandthecivilwaroftheFranks,Attila's invasionwas justifiedandAttilauseditasanexcusetolaunchadestructivecampaignthroughGaul.Aetius,however,wasdeterminedtobringhimtobattle.TheplacechosenbytheHunstoturnandfightwasknownastheCatalaunianPlains.Anotherpossibleexplanationisthatin449,theKingoftheFranks,Chlodio,died.AetiushadadoptedtheyoungersonoftheFrankstosecuretheRhineFrontier,andtheeldersonhadfledtothecourtofAttila.AttilacrossedtheRhineearlyin451withhisfollowersandalargenumberofallies,sackingDivodurum(Metz)onApril7.Othercitiesattackedcanbedeterminedbythehagiographicvitaewrittentocommemoratetheirbishops:NicasiuswasslaughteredbeforethealtarofhischurchinRheims;SaintServatiusisallegedtohavesavedTongerenwithhisprayers,asGenevieve is tohavesavedParis.Lupus,bishopofTroyes, isalsocreditedwithsavinghiscitybymeetingAttilainperson.



Attila's army had reached Aurelianum by June. This fortified city guarded an importantcrossing over the Loire.According to Jordanes, theAlan king Sangiban,whose foederatirealmincludedAurelianum,hadpromisedtoopenthecitygates;[12]thissiegeisconfirmedby the account of the Vita S. Anianus and in the later account of Gregory of Tours,[13]althoughSangiban'snamedoesnotappear intheiraccounts.However,the inhabitantsofAurelianumshuttheirgatesagainsttheadvancinginvaders.Attilabegantobesiegethecity,whilehewaitedforSangibantodeliveronhispromise.Uponlearningoftheinvasion,theMagistermilitumFlaviusAtiusmovedquicklyfromItalyintoGaul.AccordingtoSidoniusApollinaris,hewas leadingforthaforceconsistingoffewandsparseauxiliarieswithoutoneregularsoldier.[14]HeimmediatelyattemptedtoconvinceTheodoric I,kingof theVisigothics, to joinhim.Theodoric learnedhow fewtroopsAtiushadwithhimanddecideditwaswisertowaittoopposetheHunsinhisownlands.Atiusturned then to the powerful local magnate Avitus for help, who was not only able toconvince Theodoric to join with the Romans, but also a number of other wavering"barbarians" resident in Gaul.[15] The combined armies then marched for Aurelianum(Orlans),reachingthatcityaboutJune14.AccordingtotheauthoroftheVitaS.Anianus,theyhadreachedthebesiegedAurelianumliterallyatthe lastpossibleminute.Attila'smenhadmadeabreach inthecity'swallsandhadpositionedapartywithinthecity.Atthisverymoment,newsofanadvancinghostilearmyreachedtheHuns.Theywerevirtuallyincontrolofthecity,buttokeepitmeanttobebesieged in it.Hencetheybrokecampandproceededbackhomewards,doubtless lookingforanadvantageousspottomakeastand.TheodoricandAtiusfollowedinclosepursuit.ThetwoforcesatlastmetattheCatalaunianFieldsonJune20,adatefirstproposedbyJ.B.Buryandsinceacceptedbymany,althoughsomesourcesclaimSeptember20.The night before the main battle, one of the Frankish forces on the Roman sideencountered a band of theGepids loyal toAttila. Jordanes' recorded number of 15,000deadoneithersideforthisskirmishisnotverifiable.InaccordancetoHunniccustoms,Attilahadhisdivinersexaminetheentrailsofasacrificethemorning before battle. They foretold disasterwould befall theHuns and one of theenemyleaderswouldbekilled.AttheriskofhisownlifeandhopingforAtiustodie,Attilaatlastgavetheordersforcombat,butdelayeduntiltheninthhoursotheimpendingsunsetwouldhelphistroopstofleethebattlefieldincaseofdefeat.AccordingtoJordanes,theCatalaunianplainroseononesidebyasharpslopetoaridge.Thisgeographical featuredominated thebattlefieldandbecame thecenterof thebattle.TheHunsfirstseizedtherightsideoftheridge,whiletheRomansseizedtheleft,withthe



crestunoccupiedbetween them. Jordanesexplains that theVisigothsheld the right side,theRomans the left,with Sangibanofuncertain loyalty andhisAlans surrounded in themiddle. The Hunnic forces attempted to take the ridge, but were outstripped by theRomans under Aetius and the Gothic Left flank under Thorismund. The Huns remainedunabletotaketheridge,butroutedtheAlansunderSangiban.Theodoric,whileleadinghisownmenafterthedisorderedenemy,waskilledintheassaultwithouthismennoticing. Jordanes states thatTheodoricwas thrown fromhishorseandtrampled to death by his advancingmen, but he alsomentions another story that hadTheodoricslainbythespearoftheOstrogothAndag.SinceJordanesservedasthenotaryofAndag'ssonGunthigis,evenifthislatterstoryisnottrue,thisversionwascertainlyaproudfamilytradition.TheVisigothsoutstripped the speedof theAlansbeside themand felluponAttila'sownHunnichouseholdunit.Attilawas forced to seek refuge inhisown camp,whichhehadfortifiedwithwagons.TheRomanoGothicchargeapparentlysweptpasttheHunniccampinpursuit;whennight fell,Thorismund,sonofkingTheodoric, returning to friendly lines,mistakenly entered Attila's encampment. There hewaswounded in the ensuingmlebeforehisfollowerscouldrescuehim.DarknessalsoseparatedAtiusfromhisownmen.Ashe feared thatdisasterhadbefallen them,he spent the restof thenightwithhisGothicallies.Onthefollowingday,findingthebattlefields"werepiledhighwithbodiesandtheHunsdidnotventure forth", theGothsandRomansmet todecide theirnextmove.Knowing thatAttilawas lowonprovisionsand"washindered fromapproachingbyashowerofarrowsplacedwithin theconfinesof theRomancamp", theystarted tobesiegehiscamp. In thisdesperate situation, Attila remained unbowed and "heaped up a funeral pyre of horsesaddles,sothatiftheenemyshouldattackhim,hewasdeterminedtocasthimselfintotheflames,thatnonemighthavethe joyofwoundinghimandthatthe lordofsomanyracesmightnotfallintothehandsofhisfoes".WhileAttilawastrapped inhiscamp,theVisigothssearchedfortheirmissingkingandhissonThorismund.Aftera long search, they foundTheodoric'scorpsebeneathamoundofcorpsesandborehimawaywithheroicsongs insightoftheenemy.Upon learningofhisfather's death, Thorismund wanted to assault Attila's camp, but Atius dissuaded him.According to Jordanes, Atius feared that if the Huns were completely destroyed, theVisigothswouldbreakofftheirallegiancetotheRomanEmpireandbecomeanevengraverthreat.SoAtiusconvincedThorismundtoquicklyreturnhomeandsecurethethroneforhimself,beforehisbrotherscould.Otherwise,civilwarwouldensueamongtheVisigoths.Thorismund quickly returned to Tolosa (presentday Toulouse) and became kingwithout



any resistance. Gregory of Tours (Historia Francorum 2.7) claims Atius used the samestratagem to dismiss his Frankish allies, and collected the booty of the battlefield forhimself.

Forces:Both armies consisted of combatants from many peoples. Besides the Roman troops,Jordanes listsAtius'alliesas including (besides theVisigoths)both theSalianFranksandRipuarian Franks, Sarmatians,Armoricans, Liticians,Burgundians, Saxons, librones (whomhedescribesas"onceRomansoldiersandnowtheflowerofthealliedforces"),andotherCelticorGermantribes.Jordanes' list forAttila'sallies includes theGepidsunder theirkingArdaric,aswellasanOstrogothic army led by the brothers Valamir, Theodemir (the father of the laterOstrogothickingTheodorictheGreat)andWidimer,scionsoftheAmali.[24]Sidoniusoffersamore extensive listof allies:Rugians,Gepids,Gelonians,Burgundians, Sciri,Bellonotians,Neurians,Bastarnae,Thuringians,Bructeri,andFranks livingalong theNeckarRiver .E.A.



Thompson expresses his suspicions that some of these names are drawn from literarytraditionsratherthanfromtheeventitself:TheBastarnae,Bructeri,GeloniandNeurihaddisappearedhundredsofyearsbefore thetimeoftheHuns,whiletheBellonotihadneverexistedatall:presumablythelearnedpoetwas thinkingof theBalloniti, apeople inventedbyValerius Flaccusnearly four centuriesearlier.[26]Ontheotherhand,ThompsonbelievesthatthepresenceofBurgundiansontheHunnicsideiscredible,notingthatagroup isdocumentedasremainingeastoftheRhine; likewise,hebelieves that the other peoples Sidonius alone mentionsthe Rugians, Scirans andThuringianswerelikelyparticipantsinthisbattle.However, thenumberofparticipants for either sideor in totalis entirely speculative.Jordanesreportsthenumberofdeadfromthisbattleas165,000,excludingthecasualtiesoftheFrankoGepid skirmishprevious to themainbattle.Hydatius,ahistorianwho livedatthetimeofAttila'sinvasion,reportsthenumberof300,000dead.Noprimarysourceoffersanestimateforthenumberofparticipants.The figuresofboth Jordanes andHydatius are implausiblyhigh. Thompson remarks in afootnote, "I doubt that Attila could have fed an army of even 30,000 men."[27] As areference,intheearly3rdcentury,theRomanEmpiremaintainedthirtythreelegionswithjustunder5,200actualmenforeachlegionwiththetotalof171,600soldiers;ifwefollowthegeneralassumptionthatthenumberofauxiliariesmatchedthenumberof legionaries,then add the Praetorian Guard as 15,000 strong, and six Urban Cohortswhich totalled9,000,wefindthattheEmpireatitsheightfieldedagrandtotalof395,000soldiersacrossits territories.However in theearly3rdcentury thenumberofauxiliarieswas larger thanlegionariesby50,000andthefiguresgivenbyThompsondonot includemen inthenavy.Harl inCoinage intheRomanEconomygivestheestimatesonpage231as481,000.Therearemanyestimatesof the sizeof thearmed forcesunderDiocletian that rangebetween389,000to645,000(Agathias).ThepointisthattheregularRomanarmyin450A.D.intheWestwasrundowntohalfitssize50yearspreviously.[28]AbettersenseofthesizeoftheforcesmaybefoundinthestudyoftheNotitiaDignitatumbyA.H.M.Jones.Thisdocumentisalistofofficialsandmilitaryunitsthatwaslastupdatedinthefirstdecadesofthe5thcentury.NotitiaDignitatumlists58variousregularunits,and33 limitanei servingeither in theGallicprovincesoron the frontiersnearby; the totalofthese units, based on Jones analysis, is 34,000 for the regular units and 11,500 for thelimitanei,orjustunder46,000alltold.However,thisfigureistheestimatefortheyear425A.D.TheregularRomanfieldarmypresentatthebattlemayhavenumberedaround22,500



men ifoneaccounts forpaperstrength,attrition,andother factors.The federateswouldhave been far greater in number, possibly between 20,000 and 50,000men.While theRomanforces inGaulhadbecomemuchsmallerbythistime, ifweacceptthisnumberasthetotalofalloftheforcesfightingwithTheodoricandAtius,oneshouldnotbetoofaroff.AssumingthattheHunnicforceswereroughlythesamesizeastheRomanoGothic,thenumber involved in battle is around 100,000 combatants in total. This excludes theinevitableservantsandcampfollowerswhousuallyescapemention.

Historicalimportance:Traditionalview:ThebattlewasofmacrohistoricalimportanceThis battle, especially since Edward Gibbon addressed it in The Decline and Fall of theRomanEmpireandSirEdwardCreasywrotehisTheFifteenDecisiveBattlesof theWorld,hasbeenconsideredbymanyhistorians tobeoneof themost importantbattlesofLateAntiquity,atleastintheLatinspeakingworld.CreasyquotedHerbert'sAttilaconcerningthisbattleThediscomfitureofthemightyattemptofAttilatofoundanewantiChristiandynastyuponthewreckofthetemporalpowerofRome,attheendofthetermoftwelvehundredyears,towhichitsdurationhadbeenlimitedbytheforebodingsoftheheathen.Creasyalsostated:Attila'sattacksontheWesternempireweresoonrenewed,butneverwithsuchperiltothecivilizedworldashadmenaceditbeforehisdefeatatChlons;andonhisdeath,twoyearsafterthatbattle,thevastempirewhichhisgeniushadfoundedwassoondisseveredbythesuccessfulrevoltsofthesubjectnations.ThenameoftheHunsceasedforsomecenturiestoinspireterrorinWesternEurope,andtheirascendancypassedawaywiththelifeofthegreatkingbywhomithadbeensofearfullyaugmented.JohnJuliusNorwich,thehistorianknownforhisworksonVeniceandonByzantium,saidofthebattleofChalons:Itshouldneverbeforgottenthatinthesummerof451andagainin452,thewholefateofwesterncivilizationhung in thebalance.Had theHunnisharmynotbeenhalted in thesetwosuccessivecampaigns,haditsleadertoppledValentinianfromhisthroneandsetuphis



owncapitalatRavennaorRome,there is littledoubtthatbothGauland Italywouldhavebeenreducedtospiritualandculturaldeserts.He goes on to say that though the battle in 451was "indecisive insofar as both sidessustained immense losses and neitherwas leftmaster of the field, it had the effect ofhaltingtheHuns'advance."[32]There are a couple of reasonswhy this combat has kept its epic importance down thecenturies.One isthatignoringtheBattleofQarqar(Karkar),whichwasforgottenatthistimethiswasthe firstsignificantconflictthat involved largealliancesonbothsides.Nosingle nation dominated either side; rather, two alliances met and fought in surprisingcoordinationforthetime.ArthurFerrill,addressingthisissue,goesontosay:AfterhesecuredtheRhine,AttilamovedintocentralGaulandputOrleansundersiege.Hadhegainedhisobjective,hewouldhavebeeninastrongpositiontosubduetheVisigothsinAquitaine, but Atius had put together a formidable coalition against theHun.Workingfrenetically, the Roman leader had built a powerful alliance of Visigoths, Alans andBurgundians, uniting themwith their traditional enemy, the Romans, for the defense ofGaul. Even though all parties to the protection of the Western Roman Empire had acommonhatredoftheHuns,itwasstillaremarkableachievementonAtius'parttohavedrawnthemintoaneffectivemilitaryrelationship.AddressingAttila's fearsome reputation,and the importanceof thisbattle,Gibbonnotedthat itwas fromhisenemieswehearofhis terribledeeds,not from friendlychroniclers,emphasizing that the former had no reason to elevate Attila's reign of terror, and theimportanceoftheBattleofChalonsinprovingAttilatobedefeatable.

Aftermathandreputationofthebattle:"Cadaveraveroinnumera,"theRomanssaidafterwards:"Trulycountlessbodies!"Gibbonsuccinctlystates:Attila'sretreatacrosstheRhineconfessedthelastvictorywhichwasachievedinthenameoftheWesternRomanEmpire.Thefollowingyear,AttilarenewedhisclaimstoHonoriaandterritoryintheWesternRomanEmpire.LeadinghistroopsacrosstheAlpsandintoNorthernItaly,heconqueredthecities



ofAquileia,Vicetia,Verona,Brixia,BergomumandMilan.Finally,attheverygatesofRome,heturnedhisarmybackonlyafternegotiatingwiththepope.Another reason the ferocity of this campaign left a deep impression upon itscontemporaries isthatnotonlydidAttilasavagemuchofEurope inamannerunrepeatedfor centuries, but the battle acquired a reputation for carnage almost immediately.Considering theextravagant totals for casualties,Gibbon remarked that they "suppose areal andeffective loss, sufficient to justify thehistorian's remark thatwhole generationsmaybesweptawaybythemadnessofkingsinasinglehour".Two contemporary descriptions survive showing that this battle had an unparalleledreputationforitscarnage.ThefirstisfromJordanes:For,ifwemaybelieveourelders,abrookflowingbetweenlowbanksthroughtheplainwasgreatlyincreasedbybloodoftheslain.Itwasnotfloodedbyshowers,asbrooksusuallyrise,butwas swollenbya strange streamand turned intoa torrentby the increaseofblood.Thosewhosewoundsdrovethemtoslaketheirparchingthirstdrankwatermingledingore.In theirwretchedplight theywere forced todrinkwhat they thoughtwas theblood theyhadpouredfromtheirownwounds.[39]ThesecondcomesfromthephilosopherDamascius,whonotmanyyearsafterwardsheardthatthefightingwassosevere"thatnoonesurvivedexceptonlytheleadersoneithersideandafewfollowers:buttheghostsofthosewhofellcontinuedthestruggleforthreewholedaysandnightsasviolentlyas if theyhadbeenalive; theclashof theirarmswasclearlyaudible".[40]A furtherreason forthereputationofthisbattle isthat itwasthe firstmajorbattlesincethedeathofConstantine IwhereapredominantlyChristian force facedapredominantlypaganopponent. This factorwas verymuch apparent to the contemporaries,whooftenmentionprayerplayingafactorinthisbattleAttila invaded the Roman province of Gaulwith a large army of Huns and dependentbarbariantribessubjecttohisrule.TheHunnicadvancesackedanddestroyedsomeofthegreatestcitiesinalltheWesternRomanEmpire.TheHunsadvancedunopposeddeepintocentralGaul and put thewalled city ofOrleans under siege.The RomanGeneral Aetius,worked frantically tobuildacoalitionofbarbarian tribes to standwithRomeagainst theHuns.Thebarbarianshadno interest inallyingthemselveswiththeir long timeenemy,buttheydidhaveacommonhatredfortheHunsandatthetime,theRomansseemedtobethelesserofthetwoevils.



In 450 AD, The Eastern Emperor Theodosius was killed when falling from a horse. HissuccessorMarcian,tookahard linestanceonAttila'sencroachmentsandalsorefusedtopay the annual tribute. Attila chose to ignore the actions of the new Eastern Emperor,eventsintheWesthadcaughthisattention.Honoria,thesisteroftheWesternEmperorValentinian,objectedtoherbrother'schoiceforherhusband.HonoriasecretlywrotetoAttilaandenclosedagoldring,Attilaacceptedthisgift assuming she was proposing to him and then demanded that the western Romanprovince of Gaulwouldmake a suitable dowry. Valentinian's refusal of Attila's requestwould result in the Huns crossing the Rhine river and invading the Western RomanEmpire.TheodosiushadnochoicebuttobuyoffAttilaandhishorde,butthepriceofpeacewouldbehigh.TheEasternEmpirewastopayahugetributeof700 lbsofgoldannually,Attila also demanded a ransom for each Roman citizen held in his custody and theimmediate return of his own subjects from Roman territory. The Romans were alsoforbiddentosigntreatieswithknownenemiesoftheHunsor interferewithHunnictradealongtheDanube.Theodosiusknewthatahumiliatingandexpensivepeacewasstillfarbetterthanawarhecould notwin.With every pound of gold that crossed theDanube, Attila becamemorepowerful and intimidating, while the Eastern Romans more weak and humiliated.TheWesternRomanEmpireofferedno assistance to theirEastern cousins,Attila's childhoodfriendAetiushadrisen intherankstobecomeEmperorValentinian'ssecond incommandandmasterGeneralofallRomanarmiesof thewest.BecauseofAetius's friendshipwithAttila,astrongalliancewiththeHunsprotectedthewesternhalfoftheempire.JustasAttilaandhisarmywereaboutto launchtheirfinalassaulttotakeOrleans,Aetiusand the relief army arrived. The Huns did not expect any opposition andwere caughtcompletely by surprise.Attila immediately ordered his troops to abandon the siege andwithdrawaltomoreopencountry.Aetiusandthealliedarmyfollowedclosebehindneverlosingcontactwiththeirfoe.OntheCatalonianplainsnearChalons,theHunsturnedandpreparedforbattle.

ATTILASADVANCEThetwocommandersnowspentthedayarrangingtheirtroops,theoncechildhoodfriendsnowstaredoneanotherdownacrosstheopenbattlefield.Botharmieswerequitelargeforfifth century standards. Attila's army numbering 300,000 men ( 200,000 Huns, 60,000Ostrogoths and 40,000 Gepidae, totalling some 200,000 cavalry and 100,000 infantry )wouldbecounteredbyAetius'sRoman Gothicarmynumbering260,000men (120,000



Visigoths, 90,000 Romans and 50,000 Alans comprising 150,000 cavalry and 110,000infantry).Attilaformeduphisforcesonabroadfront,onhisrightwingstoodtheGepidaeunderKingAdaric, on the left King Valamir and his Ostrogoths, Attila and his Hunnic troopscommanded the center. Aetius placed his least reliable troops the Alans under KingSangiban inthecenter,inthehopestheywouldabsorbandslowdown theHunnicattackasmuchaspossible.TheVisigothsunderKingTheodoricwerepositionedontherightwingwhiletheRomansformedtheleftflankofthealliedarmy.Over looking the battle field on both the Huns left and the allied right flank, was adominatingridgewhichbothAttilaandAetiussoughttogainfortheirarmy.AttilasenttheOstrogothsalongwithHunnicforcesfromhiscentertotakethemountainsummit,atthesametimeAetiusorderedtheVisigothstoseizethisimportantfeature.KingTheodoricsentinVisigothicforcesleadbyhisson,theCrownPrinceThorismundwhoreached the summitbefore theOstrogoths.Holding thehighground, theVisigothseasilyrepelled theHuns and theirOstrogothic levies as they attempted to claim this strategicprize.Attila's armywas thrown into confusion by the failure to take the high ground. Attila'sGermanic subjects had neverwitnessed an attack by the Huns to fail, an eerie silencedawnedovertheHunnicsideofthebattle field.Attilaknewhehadtoactquicklytotaketheirminds of this set back and immediately ordered his fearsomeHuns to attack theAlan'sholdingthecenterofthealliedline.TheHunnicchargewasabletodrivebackbutnotbreakthroughthealliedcenter.AstheAlansslowlybegantogivegroundAttilaorderedhisHunstoturninwardandstrikeattheVisigoths from theirrear, itwasduring thisassault thatKingTheodoricwaskilled.PrinceThorismund,stillholdingthesummit,orderedhisforcestochargedowntheslopetowardstheirbeleaguered countrymen, catching theunsuspectingHuns in their right flank.TheVisigothassault struckhardat theenemy,drivingboth theOstrogothsandHunsbeforethem.ItwasatthismomentthatAetiusorderedtheRomanstoadvanceacrossthebattlefieldtothreatenAttila'srightflankheldbytheGepidae.ThingswerebeginningtogobadfortheHuns.ThealliedcenterhadbentbutnotbrokenandAttila'sleftflankwasfallingbackundertheweightofrenewedVisigothic attacks.AttilaalsoknewtheGepidaeonhisrightwingcouldnotholdtheRomanlegionsbearingdownonthem.AttilathereforedecidedtowithdrawalhisHunstothesafetyoftheirwagons,leavingtheGepidaeandtheremainderoftheOstrogothstofightarearguardactiontomakegoodtheHunsescape.



The Romans and Visigoths continued to press hard on the retreating Huns and theirGermanicsubjectsuntilthecomingofnightfallcalledoffthepursuit.BothAetiusandAttilaanticipated that thebattlewould resume thenextday,butwhenmorningdawned,botharmiesweretoweakanddisorganizedtocontinue.Attila'sarmysuccessfullyescapedandre crossedtheRhine,returningtotheirhomelandsalongtheDanube.LosesatChalonswere considerable for both sides. The Romans and her allies suffered 80,000 casualties(45,000 Visigoths, 25,000 Alans and 10,000 Romans). Attila and hisGermanic subjectssufferedmoreseverecasualtiesnumbering115,000,(60,000Huns,40,000Ostrogothsand15,000Gepidae).

THEHUNSINVADEITALYAlthoughsufferinghisfirstdefeat,Attilawasstillverypowerfulandhequicklyrestoredhisarmytofullstrength.In452AD,AttilaturnedhisattentiononceagaintowardstheWesternRomanEmpire,crossingthealpsandinvadingItaly.ThecityofAquileiawasthefirsttofeelAttila'swrathasitwaswipedfromthefaceoftheearth,somuchso,thattwentyyearslaterthe site was still uninhabited. Northern Italy was utterly devastated, Aetius could notpersuadetheAlansandVisigothstocometothedefenceofItalyastheyhaddoneayearearlier inprotectingGaul.Attila razedall the townsandcities inhispath to theground,continuingever south towards theeternal cityofRome itself. itappeared thatnothingcouldstopAttilafromdestroyingtheentirecountry.AllRomeawaited thecomingof theHunnicking inabsolute terror.TheRomanshadnolegionswithin Italy to put against Attila, thiswas truly Rome's darkest hour. The holypontiffPopeLeo, took ituponhimselfandwentout from the terrifiedcity tomeetwithAttila.AfterenteringtheHunniccamp,PopeLeobeganlecturingAttilatorepentthesinshehadcommittedagainsthumanityandwarnedhimoftheabsolutepowerofGod'swrath ifhe did not turn back and leave Italy immediately. Incredibly, after theirmeeting AttilaagreedtospareRomeandturnedhisarmybackforhome.Attila leadhisarmyoutof ItalynotsomuchastoPopeLeo'sthreatsandinfluence,butmoreprobablethatAttila'spositionwasweaker than theRomans realized.Therehadbeenasevere famine in Italy theyearbeforeAttila's invasionandtheHunnictroopswerehavingahardtime livingoffthe land.TheHunswere running lowon suppliesandadevastatingplaguewas sweeping throughAttila'sarmy.



Raphael's TheMeeting between Leo theGreat and Attila depicts Leo, escorted by SaintPeterandSaintPaul,meetingwiththeHunkingoutsideRomeAlsowhileAttilawas inItaly,theEasternRomanEmperorMarcian,hadsentaRomanarmyacrosstheDanubetostrikeattheheartlandofAttila'sEmpire.AlongwiththedefeatsufferedbytheHunsthepreviousyearatChalonsandthefactthatalltheHunnicwagonswereoverloadedwithplunderanyway,PopeLeo'svisitwasanopportunityforAttilatoendhisItaliancampaignasthevictor,andreturnhome.UnlikeAttila'scrushingvictories in theEasternhalfof theRomanEmpire, in the lasttwo successive campaigns theHunsproved incapableofbringing theWesternRoman's to theirknees.

Attila'sMysteriousDeath:The conventional account, from Priscus, says that After his return from Italy, Attila married ateenagedgirlnamedIldiko.Themarriagetookplace in453,andwascelebratedwithagrandfeastand plenty of alcohol. After dinner, the new couple retired to the wedding chamber for thenight.Attiladidnotshowupthenextmorning,sohisnervousservantsopenedthechamberdoor.The king was dead on the floor (some accounts say "covered with blood"), and his bride washuddledinacornerinastateofshock.



Somehistorians theorize that Ildikomurderedhernewhusband,but thatseemsunlikely.Hemayhave sufferedahemorrhage,orhe couldhavediedofalcoholpoisoning from theweddingnightrevels.Another account of his death, first recorded 80 years after the events by the Roman chroniclerMarcellinusComes, reports that"Attila,Kingof theHunsand ravagerof theprovincesofEurope,waspiercedbythehandandbladeofhiswife."TheVolsungasagaandthePoeticEdda.alsoclaimthatKingAtli(Attila)diedatthehandsofhiswife,Gudrun.Mostscholarsrejecttheseaccountsasno more than hearsay, preferring instead the account given by Attila's contemporary Priscus.Priscus'version,however,hasrecentlycomeunderrenewedscrutinybyMichaelA.Babcock.Basedon detailed philological analysis, Babcock concludes that the account of natural death, given byPriscus,wasanecclesiastical"coverstory"andthatEmperorMarcian(whoruledtheEasternRomanEmpirefrom450to457)wasthepoliticalforcebehindAttila'sdeath.

Jordanes says: "The greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no femininelamentations andwith no tears, butwith the blood ofmen."His horsemen galloped incircles around the silken tentwhereAttila lay in state, singing in his dirge, according toCassiodorus and Jordanes: "Who can rate this as death,when none believes it calls forvengeance?"Then they celebrated a strava (lamentation) over his burial place with great feasting.Legendsaysthathewas laidtorest inatriplecoffinmadeofgold,silver,and iron,alongwithsomeofthespoilsofhisconquests.Hismendivertedasectionoftheriver,buriedthecoffinundertheriverbed,andthenwerekilledtokeeptheexactlocationasecret.HissonsEllac (hisappointedsuccessor),Dengizich,andErnakh foughtoverthedivisionofhislegacy,specificallywhichvassalkingswouldbelongtowhichbrother.Asaconsequence,theyweredivided,defeated,andscatteredthefollowingyearintheBattleofNedao,bytheOstrogothsandtheGepidsunderArdaric,whohadbeenAttila'smostprizedchieftain.Attila'smanychildrenandrelativesareknownbynameandsomeevenbydeeds,butsoonvalidgenealogicalsourcesallbutdriedup,andthereseemstobenoverifiablewaytotraceAttila's descendants. This has not stopped many genealogists from attempting toreconstruct a valid lineofdescent for variousmedieval rulers.Oneof themost credibleclaimshasbeen thatof theKhansofBulgaria (seeNominaliaof theBulgarian khans).Apopular,butultimatelyunconfirmed,attempttriestorelateAttilatoCharlemagne.



Attila'sEmpireFalls:AfterAttila'sdeath,his threesonsdividedup theempire (reverting, inaway, to thepreUncleRuapolitical structure).The sons foughtoverwhichwouldbe thehigh king.EldestbrotherEllacprevailed,butmeanwhiletheHuns'subjecttribesbrokefreefromtheempireonebyone.OnlyayearafterAttila'sdeath,theGothsdefeatedtheHunsattheBattleofNedao,drivingthemoutofPannonia(nowwesternHungary).Ellacwaskilledinbattle,andAttila'ssecondsonDengizichbecamethehighking.DengizichwasdeterminedtoreturntheHunnic Empire to the glory days. In 469, he sent a demand to Constantinople that theEasternRomanEmpirepaytributetotheHunsagain.HisyoungerbrotherErnakhrefusedtogetinvolvedinthisventure,andtookhispeopleoutofDengizich'salliance.TheRomansrefusedDengizich'sdemand.Dengizikattacked,andhisarmywascrushedbyByzantinetroopsunderGeneralAnagestes.Dengizikwaskilled,alongwiththemajorityofhispeople.TheremnantsofDengizik'sclan joinedErnakh'speople,andwereabsorbedbythe Bulgars, ancestors of today's Bulgarians. Just 16 years after Attila's death, theHunsceasedtoexist.

TheLegacyofAttilatheHun:Attila isoftenportrayedasa cruel,bloodthirstyandbarbaric ruler,but it's important toremember that our accounts of him come from his enemies, the Eastern Romans.ThehistorianPriscus,whowentonthefatefulembassytoAttila'scourt,alsonotedthatAttilawaswise,merciful, and humble. Priscuswas amazed that the Hunnic king used simplewoodentableimplements,whilehiscourtiersandguestsateanddrankfromsilverandgolddishes.Hedidnot kill theRomanswho came toassassinatehim, sending themhome indisgraceinstead.ItissafetosaythatAttilatheHunwasamuchmorecomplexpersonthanhismodernreputationreveals.



LaterfolkloreandiconographyAttilahimselfissaidtohaveclaimedthetitles"DescendantoftheGreatNimrod",and"KingoftheHuns,theGoths,theDanes,andtheMedes"thelasttwopeoplesbeingmentionedto show the extent of his control over subject nations even on the peripheries of hisdomain.Jordanesembellished the reportofPriscus, reporting thatAttilahadpossessed the"HolyWarSwordoftheScythians",whichwasgiventohimbyMarsandmadehima"princeoftheentireworld."AttilawasthestandardsourceoflegitimacyontheEuropeansteppeuntilGenghisKhan.Bytheendofthe12thcenturytheroyalcourtofHungaryproclaimedtheirdescentfromAttila.LampertofHersfeld'scontemporarychroniclesreportthatshortlybeforetheyear1071,theSwordofAttilahadbeenpresentedtoOttoofNordheimbytheexiledqueenofHungary,Anastasia of Kiev. This sword, a cavalry sabre now in the KunsthistorischesMuseum inVienna,appearstobetheworkofHungariangoldsmithsoftheninthortenthcentury.LaterwritersdevelopedthemeetingofLeoIandAttila intoapious"fablewhichhasbeenrepresentedby thepencilofRaphael and the chiselofAlgardi",reporting that thePope,aidedbySaintPeterandSaintPaul,convincedAttilatoturnawayfromthecity.According to a version of this legend related in the Chronicon Pictum, a mediaevalHungarian chronicle, the Pope promisedAttila that if he left Rome in peace, one of hissuccessorswouldreceiveaholycrown(whichhasbeenunderstoodasreferringtotheHolyCrownofHungary).

AttilaintheNurembergChronicle(1493)



Somehistoriesandchroniclesdescribehimasagreatandnobleking,andheplaysmajorroles in three Norse sagas: Atlakvia, Vlsungasaga, and Atlaml. The Polish ChroniclerepresentsAttila'snameasAquila.FrutolfofMichelsbergandOttoofFreisingpointedoutthatsomesongsas"vulgarfables"made Theoderic the Great, Attila and Ermanaric contemporaries, when any reader ofJordanesknewthatthiswasnotthecase.In 1812, Ludwig vanBeethoven conceived the ideaofwriting anopera aboutAttila andapproachedAugustvonKotzebuetowritethelibretto.Itwas,however,neverwritten.InWorldWarI,Alliedpropaganda referred toGermans as the "Huns", based on a 1900speech by Emperor WilhelmII praising Attila the Hun's military prowess, according toJawaharlalNehru'sGlimpsesofWorldHistory.Der Spiegel commented on November 6, 1948, that the Sword of Attila was hangingmenacinglyoverAustria.AmericanwriterCeceliaHollandwroteTheDeathofAttila(1973),ahistoricalnovelinwhichAttila appears as a powerful background figurewhose life and death deeply impact theprotagonists,ayoungHunnishwarriorandaGermanicone.InmodernHungaryand inTurkey,"Attila"and itsTurkishvariation"Atilla"arecommonlyused as amale first name. InHungary, several public places are named afterAttila; forinstance,inBudapestthereare10AttilaStreets,oneofwhichisanimportantstreetbehindtheBudaCastle.When theTurkishArmedForces invadedCyprus in1974, theoperationswerenamedafterAttila("TheAttilaPlan").[49]The1954UniversalInternationalfilmSignofthePaganstarredJackPalanceasAttila.



DepictionsofAttila

AttilainamuseuminHungary

AdepictionofAttilaintheBadischesLandesmuseum,Karlsruhe,Germany

Renaissancemedalwiththelegend,

"Atila,FlagelumDei"(dubiouslyspelledLatinfor"Attila,ScourgeofGod").



Successorrealms:

LocationsofHunsuccessorstatesin500AD

After thebreakdownof theHunEmpire, theyneverregained their lostglory.OnereasonwasthattheHunsneverfullyestablishedthemechanismsofastate,suchasbureaucracyandtaxes,unlikeBulgars,MagyarsortheGoldenHorde.Oncedisorganized,theHunswereabsorbedbymoreorganizedpolities.LiketheAvarsafterthem,oncetheHunpoliticalunityfailed there was no way to recreate it, especially because the Huns had become amultiethnicempireevenbeforeAttila.TheHunEmpireincluded,atleastnominally,agreat



host of diverse peoples, each of whom may be considered 'successors' of the Huns.However,giventhattheHunswereapoliticalcreation,andnotaconsolidatedpeople,ornation,theirdefeat in454markedtheendofthatpoliticalcreation.Newerpolitieswhichlaterarosemighthaveconsistedofpeople formerly intheHunconfederacy,andcarryingclosely related steppe cultures, but they were new political creations. Later historiansprovidebriefhintsofthedispersalandrenamingofAttila'speople.Accordingtotradition,after Ellac's defeat and death, his brothers ruled over two separate, but closely relatedhordesonthesteppesnorthoftheBlackSea.Dengizichisbelievedtohavebeenking(khan)of the Kutrigur Bulgars, and Ernakh king (khan) of the Utigur Bulgars,whilst ProcopiusclaimedthatKutrigursandUtigurswerenamedafter,andledbytwoofthesonsofErnakh.Such distinctions are uncertain and the situation is not likely to have been so clear cut.SomeHuns remained inPannonia forsome timebefore theywereslaughteredbyGoths.Others took refugewithin the EastRoman Empire,namely inDaciaRipensis and ScythiaMinor. Possibly, other Huns and nomadic groups retreated to the steppe. Indeed,subsequently, new confederations appear such as Kutrigur,Utigur,Onogur / (Onoghur),Sarigur,etc.,whichwerecollectivelycalled"Huns","BulgarianHuns",or"Bulgars".Similarly,the6thcenturySlavswerepresentedasHungroupsbyProcopius.However,itislikelythatGraecoRomansourceshabituallyequatednewbarbarianpoliticalgroupingswith old tribes. Thiswas partly due to expectation that contemporarywritersemulatethegreatwritersofprecedingeras.Apartfromexigencies instylewasthebeliefthatbarbariansfromparticularareaswereallthesame,nomatterhowtheychangedtheirname.

A 14th century chivalricromanticized painting of the Huns laying siege to a city. Noteanachronisticdetailsinweapons,armorandcitytype.HungarianChroniconPictum,1360.

Appearanceandcustoms



Roman villa inGaul sacked by the hordes ofAttila theHun. Illustration from a book byGeorgesRochegrosse.

AllsurvivingaccountswerewrittenbyenemiesoftheHuns,andnonedescribetheHunsasattractiveeithermorallyorinappearance.Jordanes,aGothwriting in Italy in551,acenturyafterthecollapseoftheHunnicEmpire,describestheHunsasa"savagerace,whichdweltatfirstintheswamps,astunted,foulandpuny tribe, scarcely human, and having no language save one which bore but slightresemblancetohumanspeech."

"Theymadetheirfoesflee inhorrorbecausetheirswarthyaspectwasfearful,andtheyhad, if Imay call it so, a sortof shapeless lump,not ahead,withpinholesratherthaneyes.Theirhardihood isevident intheirwildappearance,andtheyarebeingswhoarecrueltotheirchildrenontheverydaytheyareborn.Fortheycutthecheeksof themaleswithasword,so thatbefore theyreceive thenourishmentofmilk theymust learn toendurewounds.Hence theygrowoldbeardlessand theiryoungmenarewithoutcomeliness,becauseafacefurrowedbytheswordspoilsbyits scars the natural beauty of a beard. They are short in stature, quick in bodilymovement,alerthorsemen,broadshouldered,ready intheuseofbowandarrow,andhavefirmsetneckswhichareevererectinpride.Thoughtheyliveintheformofmen,theyhavethecrueltyofwildbeasts."



JordanesalsorecountedhowPriscushaddescribedAttilatheHun,theEmperoroftheHunsfrom434453, as: "Shortof stature,with abroad chest and a largehead;hiseyesweresmall, his beard thin and sprinkledwith grey; and he had a flat nose and tanned skin,showingevidenceofhisorigin."Artificial cranial deformation was practiced by the Huns and sometimes by tribes withwhom they influenced.However,Ammianusmay have been incorrect in saying that thefacial scars dated from infancy.MaenchenHelfenwrites: "Ammianus' description beginswith a strange misunderstanding... This was repeated by Claudian and Sidonius andreinterpretedbyCassiodorus.Ammianus'explanationof the thinbeards iswrong.Likesomanyotherpeople, theHuns inflictedwoundson their live fleshasa signofgriefwhentheirkinsmenweredying." [36]Whena leaderdied, itwas tradition tomourn themwithbloodinsteadoftearsandsothewarriorswouldslashtheircheeksto"cryblood".

Societyandculture

Hunnishcamp

The Huns kept herds of cattle, horses, goats and sheep. Their other sources of foodconsisted ofwild game and the roots ofwild plants. For clothes theyhad pointed caps,trousersorleggingsmadefromibexskin,andeitherlinenorrodentskintunics.Ammianusreportsthattheyworetheseclothesuntiltheclothesfelltopieces.PriscusdescribesAttila's



clothesasdifferentfromthoseofhismenonlyinbeingclean.Womenwouldembroidertheedgesofthegarmentsandoftenstitchsmallcolorfulstonebeadsonthemaswell.Inwarfare they used the bow and javelin. Earlywriters such asAmmianus (followed byThompson) stated that they used primitive, bonetipped arrowheads. MaenchenHelfenoutrightdisputesthisclaim.Hestates:"HadtheHunsbeenunabletoforgetheirswordsandcast their arrowheads, they never could have crossed the Don. The idea that the HunhorsemenfoughttheirwaytothewallsofConstantinopleandtotheMarnewithbarteredandcapturedswordsisabsurd."(See:MaenchenHelfenTheWorldoftheHunsp12)Theyalso fought using iron swords and lassos in close combat. The Hun sword was a long,straight,doubleedgedswordofearlySassanianstyle.Theseswordswerehungfromabeltusingthescabbardslidemethod,whichkepttheweaponvertical.TheHunsalsoemployeda smaller short sword or large daggerwhichwas hung horizontally across the belly. Asymbol of status among theHunswas a gilded bow. Sword and dagger grips alsoweredecoratedwithgold.WiththearrivaloftheHuns,atraditionofusingmorebonelathsincompositebowsarrivedinEurope.Bone lathshad longbeenused in the Levantine andRoman tradition, two tostiffeneachofthetwosiyahs(thetipsofthebow),foratotaloffour lathsperbow.(TheScythianandSarmatianbows,usedforcenturiesontheEuropeansteppesuntilthearrivaloftheHuns,hadnosuchlaths.)AstylethatarrivedinEuropewiththeHuns(aftercenturiesofuseonthebordersofChina),wasstiffenedbytwo lathsoneachsiyah,andadditionallyreinforcedonthegripbythreelaths,foratotalofsevenperbow.

LanguageThesubjectoftheHunniclanguageismetwithmuchcontroversy.Sofar,thereisnogeneralconsensusontheexactoriginorclassificationofHunnic.Agroupofauthorssupposethatitmayhavebeenamemberof,orrelatedto,theTurkiclanguagefamily.Havingsaidthat,theliterarysourcesofPriscusandJordanespreserveonlyafewnames,andthreewords,ofthelanguageof theHuns,whichhavebeen studied formore thana centuryandahalf.Thesourcesthemselvesdonotgivethemeaningofanyofthenames,onlyofthethreewords.Thesewords(medos,kamos,strava)donotseemtobeTurkic,butprobablyasatemIndoEuropeanlanguagesimilartoSlavicandDacian.Traditionally notable studies include that of Pritsak 1982, "The Hunnic Language of theAttilaClan.",who concluded, "ItwasnotaTurkic language,butonebetweenTurkicandMongolian,probablyclosertothe formerthanthe latter.The languagehadstrongtiestoOldBulgarianandtomodernChuvash,butalsohadsomeimportantconnections,especially



lexicalandmorphological,toOttomanandYakut...TheTurkicsituationhasnovalidity forHunnic,which belonged to a separate Altaic group."On the basis of the existing namerecords,anumberofscholarssuggestthattheHunsspokeaTurkic languageoftheOghurbranch,which also includes Bulgar,Avar, Khazar andChuvash languages. English scholarPeterHeathercalledtheHuns"thefirstgroupofTurkic,asopposedtoIranian,nomadstohave intruded intoEurope".MaenchenHelfenheld thatmanyof the tribalnamesamongtheHunswereTurkic.However,theevidence isscant (a fewnamesandthreenonTurkicwords), thus scholars currently conclude that the Hunnic language cannot presently beclassified,andattemptstoclassifyitasTurkicandMongolicarespeculative.A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun pax. Roman sources, e.g. Priscus,recordedthatLatin,Gothic,"Hun"andotherlocal'Scythian"languageswerespoken.Basedon some etymological interpretation of the words strava and medos, and subsequenthistoricalappearance,thelatterhasbeentakentoincludeaformofpreSlaviclanguage

RelationwithByzantineEmpire:In the reign of Byzantine king, Theodosius II (408450), theHuns under ,Attila receivedsubsidiesofgoldthatbothkeptthem inastateofuneasypeacewiththeEasternEmpireandmayhaveprovedprofitabletothosemerchantsofConstantinoplewhotradedwiththebarbarians.WhenMarcian (ruled 450457) refused to continue the subsidies, Attilawasdiverted from revenge by the prospect of conquests in theWest.He never returned tochallengetheEasternEmpire,and,withhisdeathin453,hisHunnicempirefellapart.BothMarcianandhis successor,Leo I (ruled457474),had ruledunder the tutelageofFlaviusArdaburius,Aspar;butLeoresolvedtochallengeAspar'spreeminenceandtheinfluenceoftheGothselsewhereintheempirebyfavoringthewarlikeIsauriansandtheirchieftain.

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