An Overview of Subsurface Karst Features Associated With Geological Studies in Malaysia

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An Overview of Subsurface Karst

Features Associated with Geological

Studies in MalaysiaZeinab Bakhshipouri

Mountainous Terrain Development Research Center Department of Civil

Engineering and Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia 43400

Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

e-mail: azi_ [email protected]

Husaini Omar




e-mail: [email protected]

Zenoddin B. M. Yousof





Vahed Ghiasi


Engineering and Faculty of Engineering, University Putra Malaysia 43400Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia


ABSTRACTThis paper presented the karst features related to geotechnical issues. This study contains an overview

of karst terrain and limestone in Malaysia. There are unalloyed karst landscapes in many parts of theworld, but most of the time landscapes are formed by a multitude of processes. The intellectual

capacity of the dissolution processes, that be active both at the surface and subsurface, has developed

quickly in the last fully century, Karst topography is a landscape of characteristic suspension patterns

often noticeable by subsurface drainages. Limestone, with its low calcium carbonate content, is easily

dissolved in the acids produced by natural materials.

KEYWORDS: Karst, Limestone, Surface, Subsurface, Landscape, Malaysia.



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INTRODUCTION

Limestone and other carbonate rocks (dolomite and marble) are very soluble in rainfall. Rainfall

contains dissolved carbon dioxide, which makes it a strong acid known as carbonic acid (H 2CO3).Viewsof karst, one capacity visualize copiously decked caves, perfect water springs, or spectacular tower karst

landscapes. The contact of between human activity and the karst environment may direct to numerous

injurious effects, also on the natural resources (environmental impacts, like water pollution), or on the

human property and action (risks, like damaging sinkholes). So, the karst systems are pretense a numberof engineering problems. The distinctiveness and actions of karst systems, mostly due to their

insignificant and irregular subversive drainage, normally have a significant degree of improbability.

Karst aquifers are characterized by a twin or constant triple porosity and permeability, all the time in

further or less open fractures and conduits.

KARSTThe subsurface topography and karst features of limestone bedrock showed unpredictable

geotechnical engineering such excavation wall collapse, rock head, difficulties in excavation and grading

the ground over pinnacled rock heads; collapse of the roof over subsurface voids, subsidence of cover soil

over sinkhole, difficulties in founding a structure over an irregular or pinnacled rock head, loss of water

from dam reservoirs, pollution of groundwater (Xeidakis, 2004).

Subsurface Karst Associated with Geotechnical Issues in Malaysia

Most of subsurface Karst features were documented and proved based upon the sit investigations

including open pit mining, valleys observations, construction shafts and boreholes records throughout 150

years ago (Tan, 1986a, 1986b, 1987). In addition, the subsurface investigations and borehole logs (400deep boreholes) that were drilled in the PETRONAS Twin Towers (Tarique Azam, 1996) the Berjaya

Times Square Complex (Gue, Tan, 2001) the Pan Pacific Hotel (Mitchell, 1985) and the SriMARA

Complex (Tan, Ting, Toh, 1985) showed various engineering construction problems due to Karst features

and overburden thickness varies from 30m to50 m (Tan, 1988a).

Geologically, the subsurface Karst features, and deformation of limestone were developed during

quaternary and prior to Kenny hill deposition during Permo-Carboniferous then beneath under alluvial

deposits (Chan, Hong, 1985). The intense rainfall which is approximately 2400mm/year, tropical climate

and acidic groundwater factors control the subsurface karst features development (Paton, 1964).

These sharp variations of pinnacled limestone bedrock and its associated problems are investigated

and documented by many researchers (Tan, Batchelor, 1981; Ting, 1985; Chan, 1986; Tan, 1987;Ibrahim, Fang 1985; Tan, Komoo 1990). Furthermore, the overhangs in the limestone pinnacles found to

be difficult to detect as it involves coring through the "nose" of the overhang (Tan, 1993) are presented in

Figure 1.



Vol. 14 [2009], Bund. P 3

Figure 1: (a) Features of subsurface karstic limestone bedrock in Kuala Lumpur area (Chang and Hong,

1986). (b) Types of foundation issue associated with associated with subsurface conditions in Batu Caves,

Kuala Lumpur (Douglas, 2005).

It shows serious danger in engineering construction especially when underlain by clay and lubricant

sediments. In the same talk, the Pan Pacific Hotel site in Kuala Lumpur is clearly example of building that

located on the limestone pinnacle and overhang underlain of clay (Mitchell, 1985) However, cavities in

the limestone bedrock showed construction engineering problems. It formed in various sizes at various

depths and elevation based upon the fractures and faults pattern in limestone bedrocks as well asgroundwater level fluctuation are presented in figure 2. The shallow cavities of less than 1m in diameter

not represent geotechnical problems and could penetrate during piling constructions (Tan, 1985; Ting,

1993) While the deep cavities of diameter more than 2m could be treated by concert injection (Gue, Tan,

2001).



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Figure 2: The irregular surface of limestone and subsurface floaters that associated with geotechnical

engineering problems.

Sinkholes are the common features in the limestone bedrock formed due to buried cavities

development. The construction problems of sinkholes come from sudden and unpredictable occurrence

such as earth subsidence and earth collapse led to swallowing parts of highways and houses reported

during the last decades e.g. Serdang Lama in Kuala Lumpur (Shu, 1986) and K.L.C. C. PETRONASTwin Towers project are good examples areas effected of sinkholes (Tarique Azam, 1996). These

geotechnical problems not only associated with limestone bedrock, but also extend to reach Kenny hill

formation (residual soil and met sediments). In the same context, the fine sediments (clay) have unique

features of the fractured limestone called slumped zone (Chan, Hon, 1985; Ting, 1985; Tan, Ch'ng, 1986;

Tarique Azam, 1996)

There were few cases of sinkhole incidents in Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding areas. The latest

one occurred near Jalan Cheras (Sin Chew Daily, 2004) due to tunnel excavation and a sinkhole

measuring 3m diameter and 1.5m deep occurred in 1995 at Jalan Lidcole as shown in figure 2. This

phenomenon happens in the Malaysia due to subsoil excavation, the dense urbanization development and

high rate of ex-mining operations is presented in figure 2. Cavities could develop in the zone of ground

water table fluctuation especially during January and March where the rain fall declines. While in deeper

zones below groundwater table fluctuation no cavities encountered during construction excavation.

Sunway quarries are good examples prove this believe although there are deep opencast ex-mining

locations. The hydraulic pressure of rainwater carried of infilling sediments and dry tree leaves inside the

shallow cavities can increase the cavities dissolution and led to sinkholes formation (Tan, 2001).

The interaction between limestone (matter) and acidic rainfall and ground water (agents) take long

time between 50 -100 years compared to life of human structures. For these reasons, future collapse after



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constructions is minor and no danger of future building collapse. The most common collapses were

occurred during roads and building constructions (Sebela, 1999; Jennings, 1966).

Karst Features and Limestone in MalaysiaIn Malaysia, the geophysical technique was used successfully to delineate the subsurface fractures,

faults cavities in different locations. Geology map overlaid Bouguer anomalies map of the Batu Caves,

Malaysia is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Geology map overlaid Bouguer anomalies map of the Batu Caves, Malaysia (Jamaludin, 1995)

(Jamaludin, 1995) did their best to detect the cavities of the upper surface of the limestone bedrock

using integration of resistivity, gravity methods for the areas in Batu Caves, Kepong and Jinjang (north),

Gombak (east), and Setapak and Sentul (south). They concluded that the areas underlain by many

cavities and cut by number of faults northeast-southwest (NE-SW), west northwest (WNW) and north

west-south east (NW-SE) trend. Geologically these cavities may coincide with faults trend and bedding plans of limestone bedrock are shown in Figures 3 and 4.



Vol. 14 [2009], Bund. P 6

Figure 4: Bedrock map of Batu Cave, Malaysia

The same technique utilized in Brookland Estate, Bangting, Selangor, showed vast amount of fresh

water in the alluvium deposits influenced of sea water intrusion which indicates to high sets of intersected

fractures and faults (Ramli, 1997). Six anomalies were detected; five of them could be due to cavities at 1

m from the bed rock surface with heights of 2.5m to 3.5m and one could be due to pinnacle of height

1.6m above the limestone bedrock (Ghazali, 1996) here changes in the height indicate to the area

controlled by set of faults. With underground streams and sinkholes were providing by drilling nine

shallow holes. In the same study area, six sinkholes with 10 feet in diameter and 3 feet in depth were

delineated in east side of Serdang Lama Area. Other sinkhole was unknown diameter near the KualaLumpur-Seremban high way. Small sinkholes with a diameter of about 4 feet at depth 2feet and large

sinkholes with diameter of 25 feet and depth of 9 feet were documented as well as underground streams.

In the Kuala Lumpur – Seremban highway near tool Plaza was investigated using seismic refraction

and resistivity profiling. Unfortunately, the first technique not successes to delineate sinkholes due to the

layer above the water table is unsaturated san which having great absorption coefficient preventing energy

penetration. The resistivity profiling results show localized anomalies due to presence of weak zones in

the sedimentary layers which indicate to sinkholes near Tool Plaza and some voids in the study area

(Azhari, 1987). A seismic refraction survey was conduct to delineate the peat layer, marine clay and

bedrock as part of the foundation of the proposed Kuala Lumpur airport area, Sepang, Selangor. This

study, showed the thickness of peaty and marine deposits increase from east to west. It reaches to 10m for

peat layer and 30m for marine clay. The depth of weathered bedrock varied for 35m to 40m. Thistechnique could not delineate the weathered gravel layer due to insufficient seismic velocity contrast with

the adjacent layers (Seng, 1992).

LIMESTONE

Weathering is the breakdown of rock by physical, chemical or biological processes. Limestone areas

are weathered when rainwater, which contains a weak carbonic acid, reacts with limestone. When it rains



Vol. 14 [2009], Bund. P 7

limestone is dissolved. Rainwater erodes the joints and bedding planes. In doing this karst scenery is

created. In the shape of the different parts of limestone area that this area is swallow holes is where rivers

flow down into the rock. Swallow holes either by the constant chemical attack of the water on the joints in

the limestone, or by the collapse of a cavern below.

Figure 5: The numbers represent: Swallow 2. Impermeable 3. Bedding Plane 4. Stalactite 5. Stalagmite 6. Joint

7. Resurgence 8. Limestone

Limestone Process

Limestone, with its low calcium carbonate content, is easily dissolved in the acids produced by

natural materials. Limestone is a natural, sedimentary rock. This means it was shaped from the remainderof petite shells and micro-skeletons deposited on the sea bed. They were condensed to shape solid rock.

Limestone is the ended up of calcium carbonate and reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid. Limestone is

shaped in layers - called bed linen planes. These bed linen planes contain vertical cracks called joints.

Joints and bed linen planes make the rock porous.

Limestone and other carbonate rocks (dolomite and marble) are very soluble in rainfall. Rainfall

contains dissolved carbon dioxide, which makes it a strong acid known as carbonic acid (H2CO3). It becomes even more acidic as it percolates from side to side soil, because there is moreover carbon dioxide

in gaps in the soil – up to 100 eras more than in the atmosphere.

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca (HCO3)2 (limestone + water + carbon dioxide = calcium bicarbonate)

Limestone Formation in Malaysia Peninsula

The surface limestone in Malaysian peninsular is cropped out in different features and shapes

depending upon the rate and direction of differential chemical erosion by rain fall. Karst of tropical areas

is usually in outstanding (upright) hills with hemispheroidal. It developed from globate to cone then tower

karst. They have been documented as a distinctive landscape for many years such as haystacks, and karst-

hill (Jennings, 1985). The highest percent of limestone hills in Malaysia peninsular deposited and cropped

out in the states of Kelantan, Perak, Pahang, Kedah and Perlis. In Terengganu, Selangor and Negeri



Vol. 14 [2009], Bund. P 9

Figure 7: Originally flat limestone plateau dissected deeply by dissolution (Ch’ng, 1984).

The surface of Kuala Lumpur limestone is cropped out only in Batu Cave north of Kuala Lumpur. It

rises to height about (213m) above the surrounding areas are shown in figure 8. The limestone underlies a

low lying plain of Kuala Lumpur, narrowing to the south where it is overlain by Kenny hill formation,

and further south near Serdang by Kajang formation. It is composed of memorized limestone with little

percent of interbedded schist and phylitte (metamorphic rocks) change to infrequent in the south near

Sungai. It is crystalline in natures and grey in color; although white (pure) limestone is not uncommon, itcontains some impurities such as clay. This dolomatic limestone is varying from place to place with

general increase of Mg CO3 towards the south based upon the distance from granitic intrusions. Most of

karst underlines Kuala Lumpur is extensively developed and classified as extreme Karst class Kv

(Waltham, Fookes, 2003).

These Karst could classified into two types(zones) based upon their origin; the micro Karst which

formed during limestone formation( I, X and XI type) and before dissolution along irregular bedding



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plains and the large scale Karst that formed in limestone formation due to high rate of differential

chemical dissolution along faults, fractures and bedding plains(IV and V type). Both of them have high

risk and geotechnical engineering problems are shown in Figure 8.

Fractures, joints and bedding plain are pass-ways for waste groundwater and acidic rain. The

weathering and chemical dissolution in fractured limestone found to be more aggressive than massive

limestone (Bannister, Arbor, 1980; Ericson, Migon, Olvmo, 2004; Waltham, Bell, Culshaw, 2005). These

fractures pattern in limestone could be the reason of underground streams and multi-elevation cavities

formation (Sowers, 1975; Waltham, Fookes, 2003). The importance of Kuala Lumpur limestone comes

from two aspects: firstly the high urbanization and development areas are underlain by lime stone

bedrock. Secondly, the rock still uses in wide range in cement industry and pavement roads.



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Figure 8: Typical morphological features of karstic ground conditions within the five classes of the

engineering classification of karst. These examples show horizontal bedding of the limestone; dipping

bedding planes and inclined fractures add complexity to most of the features, and also create planar

failures behind steep cliff faces. The dotted ornament represents any type of clastic soil or surface

sediment (Waltham, Fookes, 2003).



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CONCLUSION

This paper presented an overview of subsurface Karst features associated with geological studies in

Malaysia. Normally Karst presents "difficult ground situation" to engineers. Is often improperlyunderstood the by those only familiar with insoluble rock. It is relates to the engineering techniques

appropriate to cavernous ground and offers guidelines towards more efficient ground investigation. An

appropriate understanding of karst is essential to good practice in ground engineering. Sinkholes are the

common features in the limestone bedrock formed due to buried cavities development.

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